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83-728: Greek orthography has used a variety of diacritics starting in the Hellenistic period . The more complex polytonic orthography ( Greek : πολυτονικό σύστημα γραφής , romanized :  polytonikó sýstīma grafī́s ), which includes five diacritics, notates Ancient Greek phonology . The simpler monotonic orthography ( Greek : μονοτονικό σύστημα γραφής , romanized :  monotonikó sýstīma grafī́s ), introduced in 1982, corresponds to Modern Greek phonology , and requires only two diacritics. Polytonic orthography (from Ancient Greek πολύς ( polýs )  'much, many' and τόνος ( tónos )  'accent')

166-416: A digraph (as in μποϊκοτάρω /boj.koˈtar.o/ , "I boycott"). The distinction between two separate vowels and an unstressed diphthong is not always clear, although two separate vowels are far more common. The diaeresis can be combined with the acute, grave and circumflex but never with breathings, since the letter with the diaeresis cannot be the first vowel of the word. In Modern Greek, the combination of

249-429: A partial stop marked by various forms of commas , and the hypodiastole ⟨⸒⟩ and papyrological hyphen ⟨ ͜ ⟩ . These served to show whether an ambiguous series of letters should be read as (respectively) a pair of words or as a single word. Later Aristarchus of Samothrace modified this system (see: Aristarchian symbols ). Following the advent of printing , most Greek punctuation

332-529: A common typographic practice among both British and U.S. publishers to capitalise significant words (and in the United States, this is often applied to headings, too). This family of typographic conventions is usually called title case . For example, R. M. Ritter's Oxford Manual of Style (2002) suggests capitalising "the first word and all nouns, pronouns, adjectives, verbs and adverbs, but generally not articles, conjunctions and short prepositions". This

415-460: A cultural link to the past. Some individuals, institutions, and publishers continue to prefer the polytonic system (with or without grave accent), though an official reintroduction of the polytonic system does not seem probable. The Greek Orthodox church, the daily newspaper Estia , as well as books written in Katharevousa continue to use the polytonic orthography. Though the polytonic system

498-578: A distinction needs to be made (in historic textual analysis, for example), the existence of individual code points and a suitable distinguishing typeface ( computer font ) make this possible. General information: Greek orthography Early Greek writing in the Greek alphabet was phonemic , different in each dialect . Since the adoption of the Ionic variant for Attic in 403 BC, however, Greek orthography has been largely conservative and historical. Given

581-444: A handwritten sticky note , may not bother to follow the conventions concerning capitalisation, but that is because its users usually do not expect it to be formal. Similar orthographic and graphostylistic conventions are used for emphasis or following language-specific or other rules, including: In English, a variety of case styles are used in various circumstances: In English-language publications, various conventions are used for

664-434: A longer breath after a longer passage, and a high dot ⟨˙⟩ marked a full stop at the end of a completed thought. Other writers employed two dot punctuation ⟨⁚⟩ to mark the ends of sentences or changing speakers. Less often, arrangements of three ⟨⁝⟩ , four ⟨⁞ or ⁘⟩ , and five dots ⟨⁙⟩ appeared. Such interline punctuation could be noted or replaced by

747-458: A marker to indicate the beginning of a line of verse independent of any grammatical feature. In political writing, parody and satire, the unexpected emphasis afforded by otherwise ill-advised capitalisation is often used to great stylistic effect, such as in the case of George Orwell's Big Brother . Other languages vary in their use of capitals. For example, in German all nouns are capitalised (this

830-498: A more general sense. It can also be seen as customary to capitalise any word – in some contexts even a pronoun  – referring to the deity of a monotheistic religion . Other words normally start with a lower-case letter. There are, however, situations where further capitalisation may be used to give added emphasis, for example in headings and publication titles (see below). In some traditional forms of poetry, capitalisation has conventionally been used as

913-543: A palatalized pronunciation. They are not encoded as precombined characters in Unicode, so they are typed by adding the U+030C ◌̌ COMBINING CARON to the Greek letter. Latin diacritics on Greek letters may not be supported by many fonts, and as a fall-back a caron may be replaced by an iota ⟨ι⟩ following the consonant. An example of a Greek letter with a combining caron and its pronunciation: τ̌ /c/ . A dot diacritic

