76-575: See text Pilularia or pillworts is a genus of unusual ferns of family Marsileaceae distributed in North Temperate regions, Ethiopian mountains, and the southern hemisphere in Australia , New Zealand , and western South America . Depending on the taxonomic revisor, the genus contains between 3 and 6 species of small plants with thread-like leaves, and creeping rhizomes. The sporangia are borne in spherical sporocarps ("pills") which form in
152-734: A class Equisetopsida ( Embryophyta ) encompassing all land plants. This is referred to as Equisetopsida sensu lato to distinguish it from the narrower use to refer to horsetails alone, Equisetopsida sensu stricto . They placed the lycopods into subclass Lycopodiidae and the ferns, keeping the term monilophytes, into five subclasses, Equisetidae, Ophioglossidae, Psilotidae, Marattiidae and Polypodiidae, by dividing Smith's Psilotopsida into its two orders and elevating them to subclass (Ophioglossidae and Psilotidae). Christenhusz et al. (2011) followed this use of subclasses but recombined Smith's Psilotopsida as Ophioglossidae, giving four subclasses of ferns again. Christenhusz and Chase (2014) developed
228-620: A family name. Many chose a name based on some geographical feature associated with their residence or occupation, and as nearly three-fourths of the population were farmers, many made family names using ta . Some common examples are Tanaka ( 田中 ), literally meaning "in the paddy field;" Nakata ( 中田 ), "middle paddy field;" Kawada (川田), "river paddy field;" and Furuta ( 古田 ), "old paddy field." In recent years, rice consumption in Japan has fallen and many rice farmers are increasingly elderly. The government has subsidized rice production since
304-628: A few species (e.g., Cyathea brownii on Norfolk Island and Cyathea medullaris in New Zealand ). Roots are underground non-photosynthetic structures that take up water and nutrients from soil . They are always fibrous and are structurally very similar to the roots of seed plants. As in all vascular plants , the sporophyte is the dominant phase or generation in the life cycle . The gametophytes of ferns, however, are very different from those of seed plants. They are free-living and resemble liverworts , whereas those of seed plants develop within
380-483: A new classification of ferns and lycopods. They used the term Polypodiophyta for the ferns, subdivided like Smith et al. into four groups (shown with equivalents in the Smith system), with 21 families, approximately 212 genera and 10,535 species; This was a considerable reduction in the number of families from the 37 in the system of Smith et al., since the approach was more that of lumping rather than splitting. For instance
456-496: A newly irrigated paddy field, especially those made during or after the Edo period , may be called Nitta or Shinden (both 新田 ), "new paddy field." In some places, lakes and marshes were likened to a paddy field and were named with ta , like Hakkōda ( 八甲田 ). Today, many family names have ta as a component, a practice which can be largely attributed to a government edict in the early Meiji Period which required all citizens to have
532-843: A number of families were reduced to subfamilies. Subsequently, a consensus group was formed, the Pteridophyte Phylogeny Group (PPG), analogous to the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group , publishing their first complete classification in November 2016. They recognise ferns as a class, the Polypodiopsida, with four subclasses as described by Christenhusz and Chase, and which are phylogenetically related as in this cladogram: Equisetales Ophioglossales Psilotales Marattiales Osmundales Hymenophyllales Gleicheniales Schizaeales Paddy field A paddy field
608-462: A protective coating called an indusium . The arrangement of the sporangia is important in classification. In monomorphic ferns, the fertile and sterile leaves look morphologically the same, and both are able to photosynthesize. In hemidimorphic ferns, just a portion of the fertile leaf is different from the sterile leaves. In dimorphic (holomorphic) ferns, the two types of leaves are morphologically distinct . The fertile leaves are much narrower than
684-468: A sense, it has been unable to cope with population growth and other rice economies which utilized fertilizers. Rice is now grown in all the three seasons of Myanmar, though primarily in the Monsoon season – from June to October. Rice grown in the delta areas relies heavily on the river water and sedimented minerals from the northern mountains, whilst the rice grown in the central regions require irrigation from
760-430: A short-lived structure anchored to the ground by rhizoids called gametophyte which produce gametes. When a mature fertile frond bears sori, and spores are released, the spores will settle on the soil and send out rhizoids , while it develops into a prothallus . The prothallus bears spherical antheridia ( s.g. antheridium ) which produce antherozoids (male gametophytes) and archegonia ( s.g. archegonium ) which release
