110-564: A play is a form of drama that primarily consists of dialogue between characters and is intended for theatrical performance rather than mere reading . The creator of a play is known as a playwright . Plays are staged at various levels, ranging from London's West End and New York City's Broadway – the highest echelons of commercial theatre in the English-speaking world – to regional theatre , community theatre , and academic productions at universities and schools. A stage play
220-411: A dramatis personae : a list introducing the main characters of the play by name, accompanied by brief character descriptions (e.g., " Stephano , a drunken Butler"). In the context of a musical play ( opera , light opera , or musical ), the term " libretto " is commonly used instead of "script". A play is typically divided into acts , akin to chapters in a novel. A concise play may consist of only
330-420: A theatre . The use of "drama" in a more narrow sense to designate a specific type of play dates from the modern era. "Drama" in this sense refers to a play that is neither a comedy nor a tragedy—for example, Zola's Thérèse Raquin (1873) or Chekhov's Ivanov (1887). It is this narrower sense that the film and television industries, along with film studies , adopted to describe " drama " as
440-496: A genre within their respective media. The term " radio drama " has been used in both senses—originally transmitted in a live performance. It may also be used to refer to the more high-brow and serious end of the dramatic output of radio . The enactment of drama in theatre , performed by actors on a stage before an audience , presupposes collaborative modes of production and a collective form of reception. The structure of dramatic texts , unlike other forms of literature ,
550-475: A tragic flaw that leads to their downfall. Tragic plays encompass a wide range of emotions and emphasize intense conflicts. Tragedy was the other original genre of Ancient Greek drama alongside comedy. Examples of tragedies include William Shakespeare's Hamlet , and John Webster 's play The Duchess of Malfi . Historical plays center on real historical events. They can be tragedies or comedies, though often they defy these classifications. History emerged as
660-804: A cast of women and non-binary actors. The Chicago Shakespeare Theater on Navy Pier presented the play in its 1990-1991 season and again in 2003-2004. In 2008, the Hudson Shakespeare Company of New Jersey produced King John as part of their annual Shakespeare in the Parks series. Director Tony White set the action in the medieval era but used a multi-ethnic and gender swapping cast. The roles of Constance and Dauphin Lewis were portrayed by African American actors Tzena Nicole Egblomasse and Jessie Steward and actresses Sharon Pinches and Allison Johnson were used in several male roles. Another notable departure for
770-509: A claim to the English throne as Arthur or John, and Louis agrees to invade England. Hubert is reluctant to blind and kill Prince Arthur and spares him in secret. The English nobility demand Arthur's release. John agrees, but Hubert then tells him that Arthur is dead. The nobles, believing the Prince was murdered by his own uncle, defect to Louis' side. Equally upsetting, and more heartbreaking to John,
880-582: A comic perspective on contemporary events while also making political or social commentary, often highlighting issues such as corruption. Examples of satirical plays are Nikolai Gogol 's The Government Inspector and Aristophanes ' Lysistrata . Satire plays are a distinct and popular form of comedy, often considered a separate genre in themselves. Restoration comedy is a genre that explores relationships between men and women, often delving into risqué themes for its time. The characters in restoration comedies frequently embody various stereotypes, contributing to
990-621: A distinct genre largely due to the influence of William Shakespeare. Examples of historical plays include Friedrich Schiller 's Demetrius and Shakespeare's King John . Ballad opera, a popular theatrical style of its time, marked the earliest form of musicals performed in the American colonies. The first indigenous American musical premiered in Philadelphia in 1767, titled "The Disappointment", which never progressed beyond its initial stages. Modern Western musical theatre gained prominence during
1100-570: A furious Constance denounces King Philip for abandoning the claims of Prince Arthur, Louis and Blanche are married offstage. Cardinal Pandolf arrives from Pope Innocent III bearing a formal accusation. As the latest salvo of the Investiture Controversy , King John is blocking the Pope's chosen Archbishop, Stephen Langton , from the Diocese of Canterbury and has further imposed Caesaropapism upon
1210-406: A general concept or specifically denote a non-musical play. In contrast to a " musical ", which incorporates music , dance , and songs sung by characters, the term "straight play" can be used. For a brief play, the term "playlet" is occasionally employed. The term "script" pertains to the written text of a play. After the front matter , which includes the title and author, it usually begins with
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#17328558089331320-437: A genre of poetry in general, the dramatic mode has been contrasted with the epic and the lyrical modes ever since Aristotle 's Poetics ( c. 335 BC )—the earliest work of dramatic theory . The term "drama" comes from a Greek word meaning "deed" or " act " ( Classical Greek : δρᾶμα , drâma ), which is derived from "I do" ( Classical Greek : δράω , dráō ). The two masks associated with drama represent
1430-558: A herald claiming victory, but Angers' citizens continue to refuse to recognize either claimant because neither army has proven victorious. Philip the Bastard proposes that the armies of England and France unite against Angers. The citizens suggest an alternative proposal: that Philip's son, Louis the Lion, marry John's niece Blanche of Castile. The proposal would give John a stronger claim to the throne while Louis would gain territory for France. Though