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996-478: A spelling mistake (since minuscule is derived from the word minus ), but is now so common that some dictionaries tend to accept it as a non-standard or variant spelling. Miniscule is still less likely, however, to be used in reference to lower-case letters. The glyphs of lowercase letters can resemble smaller forms of the uppercase glyphs restricted to the baseband (e.g. "C/c" and "S/s", cf. small caps ) or can look hardly related (e.g. "D/d" and "G/g"). Here

1079-425: A variety of paragraphoi , long marks which trailed between lines of text; these might also mark changes of speakers. Blank lines or various coronides marked the ends of sections. (A separate coronis was used to mark contractions ; its early forms looked like an apostrophe between the two elided words.) Over time, the main punctuation came to be a full stop marked by a single dot at varying heights,

1162-483: A voiceless glottal fricative ( /h/ ) before the vowel in Ancient Greek. In Greek grammar, this is known as aspiration. This is different from aspiration in phonetics , which applies to consonants, not vowels. The smooth breathing ( ψιλὸν πνεῦμα , psīlòn pneûma ; Latin spīritus lēnis )—' ἀ '—marked the absence of /h/ . A double rho in the middle of a word was originally written with smooth breathing on

1245-473: A word. The iota subscript ( ὑπογεγραμμένη , hypogegramménē , 'written under')—'ι'—is placed under the long vowels ᾱ , η , and ω to mark the ancient long diphthongs ᾱι , ηι , and ωι , in which the ι is no longer pronounced. Next to a capital, the iota subscript is usually written as a lower-case letter ( Αι ), in which case it is called iota adscript ( προσγεγραμμένη , prosgegramménē , 'written next to'). In Ancient Greek,

1328-503: Is a comparison of the upper and lower case variants of each letter included in the English alphabet (the exact representation will vary according to the typeface and font used): (Some lowercase letters have variations e.g. a/ɑ.) Typographically , the basic difference between the majuscules and minuscules is not that the majuscules are big and minuscules small, but that the majuscules generally are of uniform height (although, depending on

1411-543: Is also known as spinal case , param case , Lisp case in reference to the Lisp programming language , or dash case (or illustratively as kebab-case , looking similar to the skewer that sticks through a kebab ). If every word is capitalised, the style is known as train case ( TRAIN-CASE ). In CSS , all property names and most keyword values are primarily formatted in kebab case. "tHeqUicKBrOWnFoXJUmpsoVeRThElAzydOG" Mixed case with no semantic or syntactic significance to

1494-409: Is an old form of emphasis , similar to the more modern practice of using a larger or boldface font for titles. The rules which prescribe which words to capitalise are not based on any grammatically inherent correct–incorrect distinction and are not universally standardised; they differ between style guides, although most style guides tend to follow a few strong conventions, as follows: Title case

1577-502: Is at U+03AC, while the polytonic "Greek small letter alpha with oxeîa " is at U+1F71. The monotonic and polytonic accent however have been de jure equivalent since 1986, and accordingly the oxeîa diacritic in Unicode decomposes canonically to the monotonic tónos —both are underlyingly treated as equivalent to the multiscript acute accent, U+0301, since letters with oxia decompose to letters with tonos , which decompose in turn to base letter plus multiscript acute accent. Thus: Where

1660-796: Is attested since the 8th century BC, and until 403 BC, variations of the Greek alphabet—which exclusively used what are now known as capitals —were used in different cities and areas. From 403 on, the Athenians decided to employ a version of the Ionian alphabet. With the spread of Koine Greek , a continuation of the Attic dialect, the Ionic alphabet superseded the other alphabets, known as epichoric , with varying degrees of speed. The Ionian alphabet, however, also consisted only of capitals. The rough and smooth breathings were introduced in classical times in order to represent

1743-467: Is capitalised, as are all proper nouns . Capitalisation in English, in terms of the general orthographic rules independent of context (e.g. title vs. heading vs. text), is universally standardised for formal writing. Capital letters are used as the first letter of a sentence, a proper noun, or a proper adjective . The names of the days of the week and the names of the months are also capitalised, as are

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1826-424: Is capitalised. Nevertheless, the name of the unit, if spelled out, is always considered a common noun and written accordingly in lower case. For example: For the purpose of clarity, the symbol for litre can optionally be written in upper case even though the name is not derived from a proper noun. For example, "one litre" may be written as: The letter case of a prefix symbol is determined independently of