836-812: A significant input to the nitrogen nutrition of rice paddies . They also play certain roles in folklore. Extant ferns are herbaceous perennials and most lack woody growth. When woody growth is present, it is found in the stem. Their foliage may be deciduous or evergreen , and some are semi-evergreen depending on the climate. Like the sporophytes of seed plants, those of ferns consist of stems, leaves and roots. Ferns differ from spermatophytes in that they reproduce by spores rather than having flowers and producing seeds. However, they also differ from spore-producing bryophytes in that, like seed plants, they are polysporangiophytes , their sporophytes branching and producing many sporangia. Also unlike bryophytes, fern sporophytes are free-living and only briefly dependent on
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#1733105282395912-568: A single oosphere . The antherozoid swims up the archegonium and fertilize the oosphere, resulting in a zygote, which will grow into a separate sporophyte, while the gametophyte shortly persists as a free-living plant. Carl Linnaeus (1753) originally recognized 15 genera of ferns and fern allies, classifying them in class Cryptogamia in two groups, Filices (e.g. Polypodium ) and Musci (mosses). By 1806 this had increased to 38 genera, and has progressively increased since ( see Schuettpelz et al (2018) ). Ferns were traditionally classified in
988-493: Is polyphyletic , the term fern allies should be abandoned, except in a historical context. More recent genetic studies demonstrated that the Lycopodiophyta are more distantly related to other vascular plants , having radiated evolutionarily at the base of the vascular plant clade , while both the whisk ferns and horsetails are as closely related to leptosporangiate ferns as the ophioglossoid ferns and Marattiaceae . In fact,
1064-404: Is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Fern The ferns ( Polypodiopsida or Polypodiophyta ) are a group of vascular plants (plants with xylem and phloem ) that reproduce via spores and have neither seeds nor flowers . They differ from mosses by being vascular, i.e., having specialized tissues that conduct water and nutrients, and in having life cycles in which
1140-561: Is a flooded field of arable land used for growing semiaquatic crops, most notably rice and taro . It originates from the Neolithic rice-farming cultures of the Yangtze River basin in southern China, associated with pre-Austronesian and Hmong-Mien cultures. It was spread in prehistoric times by the expansion of Austronesian peoples to Island Southeast Asia , Madagascar , Melanesia , Micronesia , and Polynesia . The technology
1216-483: Is available, rice farmers typically plant Green Revolution rice varieties allowing three growing seasons per year. Since fertilizer and pesticide are relatively expensive inputs, farmers typically plant seeds in a very small plot. Three weeks following germination, the 15-20 centimetre (6–8 in) stalks are picked and replanted at greater separation, in a backbreaking manual procedure. Rice harvesting in Central Java
1292-643: Is considered the main rice growing province of the Philippines . The Banaue Rice Terraces are an example of paddy fields in the country. They are located in Banaue in Northern Luzon , Philippines and were built by the Ifugaos 2,000 years ago. Streams and springs found in the mountains were tapped and channeled into irrigation canals that run downhill through the rice terraces. Other notable Philippine paddy fields are
1368-457: Is determined by the variety and quality control of water. The tavy is traditionally the culture of flooded upland rice on burning of cleared natural rain forest (135,966 ha). Criticized as being the cause of deforestation, tavy is still widely practiced by farmers in Madagascar, who find a good compromise between climate risks, availability of labour and food security. By extension,
1444-457: Is found in some place names, especially small farming townships and villages. However, the specific Korean term for 'paddy' is a purely Korean word, "non" ( Korean : 논 ). In Madagascar , the average annual consumption of rice is 130 kg per person, one of the largest in the world. According to a 1999 study of UPDRS / FAO: The majority of rice is related to irrigation (1,054,381 ha). The choice of methods conditioning performance
1520-564: Is grown in Northern Italy, especially in the valley of the Po River . The paddy fields are irrigated by fast-flowing streams descending from the Alps . In the 19th century and much of the 20th century, the paddy fields were farmed by the mondine , a subculture of seasonal rice paddy workers composed mostly of poor women. The acidic soil conditions common in Japan due to volcanic eruptions have made