1540-593: A hundred million. The self-contained nature of Bhramyoman, with all equipment and even the stage being carried by the troop itself, allows staging shows even in remote villages, giving wider reach. Pioneers of this industry include Achyut Lahkar and Brajanath Sarma . Rabindranath Tagore was a pioneering modern playwright who wrote plays noted for their exploration and questioning of nationalism, identity, spiritualism and material greed. His plays are written in Bengali and include Chitra ( Chitrangada , 1892), The King of
1650-530: A late "hybrid morality" and one of the earliest examples of an English revenge play , brings together the classical story of Orestes with a Vice from the medieval allegorical tradition, alternating comic, slapstick scenes with serious, tragic ones. Also important in this period were the folk dramas of the Mummers Play , performed during the Christmas season. Court masques were particularly popular during
1760-680: A more conservative development over a somewhat longer period of time. Pantomime (informally "panto"), is a type of musical comedy stage production, designed for family entertainment. It was developed in England and is still performed throughout the United Kingdom, generally during the Christmas and New Year season and, to a lesser extent, in other English-speaking countries. Modern pantomime includes songs, gags, slapstick comedy and dancing, employs gender-crossing actors, and combines topical humour with
1870-517: A peace treaty. Starting with his cousin, Philip the Bastard, the English nobility all swear allegiance to John's son Prince Henry , who decrees that his father shall be buried in Worcester , as he himself had wished. Before the curtain falls, Philip the Bastard reflects: King John is closely related to an anonymous history play, The Troublesome Reign of King John (c. 1589), the "masterly construction"
1980-415: A purpose. His aim was to symbolize the subconscious through bodily performances, as he believed language fell short. Artaud considered his plays enactments rather than re-enactments, indicating that he believed his actors were embodying reality, rather than reproducing it. His plays addressed weighty subjects such as patients in psychiatric wards and Nazi Germany. Through these performances, he aimed to "make
2090-504: A serious effort at historical accuracy, inaugurating the 19th century tradition of striving for historical accuracy in Shakespearean production. Other successful productions of the play were staged by William Charles Macready (1842) and Charles Kean (1846). Twentieth century revivals include Robert B. Mantell 's 1915 production (the last production to be staged on Broadway ) and Peter Brook 's 1945 staging, featuring Paul Scofield as
2200-443: A single act, known as a "one-acter". Acts are further divided into scenes . Acts and scenes are numbered, with scene numbering resetting to 1 at the start of each subsequent act (e.g., Act 4, Scene 3 might be followed by Act 5, Scene 1 ). Each scene takes place in a specified location, indicated at the scene's outset in the script (e.g., " Scene 1 . Before the cell of Prospero .") Changing locations usually requires adjusting
2310-576: A single comedy. Ancient Greek comedy is traditionally divided between "old comedy" (5th century BC), "middle comedy" (4th century BC) and "new comedy" (late 4th century to 2nd BC). Following the expansion of the Roman Republic (527–509 BC) into several Greek territories between 270 and 240 BC, Rome encountered Greek drama . From the later years of the republic and by means of the Roman Empire (27 BC–476 AD), theatre spread west across Europe, around
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#17328558089332420-428: A story loosely based on a well-known fairy tale, fable or folk tale . It is a participatory form of theatre, in which the audience is expected to sing along with certain parts of the music and shout out phrases to the performers. Part of the appeal of amateur dramatics pantomime productions is seeing well-known local figures on stage. These stories follow in the tradition of fables and folk tales . Usually, there
2530-542: A story", Dance movements in ballet "are often closely related to everyday forms of physical expression, [so that] there is an expressive quality inherent in nearly all dancing", and this is used to convey both action and emotions; mime is also used. Examples include Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky 's Swan Lake , which tells the story of Odette, a princess turned into a swan by an evil sorcerer's curse, Sergei Prokofiev 's ballet Romeo and Juliet , based on Shakespeare's famous play, and Igor Stravinsky 's Petrushka , which tells
2640-453: A very common character in Restoration comedy). The single play that does most to support the charge of obscenity levelled then and now at Restoration comedy is probably Wycherley's masterpiece The Country Wife (1675), whose title contains a lewd pun and whose notorious "china scene" is a series of sustained double entendres . During the second wave of Restoration comedy in the 1690s,
2750-409: A woman, Rosie Sheehy, cast in the role of King John. The company's 1974–5 production was heavily rewritten by director John Barton , who included material from The Troublesome Reign of King John , John Bale 's King Johan (thought to be Shakespeare's own sources) and other works. The Oregon Shakespeare Festival has staged the play several times, most recently in 2022 in a production with
2860-412: Is A Treatise on Theatre ( Nātyaśāstra ), a compendium whose date of composition is uncertain (estimates range from 200 BC to 200 AD) and whose authorship is attributed to Bharata Muni . The Treatise is the most complete work of dramaturgy in the ancient world. It addresses acting , dance , music , dramatic construction , architecture, costuming , make-up , props , the organisation of companies,
2970-535: Is a dramatic art form that arose during the Renaissance in an attempt to revive the classical Greek drama in which dialogue, dance, and song were combined. Being strongly intertwined with western classical music , the opera has undergone enormous changes in the past four centuries and it is an important form of theatre until this day. Noteworthy is the major influence of the German 19th-century composer Richard Wagner on