1909-399: Is conventional to use one case only. For example, engineering design drawings are typically labelled entirely in uppercase letters, which are easier to distinguish individually than the lowercase when space restrictions require very small lettering. In mathematics , on the other hand, uppercase and lower case letters denote generally different mathematical objects , which may be related when

1992-501: Is generally applied in a mixed-case fashion, with both upper and lowercase letters appearing in a given piece of text for legibility. The choice of case is often denoted by the grammar of a language or by the conventions of a particular discipline. In orthography , the uppercase is reserved for special purposes, such as the first letter of a sentence or of a proper noun (called capitalisation, or capitalised words), which makes lowercase more common in regular text. In some contexts, it

2075-422: Is no technical requirement to do so – e.g., Sun Microsystems ' naming of a windowing system NeWS . Illustrative naming of the style is, naturally, random: stUdlY cAps , StUdLy CaPs , etc.. In the character sets developed for computing , each upper- and lower-case letter is encoded as a separate character. In order to enable case folding and case conversion, the software needs to link together

2158-405: Is not available. Acronyms (and particularly initialisms) are often written in all-caps , depending on various factors . Capitalisation is the writing of a word with its first letter in uppercase and the remaining letters in lowercase. Capitalisation rules vary by language and are often quite complex, but in most modern languages that have capitalisation, the first word of every sentence

2241-460: Is now standard for identifying thousands: 2015 is represented as ͵ΒΙΕʹ (2000 + 10 + 5). Capital letters Letter case is the distinction between the letters that are in larger uppercase or capitals (more formally majuscule ) and smaller lowercase (more formally minuscule ) in the written representation of certain languages. The writing systems that distinguish between the upper- and lowercase have two parallel sets of letters: each in

2324-466: Is placed to its upper right, a development of the short marks formerly used for single numbers and fractions. The modern keraia is a symbol ( ʹ ) similar to the acute accent (´), but has its own Unicode character, encoded as U+0374. Alexander the Great 's father Philip II of Macedon is thus known as Φίλιππος Βʹ in modern Greek. A lower left keraia (Unicode: U+0375, "Greek Lower Numeral Sign")

2407-609: Is regarded as a letter of the alphabet. During the Byzantine period , it became customary to write the silent iota in digraphs as an iota subscript . According to KEME (1983), the splitting of a Modern Greek word into syllables ( syllabification ) is governed by the following rules: Loanword hyphenation is governed by the same grammar rules as the rest of the Standard Modern Greek language. The prohibitive hyphenation rules regarding vowel splitting are as follows: All of

2490-845: Is removed and spaces are replaced by single underscores . Normally the letters share the same case (e.g. "UPPER_CASE_EMBEDDED_UNDERSCORE" or "lower_case_embedded_underscore") but the case can be mixed, as in OCaml variant constructors (e.g. "Upper_then_lowercase"). The style may also be called pothole case , especially in Python programming, in which this convention is often used for naming variables. Illustratively, it may be rendered snake_case , pothole_case , etc.. When all-upper-case, it may be referred to as screaming snake case (or SCREAMING_SNAKE_CASE ) or hazard case . "the-quick-brown-fox-jumps-over-the-lazy-dog" Similar to snake case, above, except hyphens rather than underscores are used to replace spaces. It

2573-561: Is sentence-style capitalisation in headlines, i.e. capitalisation follows the same rules that apply for sentences. This convention is usually called sentence case . It may also be applied to publication titles, especially in bibliographic references and library catalogues. An example of a global publisher whose English-language house style prescribes sentence-case titles and headings is the International Organization for Standardization (ISO). For publication titles it is, however,

Greek diacritics - Misplaced Pages Continue

2656-511: Is the standard system for Ancient Greek and Medieval Greek and includes: Since in Modern Greek the pitch accent has been replaced by a dynamic accent (stress) , and /h/ was lost, most polytonic diacritics have no phonetic significance, and merely reveal the underlying Ancient Greek etymology . Monotonic orthography (from Ancient Greek μόνος ( mónos )  'single' and τόνος ( tónos )  'accent')

