The Pompeii Lakshmi is an ivory statuette that was discovered in the ruins of Pompeii , a Roman city destroyed in the eruption of Mount Vesuvius 79 CE. It was found by Amedeo Maiuri , an Italian scholar, in 1938. The statuette has been dated to the first-century CE. The statuette is thought of as representing an Indian goddess of feminine beauty and fertility. It is possible that the sculpture originally formed the handle of a mirror. The yakshi is evidence of commercial trade between India and Rome in the first century CE.
109-492: Originally, it was thought that the statuette represented the goddess Lakshmi , a goddess of fertility, beauty and wealth, revered by early Hindus , Buddhists and Jains . However, the iconography, in particular the exposed genitals, reveals that the figure is more likely to depict a yakshi , a female tree spirit that represents fertility, or possibly a syncretic version of Venus-Sri-Lakshmi from an ancient exchange between Classical Greco-Roman and Indian cultures . The figure
218-536: A tirtha on the river Banasa, who gave to the Devas and Brahmanas sixteen villages, who at the pure tirtha Prabhasa gave eight wives to the Brahmanas, and who also fed annually a hundred thousand Brahmanas- there has been given the village of Karajika for the support of the ascetics living in the caves at Valuraka without any distinction of sect or origin, for all who would keep the varsha . The Western Satraps are known for
327-535: A Couch with Erotes." The extreme ornamentation of this statuette and the semi-nudity of the female figure are both reminiscent of the Pompeii Lakshmi. Syncretism between Roman and foreign deities was not uncommon, especially with Egyptian deities like Isis and Osiris. In Pompeii, the Romanization of deities ( Interpretatio Romana ) could absolutely explain the seeming mixture of Indian and Classical art present in
436-622: A capital, a representation of a pillar of Ashoka . Nahapana succeeded him, and became a very powerful ruler. He occupied portions of the Satavahana Empire in western and central India. Nahapana held sway over Malwa , Southern Gujarat , and Northern Konkan , from Bharuch to Sopara and the Nasik and Poona districts. At that time, the area northwest of the Western Satraps in Baluchistan
545-561: A case of cross-cultural pollination, the theme of the goddess attended by two child attendants, which can be seen in the case of the Pompeii Lakshmi, is an uncommon depiction of Lakshmi or Yashis in Indian art . It lacks the lotus flower found in Lakshmi iconography. According to D'Ancona, the iconography represented in this statuette may have been imported from the Classical world, possibly derived from
654-544: A choice to go to the Devas or the Asuras. She chose the Devas' side and among thirty deities, she chose to be with Vishnu. Thereafter, in all three worlds, the lotus-bearing goddess was celebrated. Many Hindus worship Lakshmi on Deepavali (Diwali), the festival of lights. It is celebrated in autumn, typically October or November every year. The festival spiritually signifies the victory of light over darkness, knowledge over ignorance, good over evil and hope over despair. Before
763-518: A dual meaning: wealth manifested through Lakshmi means both materials as well as spiritual wealth. Her face and open hands are in a mudra that signifies compassion, giving or dāna ('charity'). Lakshmi typically wears a red dress embroidered with golden threads, which symbolizes fortune and wealth. She, goddess of wealth and prosperity, is often represented with her husband Vishnu, the god who maintains human life filled with justice and peace. This symbolism implies wealth and prosperity are coupled with
872-572: A goddess born with and personifying a diverse range of talents and powers. According to another legend, she emerges during the creation of universe, floating over the water on the expanded petals of a lotus flower; she is also variously regarded as wife of Dharma , mother of Kāma , sister or mother of Dhātṛ and Vidhātṛ , wife of Dattatreya, one of the nine Shaktis of Viṣṇu , a manifestation of Prakṛti as identified with Dākshāyaṇī in Bharatasrama and as Sita , wife of Rama . In
981-591: A hole bored down from the top of her head. There is the theory that its purpose may have been a mirror handle. The existence of this statuette in Pompeii by 79 CE, when Mount Vesuvius erupted and buried the city, testifies to the intensity of Indo-Roman trade relations during the 1st century CE. This statuette has been dated by the Naples National Archaeological Museum as having been created in India in
1090-401: A lotus or She of the lotus ), Kamalā or Kamalatmika (She of the lotus), Padmapriyā (Lotus-lover), Padmamālādhāra Devī (Goddess bearing a garland of lotuses), Padmamukhī (Lotus-faced-she whose face is as like as a lotus), Padmākṣī : (Lotus-eyed - she whose eyes are as beautiful as a lotus), Padmahasta : (Lotus-hand - she whose hand is holding [a] lotus[es]), Padmasundarī (She who
1199-415: A major shopping period, since Lakshmi connotes auspiciousness, wealth and prosperity. This festival dedicated to Lakshmi is considered by Hindus to be one of the most important and joyous festivals of the year. A very sacred day for the worship of Goddess Lakshmi falls on Chaitra Shukla Panchami, also called, Lakshmi Panchami , Shri Panchami, Kalpadi and Shri Vrata. As this worship is in the first week of
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#17328526726741308-621: A vessel containing amrita . In the Skanda Purana and the Venkatachala Mahatmayam , Sri, or Lakshmi, is praised as the mother of Brahma . In Japan, where Lakshmi is known as Kisshōten , she is commonly depicted with the Nyoihōju gem (如意宝珠) in her hand. The meaning and significance of Lakshmi evolved in ancient Sanskrit texts. Lakshmi is mentioned once in Rigveda , in which the name
1417-463: Is Puranartha Samgraha , compiled by Vekataraya in South India, where Lakshmi and Vishnu discuss niti ('right, moral conduct') and rajaniti ('statesmanship' or 'right governance')—covering in 30 chapters and ethical and moral questions about personal, social and political life. Inside temples, Lakshmi is often shown together with Vishnu . In certain parts of India, Lakshmi plays a special role as