3080-404: Is a lesson learned, and with some help from the audience, the hero/heroine saves the day. This kind of play uses stock characters seen in masque and again commedia dell'arte , these characters include the villain (doctore), the clown/servant (Arlechino/Harlequin/buttons), the lovers etc. These plays usually have an emphasis on moral dilemmas , and good always triumphs over evil, this kind of play
3190-415: Is a serious dramatic form that combines drama, music, and dance into a complete aesthetic performance experience. It developed in the 14th and 15th centuries and has its own musical instruments and performance techniques, which were often handed down from father to son. The performers were generally male (for both male and female roles), although female amateurs also perform Nō dramas. Nō drama was supported by
3300-457: Is also very entertaining making it a very effective way of reaching many people. Pantomime has a long theatrical history in Western culture dating back to classical theatre. It developed partly from the 16th century commedia dell'arte tradition of Italy, as well as other European and British stage traditions, such as 17th-century masques and music hall . An important part of the pantomime, until
3410-515: Is directly influenced by this collaborative production and collective reception. Mime is a form of drama where the action of a story is told only through the movement of the body. Drama can be combined with music : the dramatic text in opera is generally sung throughout; as for in some ballets dance "expresses or imitates emotion, character, and narrative action." Musicals include both spoken dialogue and songs ; and some forms of drama have incidental music or musical accompaniment underscoring
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3520-582: Is specifically crafted for performance on stage, distinct from works meant for broadcast or cinematic adaptation. They are presented on a stage before a live audience. Some dramatists, notably George Bernard Shaw , have shown little preference for whether their plays are performed or read. The term "play" encompasses the written texts of playwrights and their complete theatrical renditions. Comedies are plays designed to elicit humor and often feature witty dialogue, eccentric characters, and unusual situations. Comedies cater to diverse age groups. Comedies were one of
3630-577: Is supported by the Duke of Austria, who is alleged to have killed Richard the Lionheart. The English Army arrives. Queen Eleanor then trades insults with Constance, Arthur's mother. Kings Philip and John argue their claims in front of Angers' citizens, but to no avail: their representative says that they will support the rightful king, whoever that turns out to be upon the battlefield. The French and English armies clash, but no clear victor emerges. Each army dispatches
3740-593: Is the Easter trope Whom do you Seek? (Quem-Quaeritis) ( c. 925 ). Two groups would sing responsively in Latin , though no impersonation of characters was involved. By the 11th century, it had spread through Europe to Russia , Scandinavia , and Italy ; excluding Islamic-era Spain . In the 10th century, Hrosvitha wrote six plays in Latin modeled on Terence 's comedies, but which treated religious subjects. Her plays are
3850-429: Is the Latin plural of exit, meaning "[they] leave"). Additional stage directions may dictate how lines should be delivered, such as "[Aside]" or "[Sings]", or specify sounds to be produced off-stage, like "[Thunder]". Drama Drama is the specific mode of fiction represented in performance : a play , opera , mime , ballet , etc., performed in a theatre , or on radio or television . Considered as
3960-438: Is the news of his mother's death, along with that of Lady Constance. The Bastard reports that the monasteries are unhappy about John's attempt to steal their lands and gold. Hubert has a furious argument with John, during which he reveals that Arthur is still alive. John, delighted, sends him to report the news to the nobles. Arthur dies after jumping from a castle wall during an escape attempt. The nobles find his body, believe he
4070-459: Is the oldest surviving drama, although when it won first prize at the City Dionysia competition in 472 BC, he had been writing plays for more than 25 years. The competition (" agon ") for tragedies may have begun as early as 534 BC; official records (" didaskaliai ") begin from 501 BC when the satyr play was introduced. Tragic dramatists were required to present a tetralogy of plays (though
4180-464: Is used as a synonym of Restoration comedy. After public theatre had been banned by the Puritan regime, the re-opening of the theatres in 1660 with the Restoration of Charles II signalled a renaissance of English drama . Restoration comedy is known for its sexual explicitness, urbane, cosmopolitan wit , up-to-the-minute topical writing, and crowded and bustling plots. Its dramatists stole freely from
4290-479: The BBC Television Shakespeare series of adaptations. George Orwell specifically praised the play in 1942 for its view of politics: "When I had read it as a boy it seemed to me archaic, something dug out of a history book and not having anything to do with our own time. Well, when I saw it acted, what with its intrigues and doublecrossings, non-aggression pacts , quislings , people changing sides in
4400-693: The Catholic Church in England . John defies the Holy See and vows that "No Italian priest shall tithe or toll in our dominions", whereupon the Cardinal declares him excommunicated and invokes the Papal deposing power to remove him as King. Pandolf demands that the French king renounce the new treaty, though Philip is hesitant, having just established familial ties to King John. Cardinal Pandolf points out that Philip's links to
4510-580: The Stratford Shakespeare Festival . Herbert Beerbohm Tree made a silent film version in 1899 entitled King John . It is a short film consisting of the King's death throes in Act ;V, Scene vii and is the earliest surviving film adaptation of a Shakespearean play. King John has been produced for television twice: in 1951 with Donald Wolfit and in 1984 with Leonard Rossiter as part of
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4620-478: The Takarazuka Revue . The Life and Death of King John The Life and Death of King John , often shortened to King John , a history play by William Shakespeare , dramatises the reign of John, King of England (ruled 1199–1216), the son of Henry II of England and Eleanor of Aquitaine and the father of Henry III of England . It is believed to have been written in the mid-1590s, but it