2739-552: Is the standard system for Modern Greek . It retains two diacritics: A tonos and a diaeresis can be combined on a single vowel to indicate a stressed vowel after a hiatus, as in the verb ταΐζω ( /taˈizo/ , "I feed"). Although it is not a diacritic, the hypodiastole ( comma ) has in a similar way the function of a sound-changing diacritic in a handful of Greek words, principally distinguishing ό,τι ( ó,ti , "whatever") from ότι ( óti , "that"). The original Greek alphabet did not have diacritics. The Greek alphabet

2822-424: Is widely used in many English-language publications, especially in the United States. However, its conventions are sometimes not followed strictly – especially in informal writing. In creative typography, such as music record covers and other artistic material, all styles are commonly encountered, including all-lowercase letters and special case styles, such as studly caps (see below). For example, in

2905-548: The diaeresis (Greek: διαίρεσις or διαλυτικά , dialytiká , 'distinguishing') – ϊ – appears on the letters ι and υ to show that a pair of vowel letters is pronounced separately, rather than as a diphthong or as a digraph for a simple vowel. In Modern Greek, the diaeresis usually indicates that two successive vowels are pronounced separately (as in κοροϊδεύω /ko.ro.iˈðe.vo/ , "I trick, mock"), but occasionally, it marks vowels that are pronounced together as an unstressed diphthong rather than as

2988-405: The /h/ sound became silent. At the beginning of the 20th century (official since the 1960s), the grave was replaced by the acute, and the iota subscript and the breathings on the rho were abolished, except in printed texts. Greek typewriters from that era did not have keys for the grave accent or the iota subscript, and these diacritics were also not taught in primary schools where instruction

3071-502: The minuscule polytonic supplanted it. By the Byzantine period , the modern rule that turns an acute accent ( oxeia ) on the last syllable into a grave accent ( bareia )—except before a punctuation sign or an enclitic —had been firmly established. Certain authors have argued that the grave originally denoted the absence of accent; the modern rule is, in their view, a purely orthographic convention. Originally, certain proclitic words lost their accent before another word and received

3154-491: The phonetic development of Greek , especially in the Hellenistic period , certain modern vowel phonemes have multiple orthographic realizations: This affects not only lexical items but also inflectional affixes, so correct orthography requires mastery of formal grammar , e.g. η καλή /i kaˈli/ 'the good one ( fem . sing .)' vs. οι καλοί /i kaˈli/ 'the good ones ( masc . pl .)'; καλώ /kaˈlo/ 'I call' vs. καλό /kaˈlo/ 'good ( neut . sing .)'. Similarly,

3237-520: The wordmarks of video games it is not uncommon to use stylised upper-case letters at the beginning and end of a title, with the intermediate letters in small caps or lower case (e.g., ArcaniA , ArmA , and DmC ). Single-word proper nouns are capitalised in formal written English, unless the name is intentionally stylised to break this rule (such as e e cummings , bell hooks , eden ahbez , and danah boyd ). Multi-word proper nouns include names of organisations, publications, and people. Often

3320-507: The Greek semicolon, but is so uncommon that it has often been left off of Greek keyboards . One of the few places where ano teleia exists is on the Microsoft Windows Polytonic Greek keyboard (having the driver name KBDHEPT.DLL). The exclamation mark ( θαυμαστικό thavmastikó ) is mostly used as in English. The hyphen , the brackets , the colon , the ellipsis and the slash are also in use. The slash has

3403-555: The above rules are negative in that they indicate impermissible hyphen points within particular substrings of consecutive vowels. Polytonic spelling uses a variety of diacritics to represent aspects of the pronunciation of ancient Greek . Polytonic, along with lowercase letters, became standard in Byzantine Greek , although the ancient distinctions had disappeared, replaced by a simple stress accent. The orthographies of modern Greek, both katharevousa and dhimotiki , used

Greek diacritics - Misplaced Pages Continue

3486-464: The accents, of which the use started to spread, to become standard in the Middle Ages. It was not until the 2nd century AD that accents and breathings appeared sporadically in papyri . The need for the diacritics arose from the gradual divergence between spelling and pronunciation. The majuscule , i.e., a system where text is written entirely in capital letters , was used until the 8th century, when