1526-462: Is Simhavahini (mount as lion) on most of the coins during their rule. Coins during the rule of Prakashadiya, a Gupta ruler, contain the Garudadhvaja on the obverse and Lakshmi on the reverse. The Gupta period sculpture only used to associate lions with Lakshmi but was later attributed to Durga or a combined form of both goddesses. Lions are also associated with Veera Lakshmi , who is one of
1635-477: Is a harvest festival marking the end of monsoon season. There is a traditional celebration of the moon called the Kaumudi celebration , Kaumudi meaning moonlight. On Sharad Purnima night, goddess Lakshmi is thanked and worshipped for the harvests. Vaibhav Lakshmi Vrata is observed on Friday for prosperity. Numerous hymns, prayers, shlokas , stotra , songs, and legends dedicated to Lakshmi are recited during
1744-504: Is a group of eight secondary manifestations of Lakshmi. The Ashta Lakshmi presides over eight sources of wealth and thus represents the eight powers of Shri Lakshmi. Temples dedicated to Ashta Lakshmi are found in Tamil Nadu , such as Ashtalakshmi Kovil near Chennai and many other states of India. Devas (gods) and asuras (demons) were both mortal at one time in Hinduism . Amrita ,
1853-729: Is a major goddess in Puranas and Itihasa of Hinduism. In ancient scriptures of India, all women are declared to be embodiments of Lakshmi. For example: Every woman is an embodiment of you. You exist as little girls in their childhood, As young women in their youth And as elderly women in their old age. Every woman is an emanation of you. Ancient prayers dedicated to Lakshmi seek both material and spiritual wealth in prayers. Through illusion, A person can become disconnected, From his higher self, Wandering about from place to place, Bereft of clear thought, Lost in destructive behavior. It matters not how much truth, May shine forth in
1962-826: Is a member of the Tridevi , the triad of great goddesses. She represents the Rajas guna , and the Iccha-shakti . The image, icons, and sculptures of Lakshmi are represented with symbolism. Her name is derived from Sanskrit root words for knowing the goal and understanding the objective. Her four arms are symbolic of the four goals of humanity that are considered good in Hinduism: dharma (pursuit of ethical, moral life), artha (pursuit of wealth, means of life), kama (pursuit of love, emotional fulfillment), and moksha (pursuit of self-knowledge, liberation). In Lakshmi's iconography, she
2071-594: Is a profit when exchanged for the money of the country; and ointment, but not very costly and not much. And for the King there are brought into those places very costly vessels of silver, singing boys, beautiful maidens for the harem, fine wines, thin clothing of the finest weaves, and the choicest ointments. There are exported from these places spikenard , costus , bdellium , ivory , agate and carnelian , lycium , cotton cloth of all kinds, silk cloth, mallow cloth, yarn, long pepper and such other things as are brought here from
2180-592: Is also called Padmā. Sita , the female protagonist of the Ramayana and her husband, the god-king Rama are considered as avatars of Lakshmi and Vishnu, respectively. In the Mahabharata , Draupadi is described as a partial incarnation of Sri (Lakshmi). However, other chapter of the epic states that Lakshmi took the incarnation of Rukmini , the chief-wife of the Hindu god Krishna . Shakta Upanishads are dedicated to
2289-557: Is as beautiful as a lotus), Padmavati (She who was born from a lotus), Śrījā (Jatika of Sri), Narayani (belonging to Narayana or the wife of Narayana), Vaishnavi (worshipper of Vishnu or the power of Vishnu), Viṣṇupriyā (who is the beloved of Vishnu), Nandika (the one who gives pleasure). Shaktas also consider Lalita , who is praised with 1,000 names in the Lalita Sahasranama , as Lakshmi. Lakshmi Sahasranama of Skanda Purana praises Lakshmi as Mahadevi (she who
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#17328526726742398-465: Is called Syrastrene . It is a fertile country, yielding wheat and rice and sesame oil and clarified butter, cotton and the Indian cloths made therefrom, of the coarser sorts. Very many cattle are pastured there, and the men are of great stature and black in color. The metropolis of this country is Minnagara , from which much cotton cloth is brought down to Barygaza. Under the Western Satraps, Barigaza
2507-560: Is described as a King. Nahapana is mentioned in the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea under the name Nambanus , as ruler of the area around Barigaza : Beyond the gulf of Baraca is that of Barygaza and the coast of the country of Ariaca , which is the beginning of the Kingdom of Nambanus and of all India. That part of it lying inland and adjoining Scythia is called Abiria , but the coast
2616-461: Is described as holding rosary, axe, mace, arrow, thunderbolt, lotus, pitcher, rod, sakti, sword, shield, conch, bell, wine-cup, trident, noose and the discus in her eighteen hands, and as sitting on Garuda , a lion , or a tiger . According to the Lakshmi Tantra , the goddess Lakshmi, in her ultimate form of Mahasri, has four arms of a golden complexion, and holds a citron, a club, a shield, and
2725-595: Is either sitting or standing on a lotus and typically carrying a lotus in one or two hands. The lotus carries symbolic meanings in Hinduism and other Indian traditions. It symbolizes knowledge, self-realization, and liberation in the Vedic context, and represents reality, consciousness, and karma ('work, deed') in the Tantra ( Sahasrara ) context. The lotus, a flower that blooms in clean or dirty water, also symbolises purity regardless of
2834-402: Is evidence is Abhiraka , whose rare coins are known. He was succeeded by Bhumaka , father of Nahapana , who only used on his coins the title of Satrap, and not that of Raja or Raño (king). Nahapana's rule is variously dated to 24-70 CE, 66-71 CE, or 119–124 CE, according to one of his coins, which bear Buddhist symbols, such as the eight-spoked wheel ( dharmachakra ), or the lion seated on