4730-502: The Troublesome Reign antedates King John by a period of several years; and that the skilful plotting of the Troublesome Reign is neither unparalleled in the period, nor proof of Shakespeare's involvement. Shakespeare derived from Holinshed's Chronicles certain verbal collocations and points of action. Honigmann discerned in the play the influence of John Foxe 's Acts and Monuments , Matthew Paris ' Historia Maior , and
4840-474: The chorus and its leader (" coryphaeus "), who were a traditional part of the performance of non-dramatic poetry ( dithyrambic , lyric and epic ). Only a small fraction of the work of five dramatists, however, has survived to this day: we have a small number of complete texts by the tragedians Aeschylus , Sophocles and Euripides , and the comic writers Aristophanes and, from the late 4th century, Menander . Aeschylus' historical tragedy The Persians
4950-488: The period of colonial rule under the British Empire , from the mid-19th century until the mid-20th. The earliest-surviving fragments of Sanskrit drama date from the 1st century AD. The wealth of archeological evidence from earlier periods offers no indication of the existence of a tradition of theatre. The ancient Vedas ( hymns from between 1500 and 1000 BC that are among the earliest examples of literature in
5060-461: The satyr play . Their origins remain obscure, though by the 5th century BC, they were institutionalised in competitions held as part of festivities celebrating the god Dionysus . Historians know the names of many ancient Greek dramatists, not least Thespis , who is credited with the innovation of an actor (" hypokrites ") who speaks (rather than sings) and impersonates a character (rather than speaking in his own person), while interacting with
5170-409: The scenery , which takes time – even if it's just a painted backdrop – and can only occur between scenes. Aside from the text spoken by actors, a script includes "stage directions" (distinct from the term's use in blocking , which involves arranging actors on stage). Common stage directions include the entrances and exits of actors, e.g., "[ Exeunt Caliban, Stephano , and Trinculo .]" ( Exeunt
5280-454: The tragedies and comedies that Livius Andronicus wrote from 240 BC. Five years later, Gnaeus Naevius also began to write drama. No plays from either writer have survived. While both dramatists composed in both genres , Andronicus was most appreciated for his tragedies and Naevius for his comedies; their successors tended to specialise in one or the other, which led to a separation of the subsequent development of each type of drama. By
5390-550: The "softer" comedies of William Congreve and John Vanbrugh set out to appeal to more socially diverse audience with a strong middle-class element, as well as to female spectators. The comic focus shifts from young lovers outwitting the older generation to the vicissitudes of marital relations. In Congreve's Love for Love (1695) and The Way of the World (1700), the give-and-take set pieces of couples testing their attraction for one another have mutated into witty prenuptial debates on
5500-433: The 15th to the 19th centuries. The Bhakti movement was influential in performances in several regions. Apart from regional languages, Assam saw the rise of Vaishnavite drama in an artificially mixed literary language called Brajavali . A distinct form of one-act plays called Ankia Naat developed in the works of Sankardev , a particular presentation of which is called Bhaona . Modern Indian theatre developed during
5610-498: The Bastard. In the Victorian era , King John was one of Shakespeare's most frequently staged plays, in part because its spectacle and pageantry were congenial to Victorian audiences. King John , however, has decreased in popularity: it is now one of Shakespeare's least-known plays and stagings of it are very rare. It has been staged four times on Broadway, the last time in 1915. It has also been staged five times from 1953 to 2014 at
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#17328558089335720-546: The Dark Chamber ( Raja , 1910), The Post Office ( Dakghar , 1913), and Red Oleander ( Raktakarabi , 1924). Girish Karnad is a noted playwright, who has written a number of plays that use history and mythology, to critique and problematize ideas and ideals that are of contemporary relevance. Karnad's numerous plays such as Tughlaq , Hayavadana , Taledanda , and Naga-Mandala are significant contributions to Indian drama. Vijay Tendulkar and Mahesh Dattani are amongst
5830-565: The English nobility swears allegiance to Louis, Pandolf arrived and explains that John has renounced his claims of supreme authority over the English Church, but Prince Louis vows to continue his invasion anyway and seize the Crown of England for himself. The Bastard arrives with an English army and threatens Louis, but to no avail. War breaks out with substantial losses on each side, including Louis' reinforcements, who are shipwrecked and drowned during
5940-751: The Girl ( c. 1300 ), one of the earliest known in English, seems to be the closest in tone and form to the contemporaneous French farces , such as The Boy and the Blind Man . Many plays survive from France and Germany in the late Middle Ages , when some type of religious drama was performed in nearly every European country. Many of these plays contained comedy , devils , villains , and clowns . In England, trade guilds began to perform vernacular " mystery plays ", which were composed of long cycles of many playlets or "pageants", of which four are extant : York (48 plays), Chester (24), Wakefield (32) and
6050-499: The Latin Wakefield Chronicle , but Muir demonstrated that this apparent influence could be explained by the priority of the Troublesome Reign , which contains similar or identical matter. The date of composition is unknown, but must lie somewhere between 1587, the year of publication of the second, revised edition of Holinshed's Chronicles , upon which Shakespeare drew for this and other plays, and 1598, when King John