3569-431: The acute and diaeresis indicates a stressed vowel after a hiatus. In textbooks and dictionaries of Ancient Greek, the macron —' ᾱ '—and breve —' ᾰ '—are often used over α , ι , and υ to indicate that it is long or short, respectively. In some modern non-standard orthographies of Greek dialects, such as Cypriot Greek , Griko , and Tsakonian , a caron (ˇ) may be used on some consonants to show

3652-426: The acute at the end of a word if another accented word follows immediately without punctuation . The circumflex ( περισπωμένη , perispōménē , 'twisted around') – ' ᾶ ' – marked high and falling pitch within one syllable. In distinction to the angled Latin circumflex, the Greek circumflex is printed in the form of either a tilde ( ◌̃ ) or an inverted breve ( ◌̑ ). It

3735-441: The additional function of forming common abbreviations like α/φοί for αδελφοί 'brothers'. The ligature kai (ϗ) is sometimes used for the same function as the English ampersand . There are special rules for how to write Greek numerals . In modern Greek , a number of changes have been made. Instead of extending an overline over an entire number (like χξϛ ), a keraia ( κεραία , lit.  "hornlike projection")

3818-399: The advent of Unicode and appropriate fonts . The IETF language tags have registered subtag codes for the different orthographies: While the tónos of monotonic orthography looks similar to the oxeîa of polytonic orthography in most typefaces, Unicode has historically separate symbols for letters with these diacritics. For example, the monotonic "Greek small letter alpha with tónos "

3901-564: The capitalisation of the following internal letter or word, for example "Mac" in Celtic names and "Al" in Arabic names. In the International System of Units (SI), a letter usually has different meanings in upper and lower case when used as a unit symbol. Generally, unit symbols are written in lower case, but if the name of the unit is derived from a proper noun, the first letter of the symbol

3984-414: The capitalisation of words in publication titles and headlines , including chapter and section headings. The rules differ substantially between individual house styles. The convention followed by many British publishers (including scientific publishers like Nature and New Scientist , magazines like The Economist , and newspapers like The Guardian and The Times ) and many U.S. newspapers

4067-446: The case is usually known as lower camel case or dromedary case (illustratively: dromedaryCase ). This format has become popular in the branding of information technology products and services, with an initial "i" meaning " Internet " or "intelligent", as in iPod , or an initial "e" meaning "electronic", as in email (electronic mail) or e-commerce (electronic commerce). "the_quick_brown_fox_jumps_over_the_lazy_dog" Punctuation

4150-418: The code too abstract and overloaded for the common programmer to understand. Understandably then, such coding conventions are highly subjective , and can lead to rather opinionated debate, such as in the case of editor wars , or those about indent style . Capitalisation is no exception. "theQuickBrownFoxJumpsOverTheLazyDog" or "TheQuickBrownFoxJumpsOverTheLazyDog" Spaces and punctuation are removed and

4233-404: The context of an imperative, strongly typed language. The third supports the macro facilities of LISP, and its tendency to view programs and data minimalistically, and as interchangeable. The fourth idiom needs much less syntactic sugar overall, because much of the semantics are implied, but because of its brevity and so lack of the need for capitalization or multipart words at all, might also make

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4316-533: The embedded quotation or word:  ⟨«…“…”…»⟩ . The right-pointing double Guillemets ( ομειωματικά omiomatiká ) ⟨»⟩ serve as Ditto mark . The principal difference is the Greek question mark ⟨;⟩ , which developed a shape so similar to the Latinate semicolon ⟨;⟩ that Unicode decomposes its separate code point identically. The ano teleia middot serves as

4399-460: The first letter of each word is capitalised. If this includes the first letter of the first word (CamelCase, " PowerPoint ", "TheQuick...", etc.), the case is sometimes called upper camel case (or, illustratively, CamelCase ), Pascal case in reference to the Pascal programming language or bumpy case . When the first letter of the first word is lowercase (" iPod ", " eBay ", "theQuickBrownFox..."),

4482-474: The first of two (or occasionally three) successive vowels in Modern Greek to indicate that they are pronounced together as a stressed diphthong. The grave accent ( βαρεῖα , bareîa , 'heavy' or "low", modern varia ) – ' ὰ ' – marked normal or low pitch. The grave was originally written on all unaccented syllables. By the Byzantine period it was only used to replace