2943-760: Is now in the Secret Museum in the Naples National Archaeological Museum . The statuette was discovered in October 1938 beside the Casa dei Quattro stili at Pompeii. Based on its architectural remains and floor plan, this "House of the Four Styles," directly off of the Via dell'Abbondanza, is now believed to have belonged to a successful merchant. It is crammed with luxurious Indian commodities, suggesting that Romans in
3052-505: Is often attributed to Castana himself, and suggests Castana may have been a feudatory of the Kushans. Conversely, the Rabatak inscription also claims Kushan dominion over Western Satrap territory (by mentioning Kushan control over the capital Ujjain ) during the reign of Kanishka ( c. 127 –150 CE). The territory of the Western Satraps at the time of Chastana is described extensively by
3161-497: Is one of the principal goddesses in Hinduism , revered as the goddess of wealth, fortune, prosperity, beauty, fertility, royal power and abundance. She along with Parvati and Sarasvati , forms the trinity called the Tridevi . Lakshmi has been a central figure in Hindu tradition since pre-Buddhist times (1500 to 500 BCE) and remains one of the most widely worshipped goddesses in the Hindu pantheon . Although she does not appear in
3270-460: Is seen as the ideal Hindu wife, exemplifying loyalty and devotion to her husband. Whenever Vishnu descended on the earth as an avatar , Lakshmi accompanied him as consort, for example, as Sita and Radha or Rukmini as consorts of Vishnu's avatars Rama and Krishna , respectively. Lakshmi holds a prominent place in the Vishnu-centric sect Vaishnavism , where she is not only regarded as
3379-678: Is spacious with 16 rooms. Two inscriptions in Cave 10 mention the building and the gift of the whole cave to the Samgha by Ushavadata , the Saka son-in-law and viceroy of Nahapana: Success! Ushavadata , son of Dinika, son-in-law of king Nahapana, the Kshaharata Kshatrapa, (...) inspired by (true) religion, in the Trirasmi hills at Govardhana , has caused this cave to be made and these cisterns. Success! In
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3488-593: Is the Queen or ruler of the Universe), Katyayani (she who is the daughter of sage Katyayana), Kaushiki ( Shakti that came out of the sheath (or Kosha) of Parvati ), Brahmani (She who is the power of Brahma ), Kamakshi (she who fulfils desires by her eyes), Chandi (she who killed Mahishasura ), Chamunda (She who killed Chanda and Munda ), Madhu Kaidabha Bhanjini (she who killed Madhu and Kaidabha ), Durga (she who killed Durgamasura), Maheshvari (she who
3597-599: Is the great goddess), Mahamaya (she who is a great illusion), Karaveera Nivasini (The Goddess Who lives in Karaveera/ Kolhapur ) and Maha Astha Dasa Pithagne (she who has 18 great Shakta pithas ). She is also praised as Mahalakshmi (she who is great Lakshmi), Mahakali (she who is great Kali) and Mahasaraswati (she who is great Saraswati) who are the primary deities in Devi Mahatmya . The other prominent names included in this text are, Bhuvaneshvari (she who
3706-496: Is the mother of the world. Vishnu is the meaning, Sri is the speech. She is the conduct, he the behavior. Vishnu is knowledge, she the insight. He is dharma, she the virtuous action. She is the earth, the earth's upholder. She is contentment, he the satisfaction. She wishes, he is the desire. Sri is the sky, Vishnu the Self of everything. He is the Sun, she the light of the Sun. He is the ocean, she
3815-416: Is the power of Maheshvara), Varahi (she who is the power of Varaha , a form of Vishnu ), Narasimhi (she who is the power of Narasimha , a form of Vishnu ), Srividyaa (she who is Sri Vidya ), Sri Manthra Raja Rajini (the queen of Sri Vidya), Shadadharadhi devata (she who is the goddess of the six chakras ). Dutch author Dirk van der Plas says, "In Lakshmi Tantra, a text of Visnuite signature,
3924-590: Is the shore. Lakshmi, along with Parvati and Saraswati, is a subject of extensive Subhashita , genomic and didactic literature of India. Composed in the 1st millennium BCE through the 16th century CE, they are short poems, proverbs, couplets, or aphorisms in Sanskrit written in a precise meter. They sometimes take the form of a dialogue between Lakshmi and Vishnu or highlight the spiritual message in Vedas and ethical maxims from Hindu Epics through Lakshmi. An example Subhashita
4033-422: Is used to mean 'kindred mark, sign of auspicious fortune' . भद्रैषां लक्ष्मी र्निहिताधि वाचि bhadraiṣāṁ lakṣmī rnihitādhi vāci "an auspicious fortune is attached to their words" In Atharva Veda , transcribed about 1000 BCE, Lakshmi evolves into a complex concept with plural manifestations. Book 7, Chapter 115 of Atharva Veda describes the plurality, asserting that a hundred Lakshmis are born with
4142-516: The Anupa country, Anarta , Surashtra , Svabhra (northern Gujarat ), Maru ( Marwar ), Kachchha ( Cutch ), Sindhu - Sauvira ( Sindh and Multan districts), Kukura (Eastern Rajputana ), Aparanta ("Western Border" – Northern Konkan ), Nishada (an aboriginal tribe, Malwa and parts of Central India ) and other territories gained by his own valour, the towns, marts and rural parts of which are never troubled by robbers, snakes, wild beasts, diseases and
4251-610: The Arabian Peninsula and Mesopotamia , and through seaborne trade from the Red Sea and the Indian Ocean were used by the Romans. The wealth of the trade was significant enough for Pliny to claim that 100 million sesterces were being sent annually to India, China, and Arabia. With shipments of nard, ivory, and textiles it is clear from the archaeological evidence, that Roman trade with
4360-479: The Begram ivories are also of this early date, in the 1st century CE. The statuette is represented in the round, and the center of two other female figures. The legs are turned to its side and one arm bent to hold earrings. She is presumed to only be looked at from the front because the details from the back are very flat. As stated by D’Ancona, the iconography falls into the broad category of female deities in India. In