6160-575: The Mediterranean and reached England; Roman theatre was more varied, extensive and sophisticated than that of any culture before it. While Greek drama continued to be performed throughout the Roman period, the year 240 BC marks the beginning of regular Roman drama . From the beginning of the empire, however, interest in full-length drama declined in favour of a broader variety of theatrical entertainments. The first important works of Roman literature were
6270-588: The Plantagenet. Afterwards, learning Philip has renounced his inheritance, Lady Faulconbridge reluctantly confirms Queen Eleanor's suspicions about her son's secret parentage to him. As part of his efforts to back regime change in the Angevin Empire , King Philip and his forces besiege the Angevin walled city of Angers , threatening to put them to the sack unless the citizens accept Prince Arthur as their King. Philip
6380-605: The Roof . This theatrical style originated in the 1940s when Antonin Artaud hypothesized about the effects of expressing through the body rather than "by socially conditioned thought". In 1946, he wrote a preface to his works in which he explained how he came to write as he did. Foremost, Artaud lacked trust in language as an effective means of communication. Plays within the theatre of cruelty genre exhibit abstract conventions and content. Artaud intended his plays to have an impact and achieve
6490-537: The Vatican are older and firmer. Battle breaks out; the Duke of Austria is slain and beheaded by the Bastard in revenge for his father's death; and both Angers and Prince Arthur are captured by John's army. Queen Eleanor is left in charge of the Angevin Empire in France, while the Bastard is sent to extort funds from English monasteries. John secretly orders Hubert to kill Arthur. Pandolf informs Louis that he now has as strong
6600-604: The Victorian era, with key structural elements established by the works of Gilbert and Sullivan in Britain and Harrigan and Hart in America. By the 1920s, theatre styles began to crystallize, granting composers the autonomy to create every song within a play. These new musicals adhered to specific conventions, often featuring thirty-two-bar songs. The Great Depression prompted many artists to transition from Broadway to Hollywood, transforming
6710-479: The atmosphere at Court and celebrated with frankness an aristocratic macho lifestyle of unremitting sexual intrigue and conquest. The Earl of Rochester , real-life Restoration rake, courtier and poet, is flatteringly portrayed in Etherege's The Man of Mode (1676) as a riotous, witty, intellectual, and sexually irresistible aristocrat, a template for posterity's idea of the glamorous Restoration rake (actually never
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#17328558089336820-603: The attribution as extremely unlikely to be legitimate. King John is one of only two plays by Shakespeare that are entirely written in verse, the other being Richard II . The earliest documented performance dates from 1737, when John Rich staged a production at the Theatre Royal, Drury Lane . In 1745, the year of the Jacobite rebellion , competing productions were staged by Colley Cibber at Covent Garden and David Garrick at Drury Lane. Charles Kemble 's 1823 production made
6930-418: The audience could personally connect the words they heard with their own bodies. This approach made his work more intimate and individualized, which he believed would enhance its effectiveness in conveying the experience of suffering. This genre typically presents metaphysical portrayals of existential questions and dilemmas. Theatre of the absurd rejects rationality, embracing the inevitability of plunging into
7040-765: The audience's own awareness of the characters' motives. The director was Karin Coonrod . In 2012, Bard on the Beach in Vancouver, British Columbia put on a production. It was also performed as part of the 2013 season at the Utah Shakespeare Festival , recipient of America's Outstanding Regional Theatre Tony Award (2000), presented by the American Theatre Wing and the League of American Theatres and Producers . The play
7150-894: The audience, competitions, and offers a mythological account of the origin of theatre. Its drama is regarded as the highest achievement of Sanskrit literature . It utilised stock characters , such as the hero ( nayaka ), heroine ( nayika ), or clown ( vidusaka ). Actors may have specialised in a particular type. It was patronized by the kings as well as village assemblies. Famous early playwrights include Bhasa , Kalidasa (famous for Urvashi, Won by Valour , Malavika and Agnimitra , and The Recognition of Shakuntala ), Śudraka (famous for The Little Clay Cart ), Asvaghosa , Daṇḍin , and Emperor Harsha (famous for Nagananda , Ratnavali , and Priyadarsika ). Śakuntalā (in English translation) influenced Goethe's Faust (1808–1832). A distinct form of theatre has developed in India where
7260-512: The beginning of the 2nd century BC, drama was firmly established in Rome and a guild of writers ( collegium poetarum ) had been formed. The Roman comedies that have survived are all fabula palliata (comedies based on Greek subjects) and come from two dramatists: Titus Maccius Plautus (Plautus) and Publius Terentius Afer (Terence). In re-working the Greek originals, the Roman comic dramatists abolished
7370-414: The causes of suffering audible". Audiences who were taken aback by what they saw initially responded negatively. Much of his work was even banned in France during that time. Artaud dismissed the notion that conventional theatre of his era could provide audiences with a cathartic experience that would aid the healing process after World War II. For this reason, he gravitated towards radio-based theatre, where
7480-424: The contemporary French and Spanish stage, from English Jacobean and Caroline plays, and even from Greek and Roman classical comedies, combining the various plotlines in adventurous ways. Resulting differences of tone in a single play were appreciated rather than frowned on, as the audience prized "variety" within as well as between plays. Restoration comedy peaked twice. The genre came to spectacular maturity in
7590-580: The depths of the human condition. Rather than explicitly discussing these issues, theatre of the absurd embodies them. This leaves the audience to engage in personal discussion and contemplation of the play's content. A central aspect of theatre of the absurd is the deliberate contradiction between language and action. Often, the dialogue between characters starkly contrasts with their actions. Prominent playwrights within this genre include Samuel Beckett , Jean-Paul Sartre , Eugène Ionesco , Arthur Adamov , and Jean Genet . The term "play" can encompass either