4565-428: The first rho and rough breathing on the second one ( διάῤῥοια ). In Latin, this was transcribed as rrh ( diarrhoea or diarrhea ). The coronis ( κορωνίς , korōnís , 'curved') marks a vowel contracted by crasis . It was formerly an apostrophe placed after the contracted vowel, but is now placed over the vowel and is identical to the smooth breathing. Unlike the smooth breathing, it often occurs inside

4648-437: The first-person pronoun "I" and the vocative particle " O ". There are a few pairs of words of different meanings whose only difference is capitalisation of the first letter. Honorifics and personal titles showing rank or prestige are capitalised when used together with the name of the person (for example, "Mr. Smith", "Bishop Gorman", "Professor Moore") or as a direct address, but normally not when used alone and in

4731-421: The grave, and later this was generalized to all words in the orthography. Others—drawing on, for instance, evidence from ancient Greek music —consider that the grave was "linguistically real" and expressed a word-final modification of the acute pitch. In the later development of the language, the ancient pitch accent was replaced by an intensity or stress accent, making the three types of accent identical, and

4814-406: The last of the two vowels of a diphthong (ά, but αί) and indicated pitch patterns in Ancient Greek. The precise nature of the patterns is not certain, but the general nature of each is known. The acute accent ( ὀξεῖα , oxeîa , 'sharp' or "high") – ' ά ' – marked high pitch on a short vowel or rising pitch on a long vowel. The acute is also used on

4897-1255: The left of the letter rather than above it. Unlike other diacritics, the dieresis is kept above letters also in uppercase. Different conventions exist for the handling of the iota subscript . Diacritics can be found above capital letters in medieval texts and in the French typographical tradition up to the 19th century. Πάτερ ἡμῶν ὁ ἐν τοῖς οὐρανοῖς· ἁγιασθήτω τὸ ὄνομά σου· ἐλθέτω ἡ βασιλεία σου· γενηθήτω τὸ θέλημά σου, ὡς ἐν οὐρανῷ, καὶ ἐπὶ τῆς γῆς· τὸν ἄρτον ἡμῶν τὸν ἐπιούσιον δὸς ἡμῖν σήμερον· καὶ ἄφες ἡμῖν τὰ ὀφειλήματα ἡμῶν, ὡς καὶ ἡμεῖς ἀφίεμεν τοῖς ὀφειλέταις ἡμῶν· καὶ μὴ εἰσενέγκῃς ἡμᾶς εἰς πειρασμόν, ἀλλὰ ῥῦσαι ἡμᾶς ἀπὸ τοῦ πονηροῦ. Ἀμήν. Πάτερ ημών ο εν τοις ουρανοίς· αγιασθήτω το όνομά σου· ελθέτω η βασιλεία σου· γενηθήτω το θέλημά σου, ως εν ουρανώ, και επί της γης· τον άρτον ημών τον επιούσιον δος ημίν σήμερον· και άφες ημίν τα οφειλήματα ημών, ως και ημείς αφίεμεν τοις οφειλέταις ημών· και μη εισενέγκης ημάς εις πειρασμόν, αλλά ρύσαι ημάς από του πονηρού. Αμήν. There have been problems in representing polytonic Greek on computers, and in displaying polytonic Greek on computer screens and printouts, but these have largely been overcome by

4980-564: The majuscule scripts used in the Codex Vaticanus Graecus 1209 , or the Book of Kells ). By virtue of their visual impact, this made the term majuscule an apt descriptor for what much later came to be more commonly referred to as uppercase letters. Minuscule refers to lower-case letters . The word is often spelled miniscule , by association with the unrelated word miniature and the prefix mini- . That has traditionally been regarded as

5063-490: The majuscule set has a counterpart in the minuscule set. Some counterpart letters have the same shape, and differ only in size (e.g. ⟨C, c⟩ or ⟨S, s⟩ ), but for others the shapes are different (e.g., ⟨A, a⟩ or ⟨G, g⟩ ). The two case variants are alternative representations of the same letter: they have the same name and pronunciation and are typically treated identically when sorting in alphabetical order . Letter case

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5146-433: The modern written Georgian language does not distinguish case. All other writing systems make no distinction between majuscules and minuscules – a system called unicameral script or unicase . This includes most syllabic and other non-alphabetic scripts. In scripts with a case distinction, lowercase is generally used for the majority of text; capitals are used for capitalisation and emphasis when bold