4469-664: The Indo-Greek region of Gandhara , as the reliefs bear mason's marks in Kharoshthi , as opposed to the local Brahmi script. The craftsmen were probably responsible for the foreign-looking motifs and figures that can be found on the railings of the stupa. Lakshmi Lakshmi ( / ˈ l ʌ k ʃ m i / ; Sanskrit : लक्ष्मी , IAST : Lakṣmī , sometimes spelled Laxmi , lit. ' she who leads to one's goal ' ), also known as Shri ( Sanskrit : श्री , IAST : Śrī , lit. ' Noble ' ),
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4578-660: The Manmodi Caves at Junnar . At the same time, " Yavanas ", Greeks or Indo-Greeks , also left donative inscriptions at the Nasik Caves, Karla Caves, Lenyadri and Manmodi Caves . In particular, the chaitya cave complex of the Karla Caves, the largest in South Asia , was constructed and dedicated in 120 CE by the Western Satraps ruler Nahapana. Parts of the Nasik Caves, also called Pandavleni Caves, were also carved during
4687-697: The Satavahana who ruled in Central India. They are called "Western Satraps" in modern historiography in order to differentiate them from the " Northern Satraps ", who ruled in Punjab and Mathura until the 2nd century CE. The power of the Western Satraps started to decline in the 2nd century CE after the Saka rulers were defeated by the Emperor Gautamiputra Satakarni of the Satavahana dynasty . After this,
4796-831: The Thana district). A dedication in the Lenyadri complex of the Junnar caves (inscription No. 26 in Cave VI of the Bhimasankar group of caves), mentions a gift by Nahapana's prime minister Ayama in the "year 46": The meritorious gift.... of Ayama of the Vachhasagotra, prime minister of the King Mahakshatrapa the lord Nahapana This inscription, the last one of the reign of Nahapana, suggests that Nahapana may have become an independent ruler since he
4905-563: The Tridevi of goddesses—Lakshmi, Saraswati and Parvati . Saubhagyalakshmi Upanishad describes the qualities, characteristics, and powers of Lakshmi. In the second part of the Upanishad, the emphasis shifts to the use of yoga and transcendence from material craving to achieve spiritual knowledge and self-realization, the true wealth. Saubhagya-Lakshmi Upanishad synonymously uses Sri to describe Lakshmi. Numerous ancient Stotram and Sutras of Hinduism recite hymns dedicated to Lakshmi. She
5014-564: The (Indus) river mouth is Patalena , above which is Abiria . That which is about the mouth of the Indus and the Canthicolpus bay is called Syrastrena . (...) In the island formed by this river are the cities Pantala, Barbaria . (...) The Larica region of Indoscythia is located eastward from the swamp near the sea, in which on the west of the Namadus river is the interior city of Barygaza emporium. On
5123-426: The 2nd century BCE. Other archaeological sites with ancient Lakshmi terracotta figurines from the 3rd century BCE include Vaisali, Sravasti, Kausambi, Campa, and Candraketugadh. Western Satraps The Western Satraps , or Western Kshatrapas ( Brahmi : [REDACTED] [REDACTED] [REDACTED] [REDACTED] [REDACTED] , Mahakṣatrapa , "Great Satraps ") were Indo-Scythian ( Saka ) rulers of
5232-456: The Ashtalakshmi. Historian B. C. Bhattacharya says, "An image of Gajalakshmi is found with two lions — one on either side of her. Two elephants are also shown near her head and by this we can say that Lion is also the vahana of Lakshmi along with Garuda ". In some representations, wealth either symbolically pours out from one of her hands or she simply holds a jar of money. This symbolism has
5341-504: The East peaked in the first and second centuries CE. This time period also witnessed a material shift among Roman craftsmanship, which rapidly began to favor imported ivory over traditional bone for use in furniture, musical instruments, accessories, and more. The insatiable desire for artisan ivory work even led to the creation of a politically powerful guild of Roman ivory workers: the Eborarii. It
5450-526: The Epics of Hinduism, such as in Mahabharata , Lakshmi personifies wealth, riches, happiness, loveliness, grace, charm, and splendor. In another Hindu legend about the creation of the universe as described in Ramayana , Lakshmi springs with other precious things from the foam of the ocean of milk when it is churned by the gods and demons for the recovery of Amṛta . She appeared with a lotus in her hand and so she
5559-409: The Hindu new year, by Hindu calendar , it is considered very auspicious. Varalakshmi Vratam is celebrated by married Hindu women to pray for the well-being of their husbands. Gaja Lakshmi Puja is another autumn festival celebrated on Sharad Purnima in many parts of India on the full-moon day in the month of Ashvin (October). Sharad Purnima , also called Kojaagari Purnima or Kuanr Purnima,
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#17328526726745668-506: The Indian Ocean: Ships are also customarily fitted out from the places across this sea, from Ariaca and Barygaza, bringing to these far-side market-towns the products of their own places; wheat, rice, clarified butter, sesame oil, cotton cloth (the monache and the sagmatogene), and girdles, and honey from the reed called sacchari. Some make the voyage especially to these market-towns, and others exchange their cargoes while sailing along
5777-408: The Pompeii Lakshmi. An early relief from Sanchi Stupa No.2 with a broadly similar scene of Lakshmi with two child attendants may have served as the initial inspiration for the Pompeii Lakshmi, especially knowing that the Satavahanas were in control of Sanchi from 50 BCE onward. It is thought that these early reliefs at Sanchi Stupa No.2 were made by craftsmen from the northwest, specifically from
5886-428: The Roman world. There is also an inscriptive mark in Kharosthi at the base of the Pompeii statuette (the letter śi, as the śi in Shiva ). This suggests she might have originated from the northwestern regions of India, Pakistan, or Afghanistan, or at least passed through these areas. Since the Pompeii statuette was necessarily made sometime before 79 CE, if it was indeed manufactured in Gandhara , it would suggest that