7700-453: The dialogue ( melodrama and Japanese Nō , for example). Closet drama is a form that is intended to be read, rather than performed. In improvisation , the drama does not pre-exist the moment of performance; performers devise a dramatic script spontaneously before an audience. Western drama originates in classical Greece . The theatrical culture of the city-state of Athens produced three genres of drama: tragedy , comedy , and
7810-520: The drama of exemplary morality. The pivotal and innovative contributions of the 19th-century Norwegian dramatist Henrik Ibsen and the 20th-century German theatre practitioner Bertolt Brecht dominate modern drama; each inspired a tradition of imitators, which include many of the greatest playwrights of the modern era. The works of both playwrights are, in their different ways, both modernist and realist , incorporating formal experimentation , meta-theatricality , and social critique . In terms of
7920-446: The early Elizabethan era in England. Characters were often used to represent different ethical ideals. Everyman , for example, includes such figures as Good Deeds, Knowledge and Strength, and this characterisation reinforces the conflict between good and evil for the audience. The Castle of Perseverance ( c. 1400 –1425) depicts an archetypal figure's progress from birth through to death. Horestes ( c. 1567 ),
8030-413: The early nineteenth century Paris , Jean-Gaspard Deburau solidified the many attributes that we have come to know in modern times, including the silent figure in whiteface. Jacques Copeau , strongly influenced by Commedia dell'arte and Japanese Noh theatre, used masks in the training of his actors. Étienne Decroux , a pupil of his, was highly influenced by this and started exploring and developing
8140-504: The entire crew travels performing plays from place to place, with makeshift stages and equipment, particularly in the eastern parts of the country. Jatra ( Bengali for "travel"), originating in the Vaishnavite movement of Chaitanya Mahaprabhu in Bengal , is a tradition that follows this format. Vaishnavite plays in the neighbouring state of Assam, pioneered by Srimanta Sankardeva , takes
8250-583: The essence of Broadway musicals. A similar shift occurred in the 1960s, characterized by a scarcity of composers and a decline in the vibrancy and entertainment value of musicals. Entering the 1990s, the number of original Broadway musicals dwindled, with many productions adapting movies or novels. Musicals employ songs to advance the narrative and convey the play's themes, typically accompanied by choreography. Musical productions can be visually intricate, showcasing elaborate sets and actor performances. Examples of musical productions include Wicked and Fiddler on
8360-402: The eve of marriage, as in the latter's famous "Proviso" scene. Vanbrugh's The Provoked Wife (1697) has a light touch and more humanly recognisable characters, while The Relapse (1696) has been admired for its throwaway wit and the characterisation of Lord Foppington, an extravagant and affected burlesque fop with a dark side. The tolerance for Restoration comedy even in its modified form
8470-464: The first known to be composed by a female dramatist and the first identifiable Western drama of the post-Classical era. Later, Hildegard of Bingen wrote a musical drama, Ordo Virtutum ( c. 1155 ). One of the most famous of the early secular plays is the courtly pastoral Robin and Marion , written in the 13th century in French by Adam de la Halle . The Interlude of the Student and
8580-526: The forms of Ankia Naat and Bhaona . These, along with Western influences, have inspired the development of modern mobile theatre, known in Assamese as Bhramyoman , in Assam. Modern Bhramyoman stages everything from Hindu mythology to adaptations of Western classics and Hollywood movies , and make use of modern techniques, such as live visual effects. Assamese mobile theatre is estimated to be an industry worth
8690-485: The genre's consistent themes. This similarity also led to a homogeneity of message and content across most plays in this genre. Despite this, restoration comedy's exploration of unspoken aspects of relationships fostered a more intimate connection between the audience and the performance. Restoration comedy's origins are rooted in Molière 's theories of comedy, although they differ in tone and intention. The misalignment between
8800-517: The genre's morals and the prevailing ethics of its era is a point of interest when studying restoration comedy. This dissonance might explain why, despite its initial success, restoration comedy did not endure through the 17th century. Nonetheless, contemporary theatre theorists have been increasingly intrigued by restoration comedy as they explore performance styles with unique conventions. Tragedies delve into darker themes such as death and disaster. The central character, or protagonist , often possesses
8910-631: The government, and particularly the military, with many military commanders having their own troupes and sometimes performing themselves. It is still performed in Japan today. Kyōgen is the comic counterpart to Nō drama. It concentrates more on dialogue and less on music, although Nō instrumentalists sometimes appear also in Kyōgen. Kabuki drama, developed from the 17th century, is another comic form, which includes dance. Modern theatrical and musical drama has also developed in Japan in forms such as shingeki and
9020-556: The individual works were not necessarily connected by story or theme), which usually consisted of three tragedies and one satyr play (though exceptions were made, as with Euripides' Alcestis in 438 BC). Comedy was officially recognized with a prize in the competition from 487 to 486 BC. Five comic dramatists competed at the City Dionysia (though during the Peloponnesian War this may have been reduced to three), each offering