5229-684: The name, though there is some variation in this. With personal names , this practice can vary (sometimes all words are capitalised, regardless of length or function), but is not limited to English names. Examples include the English names Tamar of Georgia and Catherine the Great , " van " and "der" in Dutch names , " von " and "zu" in German , "de", "los", and "y" in Spanish names , "de" or "d'" in French names , and "ibn" in Arabic names . Some surname prefixes also affect

5312-714: The ones with descenders. In addition, with old-style numerals still used by some traditional or classical fonts, 6 and 8 make up the ascender set, and 3, 4, 5, 7 , and 9 the descender set. A minority of writing systems use two separate cases. Such writing systems are called bicameral scripts . These scripts include the Latin , Cyrillic , Greek , Coptic , Armenian , Glagolitic , Adlam , Warang Citi , Garay , Zaghawa , Osage , Vithkuqi , and Deseret scripts. Languages written in these scripts use letter cases as an aid to clarity. The Georgian alphabet has several variants, and there were attempts to use them as different cases, but

5395-725: The orthography preserves ancient doubled consonants, though these are now pronounced the same as single consonants, except in Cypriot Greek . A digraph is a pair of letters used to write one sound or a combination of sounds that does not correspond to the written letters in sequence. The orthography of Greek includes several digraphs, including various pairs of vowel letters that used to be pronounced as diphthongs but have been shortened to monophthongs in pronunciation. Many of these are characteristic developments of modern Greek, but some were already present in Classical Greek. None of them

5478-465: The polytonic system until 1982, when monotonic spelling was introduced. In some conservative contexts, such as the Church , polytonic spellings are still used. Monotonic orthography, adopted in 1982, replaces the ancient diacritics with just two: the acute accent ( tónos , e.g. ί ), used to mark the stressed syllable in polysyllabic words, and the diaeresis ( dialytiká , e.g. ϊ ), which indicates that

5561-597: The presence or absence of an /h/ in Attic Greek , which had adopted a form of the alphabet in which the letter ⟨Η⟩ ( eta ) was no longer available for this purpose as it was used to represent the long vowel /ɛː/ . During the Hellenistic period (3rd century BC), Aristophanes of Byzantium introduced the breathings—marks of aspiration (the aspiration however being already noted on certain inscriptions, not by means of diacritics but by regular letters or modified letters)—and

5644-467: The rules for "title case" (described in the previous section) are applied to these names, so that non-initial articles, conjunctions, and short prepositions are lowercase, and all other words are uppercase. For example, the short preposition "of" and the article "the" are lowercase in "Steering Committee of the Finance Department". Usually only capitalised words are used to form an acronym variant of

5727-511: The shallow drawers called type cases used to hold the movable type for letterpress printing . Traditionally, the capital letters were stored in a separate shallow tray or "case" that was located above the case that held the small letters. Majuscule ( / ˈ m æ dʒ ə s k juː l / , less commonly / m ə ˈ dʒ ʌ s k juː l / ), for palaeographers , is technically any script whose letters have very few or very short ascenders and descenders, or none at all (for example,

5810-562: The three accents have disappeared, and only a stress accent remains. The iota subscript was a diacritic invented to mark an etymological vowel that was no longer pronounced, so it was dispensed with as well. The transliteration of Greek names follows Latin transliteration of Ancient Greek; modern transliteration is different, and does not distinguish many letters and digraphs that have merged by iotacism . The accents ( Ancient Greek : τόνοι , romanized :  tónoi , singular: τόνος , tónos ) are placed on an accented vowel or on

5893-423: The time of Ancient Greek, each of these marked a significant distinction in pronunciation. Monotonic orthography for Modern Greek uses only two diacritics, the tonos and diaeresis (sometimes used in combination) that have significance in pronunciation, similar to vowels in Spanish . Initial /h/ is no longer pronounced, and so the rough and smooth breathings are no longer necessary. The unique pitch patterns of

5976-561: The tokens, such as function and variable names start to multiply in complex software development , and there is still a need to keep the source code human-readable, Naming conventions make this possible. So for example, a function dealing with matrix multiplication might formally be called: In each case, the capitalisation or lack thereof supports a different function. In the first, FORTRAN compatibility requires case-insensitive naming and short function names. The second supports easily discernible function and argument names and types, within