5995-598: The Saka kingdom revived, but was ultimately defeated by Chandragupta II of the Gupta Empire in the 4th century CE. They are named Western Satraps in contrast to the " Northern Satraps " who ruled around East Punjab and the area of Mathura , such as Rajuvula , and his successors under the Kushans, the "Great Satrap" Kharapallana and the "Satrap" Vanaspara. Although they called themselves "Satraps" on their coins, leading to their modern designation of "Western Satraps", Ptolemy in his 2nd century " Geographia " still called them "Indo-Scythians". The word Kṣatrapa has
6104-405: The Satavahana king Vashishtiputra Satakarni . The inscription relating the marriage between Rudradaman's daughter and Vashishtiputra Satakarni appears in a cave at Kanheri : Of the queen ... of the illustrious Satakarni Vasishthiputra , descended from the race of Karddamaka kings, (and) daughter of the Mahakshatrapa Ru(dra)....... .........of the confidential minister Sateraka, a water-cistern,
6213-453: The Western Satraps styled themselves is a derivation of a Saka language term * xšaθrapati , meaning "lord of the country", and was likely the Saka synonym for the Indian title Kṣatrapa , which had itself been borrowed from the Iranian Median language . The Sakas of Western India spoke the Saka language, also known as Khotanese as it is first attested in the Tarim Basin . The Western Satraps are thought to have started with
6322-446: The body of a mortal at birth, some good, Punya ('virtuous') and auspicious, while others bad, paapi ('evil') and unfortunate. The good are welcomed, while the bad are urged to leave. The concept and spirit of Lakshmi and her association with fortune and the good is significant enough that Atharva Veda mentions it in multiple books: for example, in Book 12, Chapter 5 as Punya Lakshmi . In some chapters of Atharva Veda, Lakshmi connotes
6431-412: The city during the reign of Augustus . The archeological evidence suggests that the height of trade between Rome and India appears to have been the first and second centuries CE. This trade took place along several routes, both overland as documented by Isidore of Charax ’s Parthian Stations, and by sea as the merchant guide known as the Periplus Maris Erythraei reveals. There is a possibility that
6540-435: The coast. An Indian statuette, the Pompeii Lakshmi , was found in the ruins of Pompei and is thought to have been the result of Indo-Roman trade relations in the 1st century CE. There is a possibility that the statuette found its way to the west during the rule of Western Satrap Nahapana in the Bhokardan area, and was shipped to Rome from the port of Barigaza . Nahapana and Ushavadata were ultimately defeated by
6649-406: The consort of Vishnu, the Supreme Being, but also as his divine energy ( shakti ). she is also the Supreme Goddess in the sect and assists Vishnu to create, protect, and transform the universe. She is an especially prominent figure in Sri Vaishnavism tradition, in which devotion to Lakshmi is deemed to be crucial to reach Vishnu. Within the goddess-oriented Shaktism , Lakshmi is venerated as
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#17328526726746758-469: The construction and dedication of numerous Buddhist caves in Central India, particularly in Maharashtra and Gujarat . It is thought that Nahapana ruled at least 35 years in the region of Karla , Junnar and Nasik , giving him ample time for construction work there. Numerous inscriptions in the caves are known, which were made by the family of Nahapana: six inscriptions in Nasik Caves , one inscription at Karla Caves , and one by Nahapana's minister in
6867-482: The creation of the universe. In Book 9 of Shatapatha Brahmana, Sri emerges from Prajapati, after his intense meditation on the creation of life and nature of the universe. Sri is described as a resplendent and trembling woman at her birth with immense energy and powers. The gods are bewitched, desire her, and immediately become covetous of her. The gods approach Prajapati and request permission to kill her and then take her powers, talents, and gifts. Prajapati refuses, tells
6976-442: The creative energy of Vishnu, and primordial Prakriti who creates the universe. According to Garuda Purana , Lakshmi is considered as Prakriti (Mahalakshmi) and is identified with three forms — Sri, Bhu and Durga. The three forms consist of Satva ('goodness'), rajas , and tamas ('darkness') gunas, and assists Vishnu ( Purusha ) in creation, preservation and destruction of the entire universe. Durga 's form represents
7085-439: The daughter of the divine sage Bhrigu and his wife Khyati and was named Bhargavi . According to Vishnu Purana, the universe was created when the devas and asuras churned the cosmic Kshira Sagara. Lakshmi came out of the ocean, bearing a lotus, along with the divine cow Kamadhenu , Varuni , the Parijat tree, the Apsaras , Chandra (the moon), and Dhanvantari with Amrita ('nectar of immortality'). When she appeared, she had
7194-435: The daughters of Durga . They are worshipped during Durga Puja . In South India, Lakshmi is seen in two forms, Sridevi and Bhudevi , both at the sides of Venkateshwara , a form of Vishnu. Bhudevi is the representation and totality of the material world or energy, called the Apara Prakriti , or Mother Earth; Sridevi is the spiritual world or energy called the Prakriti . According to Lakshmi Tantra , Nila Devi , one of
7303-422: The divine nectar that grants immortality, could only be obtained by churning Kshira Sagara ('Ocean of Milk'). The devas and asuras both sought immortality and decided to churn the Kshira Sagara with Mount Mandhara. The Samudra Manthana commenced with the devas on one side and the asuras on the other. Vishnu incarnated as Kurma, the tortoise, and a mountain was placed on the tortoise as a churning pole. Vasuki ,
7412-452: The earliest Vedic literature , the personification of the term shri —auspiciousness, glory, and high rank, often associated with kingship—eventually led to the development of Sri-Lakshmi as a goddess in later Vedic texts, particularly the Shri Suktam . Her importance grew significantly during the late epic period (around 400 CE), when she became particularly associated with the preserver god Vishnu as his consort. In this role, Lakshmi