9130-411: The infelicitous expression of which led Peter Alexander to argue that Shakespeare's was the earlier play. E. A. J. Honigmann elaborated these arguments, both in his preface to the second Arden edition of King John , and in his 1982 monograph on Shakespeare's influence on his contemporaries. The majority view, however, first advanced in a rebuttal of Honigmann's views by Kenneth Muir , holds that
9240-634: The late 19th century, was the harlequinade . Outside Britain the word "pantomime" is usually used to mean miming , rather than the theatrical form discussed here. Mime is a theatrical medium where the action of a story is told through the movement of the body, without the use of speech. Performance of mime occurred in Ancient Greece , and the word is taken from a single masked dancer called Pantomimus , although their performances were not necessarily silent. In Medieval Europe, early forms of mime, such as mummer plays and later dumbshows , evolved. In
9350-500: The lives of past kings, enhancing the image of the Tudor monarchy. Authors of this period drew some of their storylines from Greek mythology and Roman mythology or from the plays of eminent Roman playwrights such as Plautus and Terence . Restoration comedy refers to English comedies written and performed in England during the Restoration period from 1660 to 1710. Comedy of manners
9460-660: The major Indian playwrights of the 20th century. Mohan Rakesh in Hindi and Danish Iqbal in Urdu are considered architects of new age Drama. Mohan Rakesh's Aadhe Adhoore and Danish Iqbal's Dara Shikoh are considered modern classics. Chinese theatre has a long and complex history. Today it is often called Chinese opera although this normally refers specifically to the popular form known as Beijing opera and Kunqu ; there have been many other forms of theatre in China, such as zaju . Japanese Nō drama
9570-543: The mid-1670s with an extravaganza of aristocratic comedies. Twenty lean years followed this short golden age, although the achievement of the first professional female playwright, Aphra Behn , in the 1680s is an important exception. In the mid-1690s, a brief second Restoration comedy renaissance arose, aimed at a wider audience. The comedies of the golden 1670s and 1690s peak times are significantly different from each other. The unsentimental or "hard" comedies of John Dryden , William Wycherley , and George Etherege reflected
9680-469: The middle of a battle, and what-not, it seemed to me extraordinarily up to date." The Royal Shakespeare Company based in Stratford-upon-Avon presented three productions of King John : in 2006 directed by Josie Rourke as part of their Complete Works Festival, in 2012 directed by Maria Aberg who cast a woman, Pippa Nixon, in the role of the Bastard, and in 2020, directed by Eleanor Rhode and with
9790-615: The mother to King John, notes that that Philip looks very similar to her late son King Richard the Lionheart . Queen Eleanor accordingly suggests that Philip renounce his claim to the Faulconbridge estates in exchange for a non-inheriting position within the House of Plantagenet and a knighthood . After mocking Robert Faulconbridge's ugliness at length, Philip enthusiastically agrees and Queen Eleanor praises Philip as possessing "the very spirit of Plantagenet". King John knights Philip as Sir Richard
9900-414: The opera tradition. In his view, there was no proper balance between music and theatre in the operas of his time, because the music seemed to be more important than the dramatic aspects in these works. To restore the connection with the classical drama, he entirely renewed the operatic form to emphasize the equal importance of music and drama in works that he called " music dramas ". Chinese opera has seen
10010-502: The original two genres of Ancient Greek drama, the other being tragedies. Examples of comedies include William Shakespeare 's A Midsummer Night's Dream , and in the modern day, The Book of Mormon . Farces constitute a nonsensical subgenre of comedy that frequently involve humour. They often rely on exaggerated situations and slapstick comedy. An example of a farce is William Shakespeare 's play The Comedy of Errors , or Mark Twain 's work Is He Dead? . Satirical plays provide
10120-476: The possibilities of mime and refined corporeal mime into a highly sculptural form, taking it outside of the realms of naturalism . Jacques Lecoq contributed significantly to the development of mime and physical theatre with his training methods. While some ballet emphasises "the lines and patterns of movement itself" dramatic dance "expresses or imitates emotion, character, and narrative action". Such ballets are theatrical works that have characters and "tell
10230-429: The production is the depiction of King John himself, often portrayed as an ineffectual king. Actor Jimmy Pravasilis portrayed John as a headstrong monarch sticking to his guns on his right to rule, whose unwillingness to compromise caused his downfall. New York's Theater for a New Audience presented a "remarkable" in-the-round production in 2000, emphasising Faulconbridge's introduction to court realpolitik to develop
10340-454: The reign of Henry VIII . One of the great flowerings of drama in England occurred in the 16th and 17th centuries. Many of these plays were written in verse, particularly iambic pentameter . In addition to Shakespeare, such authors as Christopher Marlowe , Thomas Middleton , and Ben Jonson were prominent playwrights during this period. As in the medieval period , historical plays celebrated
10450-490: The role of the chorus in dividing the drama into episodes and introduced musical accompaniment to its dialogue (between one-third of the dialogue in the comedies of Plautus and two-thirds in those of Terence). The action of all scenes is set in the exterior location of a street and its complications often follow from eavesdropping . Plautus, the more popular of the two, wrote between 205 and 184 BC and twenty of his comedies survive, of which his farces are best known; he
10560-401: The sea crossing. Many English nobles return to John's side after a dying French nobleman, Melun, warns them that Louis plans to kill them all after his victory. John is poisoned offstage by a monk, whose loyalties and motivations are left unexplained. His nobles gather around him as he dies. The Bastard plans a second assault on Louis' forces, until he learns that Cardinal Pandolf has negotiated