6059-405: The two cases of the same letter are used; for example, x may denote an element of a set X . The terms upper case and lower case may be written as two consecutive words, connected with a hyphen ( upper-case and lower-case  – particularly if they pre-modify another noun), or as a single word ( uppercase and lowercase ). These terms originated from the common layouts of

6142-425: The typeface, there may be some exceptions, particularly with Q and sometimes J having a descending element; also, various diacritics can add to the normal height of a letter). There is more variation in the height of the minuscules, as some of them have parts higher ( ascenders ) or lower ( descenders ) than the typical size. Normally, b, d, f, h, k, l, t are the letters with ascenders, and g, j, p, q, y are

6225-596: The unit symbol to which it is attached. Lower case is used for all submultiple prefix symbols and the small multiple prefix symbols up to "k" (for kilo , meaning 10 = 1000 multiplier), whereas upper case is used for larger multipliers: Some case styles are not used in standard English, but are common in computer programming , product branding , or other specialised fields. The usage derives from how programming languages are parsed , programmatically. They generally separate their syntactic tokens by simple whitespace , including space characters , tabs , and newlines . When

6308-445: The use of the capitals. Sometimes only vowels are upper case, at other times upper and lower case are alternated, but often it is simply random. The name comes from the sarcastic or ironic implication that it was used in an attempt by the writer to convey their own coolness ( studliness ). It is also used to mock the violation of standard English case conventions by marketers in the naming of computer software packages, even when there

6391-415: The vowel is not part of a digraph. Ancient Greek was written as scripta continua without spacing or interpuncts . Over time, a variety of symbols appeared. A system of dots credited to Aristophanes of Byzantium was developed in the 3rd century BC: a low dot ⟨.⟩ marked an occasion for a short breath after a short phrase, a middot ⟨·⟩ marked an occasion for

6474-426: Was also known as ὀξύβαρυς oxýbarys "high-low" or "acute-grave", and its original form ( ^ ) was from a combining of the acute and grave diacritics. Because of its compound nature, it only appeared on long vowels or diphthongs. The breathings were written over a vowel or ρ. The rough breathing (Ancient Greek: δασὺ πνεῦμα , romanized:  dasù pneûma ; Latin spīritus asper )—' ἁ '—indicates

6557-631: Was gradually standardized with French : the hypodiastole was fully unified with the comma, the comma serves as the decimal point (and in this use is called the hypodiastole ) and it also functions as a silent letter in a handful of Greek words, principally distinguishing ό,τι ( ó,ti , "whatever") from ότι ( óti , "that"). The full stop serves as the thousands separator , and guillemets ( εισαγωγικά isagoyika ) and em-length quotation dashes ( παύλα pavla ) typically serve to indicate direct speech. When quotations are nested, double apostrophes and turned commas are used for

6640-468: Was in Demotic Greek . Following the official adoption of the demotic form of the language, the monotonic orthography was imposed by law in 1982. The latter uses only the acute accent (or sometimes a vertical bar , intentionally distinct from any of the traditional accents) and diaeresis and omits the breathings. This simplification has been criticized on the grounds that polytonic orthography provides

6723-461: Was not used in Classical Greece, these critics argue that modern Greek, as a continuation of Byzantine and post-medieval Greek, should continue their writing conventions. Some textbooks of Ancient Greek for foreigners have retained the breathings, but dropped all the accents in order to simplify the task for the learner. Polytonic Greek uses many different diacritics in several categories. At

6806-630: Was previously common in English as well, mainly in the 17th and 18th centuries), while in Romance and most other European languages the names of the days of the week, the names of the months, and adjectives of nationality, religion, and so on normally begin with a lower-case letter. On the other hand, in some languages it is customary to capitalise formal polite pronouns , for example De , Dem ( Danish ), Sie , Ihnen (German), and Vd or Ud (short for usted in Spanish ). Informal communication, such as texting , instant messaging or

6889-580: Was used above some consonants and vowels in Karamanli Turkish , which was written with the Greek alphabet. Diacritics are written above lower-case letters and at the upper left of capital letters. In the case of a digraph , the second vowel takes the diacritics. A breathing diacritic is written to the left of an acute or grave accent but below a circumflex. Accents are written above a diaeresis or between its two dots. In uppercase (all-caps), accents and breathings are eliminated, in titlecase they appear to

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