7521-412: The east side of the river (...) Ozena -Regia Tiastani (...) Minnagara . Around 130 CE, Rudradaman I , grandson of Chastana , took the title "Mahakshatrapa" ("Great Satrap"), and defended his kingdom from the Satavahanas . The conflict between Rudradaman and Satavahanas became so gruelling, that in order to contain the conflict, a matrimonial relationship was concluded by giving Rudradaman's daughter to
7630-449: The first century CE had a fascination with antiquities not just from Greece but also from remote cultures, and that Romans had a desire to acquire objects they considered exotic. Standing at 0.25 metres (9.8 in), high the statuette is nearly naked apart from her narrow girdle and lavish jewels as well as an elaborate coiffure. She has two female attendants, one facing outward on each side, holding cosmetics containers. The statuette has
7739-408: The first half of that century. Though the origin is not entirely certain, based on archeological finds and historian work, the Pompeii Lakshmi has had a questionable origin. There is evidence of the then active trade routes between the Roman Empire under Emperor Nero and India during this time period. According to Pollard, with the Roman long-distance trade, she is believed to have found herself in
7848-545: The four aspects of human life important to Hindu culture: dharma , kama , artha , and moksha . She is often accompanied by two elephants, as seen in the Gaja-Lakshmi images, symbolising both fertility and royal authority. Archaeological discoveries and ancient coins suggest the recognition and reverence for Lakshmi existing by the 1st millennium BCE. Lakshmi's iconography and statues have also been found in Hindu temples throughout Southeast Asia, estimated to be from
7957-455: The geographer Ptolemy in his "Geographia", where he qualifies them as "Indo-Scythians". He describes this territory as starting from Patalene in the West, to Ujjain in the east ("Ozena-Regia Tiastani", "Ozene/Ujjain, capital of king Chastana "), and beyond Barigaza in the south. Moreover the region which is next to the western part of India, is called Indoscythia. A part of this region around
8066-450: The gods that men should not kill women and that they can seek her gifts without violence. The gods then approach Lakshmi. Agni gets food, Soma gets kingly authority, Varuna gets imperial authority, Mitra acquires martial energy, Indra gets force, Brihaspati gets priestly authority, Savitri acquires dominion, Pushan gets splendour, Saraswati takes nourishment and Tvashtri gets forms. The hymns of Shatapatha Brahmana thus describe Sri as
8175-428: The good or bad circumstances in which it grows. It is a reminder that good and prosperity can bloom and not be affected by evil in one's surroundings. Below, behind, or on the sides, Lakshmi is very often shown with one or two elephants, known as Gajalakshmi , and occasionally with an owl. Elephants symbolise work, activity, and strength, as well as water, rain and fertility for abundant prosperity. The owl signifies
8284-464: The good, an auspicious sign, good luck, good fortune, prosperity, success, and happiness. Later, Lakshmi is referred to as the goddess of fortune, identified with Sri and regarded as the wife of Viṣṇu ( Nārāyaṇa ). For example, in Shatapatha Brahmana , variously estimated to be composed between 800 BCE and 300 BCE, Sri (Lakshmi) is part of one of many theories, in ancient India, about
8393-399: The great venom-spewing serpent-god, was wrapped around the mountain and used to churn the ocean. A host of divine celestial objects came up during the churning. Along with them emerged the goddess Lakshmi. In some versions, she is said to be the daughter of the sea god since she emerged from the sea. In Garuda Purana , Linga Purana and Padma Purana , Lakshmi is said to have been born as
8502-536: The iconography of Venus attended by cherubs holding cosmetics containers, which are well known in Greco-Roman art. She may be one of the several representations of Venus-Sri-Lakshmi that appeared in the 1st century CE, states D'Ancona. Another example of this common Roman representation of Venus attended by cupids can be seen in the Los Angeles Getty Villa's "Imitation of a Statuette of a Female Reclining on
8611-432: The maintenance of life, justice, and peace. When Lakshmi and Vishnu appear together in images and statues, she is significantly smaller, which is often used to portray her devotional status as a wife. A frequently depicted scene of the pair illustrates Lakshmi massaging Vishnu's feet. Alternatively, Lakshmi Sahasranama of Skanda Purana , Lakshmi Tantra and Markandeya Purana describe Lakshmi as having eighteen hands and
8720-698: The manifestations or incarnations of Lakshmi is the third wife of Vishnu . Each goddess of the triad is mentioned in Śrī Sūkta , Bhu Sūkta and Nila Sūkta, respectively. This threefold goddess can be found, for example, in Sri Bhu Neela Sahita Temple near Dwaraka Tirumala , Andhra Pradesh, and in Adinath Swami Temple in Tamil Nadu. In many parts of the region, Andal is considered as an incarnation of Lakshmi. Ashta Lakshmi (Sanskrit: अष्टलक्ष्मी , Aṣṭalakṣmī , 'eight Lakshmis')
8829-415: The mediator between her husband Vishnu and his worldly devotees. When asking Vishnu for grace or forgiveness, the devotees often approach him through the intermediary presence of Lakshmi. She is also the personification of spiritual fulfillment. Lakshmi embodies the spiritual world, also known as Vaikuntha , the abode of Lakshmi and Vishnu (collectively called Lakshmi Narayana ). Lakshmi is the embodiment of
8938-458: The meritorious gift. The Satavahanas and the Western Satraps remained at war however, and Rudradaman I defeated the Satavahanas twice in these conflicts, only sparing the life of Vashishtiputra Satakarni due to their family alliance: Rudradaman (...) who obtained good report because he, in spite of having twice in fair fight completely defeated Satakarni, the lord of Dakshinapatha , on account of