10670-507: The so-called " N-Town " (42). The Second Shepherds' Play from the Wakefield cycle is a farcical story of a stolen sheep that its protagonist , Mak, tries to pass off as his new-born child asleep in a crib; it ends when the shepherds from whom he has stolen are summoned to the Nativity of Jesus . Morality plays (a modern term) emerged as a distinct dramatic form around 1400 and flourished in
10780-520: The story of the loves and jealousies of three puppets. Creative drama includes dramatic activities and games used primarily in educational settings with children. Its roots in the United States began in the early 1900s. Winifred Ward is considered to be the founder of creative drama in education, establishing the first academic use of drama in Evanston, Illinois. . The earliest form of Indian drama
10890-463: The traditional generic division between comedy and tragedy . In English (as was the analogous case in many other European languages), the word play or game (translating the Anglo-Saxon pleġan or Latin ludus ) was the standard term for dramas until William Shakespeare 's time—just as its creator was a play-maker rather than a dramatist and the building was a play-house rather than
11000-663: The traditional theoretical discourse of genre, Ibsen's work has been described as the culmination of " liberal tragedy ", while Brecht's has been aligned with an historicised comedy. Other important playwrights of the modern era include Antonin Artaud , August Strindberg , Anton Chekhov , Frank Wedekind , Maurice Maeterlinck , Federico García Lorca , Eugene O'Neill , Luigi Pirandello , George Bernard Shaw , Ernst Toller , Vladimir Mayakovsky , Arthur Miller , Tennessee Williams , Jean Genet , Eugène Ionesco , Samuel Beckett , Harold Pinter , Friedrich Dürrenmatt , Dario Fo , Heiner Müller , and Caryl Churchill . Western opera
11110-506: The world) contain no hint of it (although a small number are composed in a form of dialogue ) and the rituals of the Vedic period do not appear to have developed into theatre. The Mahābhāṣya by Patañjali contains the earliest reference to what may have been the seeds of Sanskrit drama. This treatise on grammar from 140 BC provides a feasible date for the beginnings of theatre in India . The major source of evidence for Sanskrit theatre
11220-408: Was admired for the wit of his dialogue and his use of a variety of poetic meters . All of the six comedies that Terence wrote between 166 and 160 BC have survived; the complexity of his plots, in which he often combined several Greek originals, was sometimes denounced, but his double-plots enabled a sophisticated presentation of contrasting human behaviour. No early Roman tragedy survives, though it
11330-472: Was based on Euripides ' Hippolytus . Historians do not know who wrote the only extant example of the fabula praetexta (tragedies based on Roman subjects), Octavia , but in former times it was mistakenly attributed to Seneca due to his appearance as a character in the tragedy. Beginning in the early Middle Ages , churches staged dramatised versions of biblical events, known as liturgical dramas , to enliven annual celebrations. The earliest example
11440-469: Was highly regarded in its day; historians know of three early tragedians— Quintus Ennius , Marcus Pacuvius , and Lucius Accius . From the time of the empire, the work of two tragedians survives—one is an unknown author, while the other is the Stoic philosopher Seneca . Nine of Seneca's tragedies survive, all of which are fabula crepidata (tragedies adapted from Greek originals); his Phaedra , for example,
11550-718: Was mentioned among Shakespeare's plays in the Palladis Tamia of Francis Meres . The editors of the Oxford Shakespeare conclude from the play's incidence of rare vocabulary, use of colloquialisms in verse, pause patterns, and infrequent rhyming that the play was composed in 1596, after Richard II but before Henry IV, Part I . King John was first printed in 1623 as part of the First Folio . A play titled The Troublesome Reign of King John attributed to Shakespeare first printed in 1591 exists, but modern scholars dismiss
11660-451: Was murdered by John, and refuse to believe Hubert's entreaties. A defeated John surrenders his crown to Pandolf, who reverses John's excommunication and gives the crown back in return for the restored independence of the English Church from control by the State. John orders the Bastard, one of his few remaining loyal subjects, to lead the English army against the invading forces from France. While
11770-541: Was not published until 1623, when it appeared in the First Folio . King John receives an ambassador from France who demands with a threat of war that he renounce his throne in favour of his nephew, Arthur, whom the French King Philip believes to be the rightful heir to the throne under primogeniture . John adjudicates an inheritance dispute between Robert Faulconbridge and his older brother Philip , whom Robert accuses of illegitimacy . Queen Eleanor of Aquitaine ,
11880-495: Was presented at Shakespeare's Globe , directed by James Dacre , as part of the summer season 2015 in the 800th anniversary year of Magna Carta . A co-production with Royal & Derngate , this production also played in Salisbury Cathedral , Temple Church and The Holy Sepulchre, Northampton . The Rose Theatre , Kingston upon Thames , Surrey hosted Sir Trevor Nunn 's direction of the play during May and June 2016, in
11990-430: Was running out by the end of the 17th century, as public opinion turned to respectability and seriousness even faster than the playwrights did. At the much-anticipated all-star première in 1700 of The Way of the World , Congreve's first comedy for five years, the audience showed only moderate enthusiasm for that subtle and almost melancholy work. The comedy of sex and wit was about to be replaced by sentimental comedy and
12100-553: Was the Sanskrit drama . Between the 1st century AD and the 10th was a period of relative peace in the history of India during which hundreds of plays were written. With the Islamic conquests that began in the 10th and 11th centuries, theatre was discouraged or forbidden entirely. Later, in an attempt to re-assert indigenous values and ideas, village theatre was encouraged across the subcontinent, developing in various regional languages from
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