9047-526: The name Durga after killing an asura named Durgama. Indologists and authors Chitralekha Singh and Prem Nath says, " Narada Purana describes the powerful forms of Lakshmi as Durga, Mahakali, Bhadrakali, Chandi, Maheshwari, Mahalakshmi, Vaishnavi and Andreye". Lakshmi, Saraswati , and Parvati are typically conceptualized as distinct in most of India, but in states such as West Bengal and Odisha, they are regionally believed to be forms of Durga. In Hindu Bengali culture, Lakshmi, along with Saraswati, are seen as
9156-963: The name Mahamaya is connected with third or destructive of Goddess' three partial functions, while in supreme form she is identified with Lakshmi" . Her other names include: Aishwarya, Akhila, Anagha, Anapagamini, Anumati, Apara, Aruna, Atibha, Avashya, Bala, Bhargavi , Bhudevi , Chakrika, Chanchala , Chandravadana, Chandrasahodari, Chandraroopa, Devi , Deepta, Dhruti , Haripriya, Harini, Harivallabha, Hemamalini, Hiranyavarna, Indira, Jalaja, Jambhavati , Janaki, Janamodini, Jyoti, Jyotsna, Kalyani, Kamalika, Ketaki, Kriyalakshmi, Kshirsha, Kuhu, Lalima, Madhavi, Madhu, Malti, Manushri, Nandika, Nandini, Nikhila, Nila Devi , Nimeshika, Padmavati, Parama, Prachi, Purnima, Radha , Ramaa, Rukmini , Samruddhi, Samudra Tanaya, Satyabhama , Shraddha, Shreeya, Sita , Smriti, Sridevi, Sudha, Sujata, Swarna Kamala, Taruni, Tilottama, Tulasi, Vasuda, Vasudhara, Vasundhara, Varada, Varalakshmi, Vedavati, Vidya, Vimala, and Viroopa. Lakshmi
9265-412: The nearness of their connection did not destroy him. Rudradaman regained all the previous territories held by Nahapana, probably with the exception of the southern areas of Poona and Nasik (epigraphical remains in these two areas at that time are exclusively Satavahana): Rudradaman (...) who is the lord of the whole of eastern and western Akaravanti ( Akara : East Malwa and Avanti : West Malwa ),
9374-541: The night of Deepavali , people clean, renovate and decorate their homes and offices. On the night of Deepavali, Hindus dress up in new clothes or their best outfits, light up diyas (lamps and candles) inside and outside their home, and participate in family puja (prayers) typically to Lakshmi. After the Lakshmi Puja , fireworks follow, then a family feast including mithai (sweets), and an exchange of gifts between family members and close friends. Deepavali also marks
9483-488: The patient striving to observe, see, and discover knowledge, particularly when surrounded by darkness. As a bird reputedly blinded by daylight, the owl also serves as a symbolic reminder to refrain from blindness and greed after knowledge and wealth have been acquired. According to historian D. D. Kosambi , most of the Imperial Gupta kings were Vaishnavas and held the goddess Lakshmi in the highest esteem. Goddess Lakshmi
9592-579: The power to fight, conquer and punish the demons and anti-gods. In the Lakshmi Tantra and Lakshmi Sahasranama of Skanda Purana , Lakshmi is given the status of the primordial goddess. According to these texts, Durga and the other forms, such as Mahalakshmi, Mahakali and Mahasaraswati and all the Shaktis that came out of all gods such as Matrikas and Mahavidya , are all various forms of Goddess Lakshmi. In Lakshmi Tantra , Lakshmi tells Indra that she got
9701-667: The powerful Satavahana king Gautamiputra Satakarni . Gautamiputra drove the Sakas from Malwa and Western Maharashtra, forcing Nahapana west to Gujarat. His victory is known from the fact that Gautamiputra restruck many of Nahapana's coins (such a hoard was found in Jogalthambi, Nashik District), ) and that he claimed victory on them in an inscription at Cave No. 3 of the Pandavleni Caves in Nashik : Gautamiputra Satakarni (…) who crushed down
9810-679: The pride and conceit of the Kshatriyas ; who destroyed the Sakas (Western Satraps), Yavanas ( Indo-Greeks ) and Pahlavas ( Indo-Parthians ), who rooted out the Khakharata family (the Kshaharata family of Nahapana); who restored the glory of the Satavahana race. It seems that the Indian colonization of the islands of Java and Sumatra took place during the time of the Western Satraps. People may have fled
9919-595: The prosperity aspect of the Supreme goddess . The eight prominent manifestations of Lakshmi, the Ashtalakshmi , symbolise the eight sources of wealth. Lakshmi is depicted in Indian art as an elegantly dressed, prosperity-showering golden-coloured woman standing or sitting in the padmasana position upon a lotus throne , while holding a lotus in her hand, symbolising fortune, self-knowledge, and spiritual liberation. Her iconography shows her with four hands , which represent
10028-702: The rainy season by the Malayas, and those Malayas fled at the mere roar (of my approaching) as it were, and were all made prisoners of the Uttamabhadra warriors. An important inscription related to Nahapana in the Great Chaitya at Karla Caves shows his support of Buddhism and Hinduism: Success!! By Ushabadata , the son of Dinaka and the son-in-law of the king, the Kshaharata, the Kshatrapa Nahapana , who gave three hundred thousand cows, who made gifts of gold and
10137-541: The rather short-lived Kshaharata dynasty (also called Chaharada , Khaharata or Khakharata depending on sources). The term Kshaharata is also known from the 6 CE Taxila copper plate inscription, in which it qualifies the Indo-Scythian ruler Liaka Kusulaka . The Nasik inscription of the 19th year of Sri Pulamavi also mentions the Khakharatavasa , or Kshaharata race. The earliest Kshaharata for whom there
10246-490: The ritual worship of the goddess. These include: Some temples dedicated to Goddess Lakshmi are: A representation of the goddess as Gaja Lakshmi or Lakshmi flanked by two elephants spraying her with water, is one of the most frequently found in archaeological sites. An ancient sculpture of Gaja Lakshmi (from Sonkh site at Mathura ) dates to the pre- Kushan Empire era. Atranjikhera site in modern Uttar Pradesh has yielded terracotta plaque with images of Lakshmi dating to
10355-541: The same origin as the word satrap and are both descended from Median xšaθrapāvan- , which means viceroy or governor of a province, and according to John Marshall, the word kṣatrapa means the viceroy of the "King of kings". The title of the Mahakṣatrapa or the "Great Satrap" was given to the ruling Satrap, and the title of kṣatrapa was given to the heir apparent. The western Kshatrapas were also known as Sakas to Indians. The title Kṣaharāta by which
10464-469: The second half of the 1st millennium CE. The day of Lakshmi Puja during Navaratri , and the festivals of Deepavali and Sharad Purnima (Kojagiri Purnima) are celebrated in her honour. Traditional Lakshmi in Sanskrit is derived from the root word lakṣ ( लक्ष् ) and lakṣa ( लक्ष ), meaning 'to perceive, observe, know, understand' and 'goal, aim, objective', respectively. These roots give Lakshmi
10573-728: The silver coinage of the Kshatrapas. Circa 120 CE, the Western Satraps are known to have allied with the Uttamabhadras in order to repulse an attack by the Malavas , whom they finally crushed. The claim appears in an inscription at the Nashik Caves , made by the Nahapana 's viceroy Ushavadata : ...And by order of the lord I went to release the chief of the Uttamabhadras, who had been besieged for
10682-504: The statuette found its way to the west during the rule of Western Satrap Nahapana in the Bhokardan area, and was shipped from the port of Barigaza . Rome played an important part in the Eastern oriental trade of antiquity, they imported many goods from India and at the same time set up their own trading stations in the country. According to Cobb, trading through land routes such as crossing
10791-550: The sub-continent due to the conflicts there. Some foundation legends of Java describe the leader of the colonists as Aji Saka , a prince from Gujarat , at the beginning of the Shaka era (which is also the Java era). A new dynasty, called the Bhadramukhas or Kardamaka dynasty, was established by the "Satrap" Castana . The date of Castana is not certain, but many believe his reign started in
10900-401: The symbolism: know and understand your goal. A related term is lakṣaṇa , which means 'sign, target, aim, symbol, attribute, quality, lucky mark, auspicious opportunity' . Lakshmi has numerous epithets and numerous ancient Stotram and Sutras of Hinduism recite her various names: such as Sri (Radiance, eminence, splendor, wealth), Padmā (she who is mounted upon or dwelling in
11009-494: The time of Nahapana. The inscriptions of cave no.10 in the Nasik Caves near Nasik , reveal that in 105-106 CE, Kshatrapas defeated the Satavahanas after which Kshatrapa Nahapana ’s son-in-law and Dinika's son- Ushavadata donated 3000 gold coins for this cave as well as for the food and clothing of the monks. Usabhdatta's wife (Nahapana's daughter), Dakshmitra also donated one cave for the Buddhist monks. Cave 10 - 'Nahapana Vihara'
11118-679: The various market-towns. Those bound for this market-town from Egypt make the voyage favorably about the month of July, that is Epiphi. Goods were also brought down in quantity from Ujjain , the capital of the Western Satraps: Inland from this place and to the east, is the city called Ozene, formerly a royal capital; from this place are brought down all things needed for the welfare of the country about Barygaza, and many things for our trade: agate and carnelian, Indian muslins and mallow cloth, and much ordinary cloth. Some ships were also fitted out from Barigaza, to export goods westward across
11227-468: The western and central parts of India (extending from Saurashtra in the south and Malwa in the east, covering modern-day Sindh , Gujarat , Maharashtra , Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh states), between 35 and 415 CE. The Western Satraps were contemporaneous with the Kushans who ruled the northern part of the Indian subcontinent, and were possibly vassals of the Kushans. They were also contemporaneous with
11336-463: The world, Illuminating the entire creation, For one cannot acquire wisdom, Unless it is experienced, Through the opening on the heart.... Lakshmi features prominently in Puranas of Hinduism. Vishnu Purana, in particular, dedicates many sections to her and also refers to her as Sri. J. A. B. van Buitenen translates passages describing Lakshmi in Vishnu Purana: Sri, loyal to Vishnu,
11445-504: The year 42, in the month Vesakha, Ushavadata , son of Dinika, son-in-law of king Nahapana, the Kshaharata Kshatrapa, has bestowed this cave on the Samgha generally.... According to the inscriptions, Ushavadata accomplished various charities and conquests on behalf of his father-in-law. He constructed rest-houses, gardens and tanks at Bharukachchha ( Broach ), Dashapura ( Mandasor in Malwa ), Govardhana (near Nasik ) and Shorparaga ( Sopara in
11554-510: The year 78 CE, thus making him the founder of the Saka era . This is consistent with the fact that his descendants (who we know used the Saka era on their coins and inscriptions) would use the date of their founder as their era. Castana was satrap of Ujjain during that period. A statue found in Mathura together with statues of the Kushan king Kanishka and Vima Taktu , and bearing the name "Shastana"
11663-480: Was initially assumed that the statuette had been produced at Mathura , but according to Dhavalikar, it is now thought that its place of production was Bhokardan since two similar figurines were discovered there. Bhokardan was a part of the Satavahana territory and cultural sphere, although it might have been held for a few decades by the Western Satraps , who may have been the ones who provided an export route to
11772-446: Was one of the main centers of Roman trade with India . The Periplus describes the many goods exchanged: There are imported into this market-town (Barigaza), wine, Italian preferred, also Laodicean and Arabian ; copper , tin , and lead ; coral and topaz ; thin clothing and inferior sorts of all kinds; bright-colored girdles a cubit wide; storax, sweet clover, flint glass, realgar , antimony , gold and silver coin, on which there
11881-575: Was ruled by the Paratarajas , an Indo-Parthian polity, while the Kushans were expanding their empire in the North. His son-in-law, the Saka Ushavadata (married to his daughter Dakshamitra), is known from inscriptions in Nasik and Karle and Junnar ( Manmodi Caves , inscription of the year 46) to have been viceroy of Nahapana, ruling over the southern part of his territory. Nahapana established
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