1596-492: Is grown in flooded conditions with water more than 50 cm (20 in) deep for at least a month. Global paddies' emissions account for at least 10% of global methane emissions . Drip irrigation systems have been proposed as a possible environmental and commercial solution. The word "paddy" is derived from the Malay / Indonesian word padi , meaning "rice plant", which is itself derived from Proto-Austronesian *pajay ("rice in
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#17331052823951672-465: Is in the middle Yangtze River, believed to be the homelands of the early Hmong-Mien speakers and associated with the Pengtoushan , Nanmuyuan , Liulinxi , Daxi , Qujialing , and Shijiahe cultures . Both of these regions were heavily populated and had regular trade contacts with each other, as well as with early Austroasiatic speakers to the west, and early Kra-Dai speakers to the south, facilitating
1748-578: Is intermediate between the eusporangiate ferns and the leptosporangiate ferns. Rai and Graham (2010) broadly supported the primary groups, but queried their relationships, concluding that "at present perhaps the best that can be said about all relationships among the major lineages of monilophytes in current studies is that we do not understand them very well". Grewe et al. (2013) confirmed the inclusion of horsetails within ferns sensu lato , but also suggested that uncertainties remained in their precise placement. Other classifications have raised Ophioglossales to
1824-542: Is often performed not by owners or sharecroppers of paddies, but rather by itinerant middlemen, whose small firms specialize in the harvest, transport, milling, and distribution of rice. The fertile volcanic soil of much of the Indonesian archipelago—particularly the islands of Java and Bali—has made rice a central dietary staple. Steep terrain on Bali resulted in complex irrigation systems, locally called subak , to manage water storage and drainage for rice terraces. Rice
1900-606: Is the largest in the world, only about 15% of its total land area can be cultivated. About 75% of the cultivated area is used for food crops. Rice is China's most important crop, raised on about 25% of the cultivated area. Most rice is grown south of the Huai River , in the Yangtze valley, the Zhu Jiang delta, and in Yunnan , Guizhou , and Sichuan provinces. Rice appears to have been used by
1976-1139: The Camargue in France , and in Spain , particularly in the Albufera de València wetlands in the Valencian Community , the Ebro Delta in Catalonia and the Guadalquivir wetlands in Andalusia , as well as along the eastern coast of Brazil , the Artibonite Valley in Haiti , Sacramento Valley in California , and West Lothian in Scotland among other places. Paddy cultivation should not be confused with cultivation of deepwater rice , which
2052-855: The Comoros , and the coast of East Africa around the 1st millennium AD by Austronesian settlers from the Greater Sunda Islands . There are ten archaeologically excavated rice paddy fields in Korea. The two oldest are the Okhyun and Yaumdong sites, found in Ulsan , dating to the early Mumun pottery period . Paddy field farming goes back thousands of years in Korea. A pit-house at the Daecheon-ni site yielded carbonized rice grains and radiocarbon dates, indicating that rice cultivation in dry-fields may have begun as early as
2128-640: The Cretaceous , contemporaneous with the rise of flowering plants that came to dominate the world's flora. Ferns are not of major economic importance, but some are used for food, medicine, as biofertilizer , as ornamental plants, and for remediating contaminated soil. They have been the subject of research for their ability to remove some chemical pollutants from the atmosphere. Some fern species, such as bracken ( Pteridium aquilinum ) and water fern ( Azolla filiculoides ), are significant weeds worldwide. Some fern genera, such as Azolla , can fix nitrogen and make
2204-526: The Irrawaddy River . The fields are tilled when the first rains arrive – traditionally measured at 40 days after Thingyan , the Burmese New Year – around the beginning of June. In modern times, tractors are used, but traditionally, buffalos were employed. The rice plants are planted in nurseries and then transplanted by hand into the prepared fields. The rice is then harvested in late November – "when
2280-611: The Malaysian Peninsula , with most of the fields being located in the northern states such as Kedah , Perlis , Perak , and Penang . Paddy fields can also be found on Malaysia's east coast region, in Kelantan and Terengganu . The central state of Selangor also has its fair share of paddy fields, especially in the districts of Kuala Selangor and Sabak Bernam . Before Malaysia became heavily reliant on its industrial output, people were mainly involved in agriculture, especially in
2356-541: The Philippines , bringing rice cultivation technologies with them. From Luzon, Austronesians rapidly colonized the rest of Maritime Southeast Asia , moving westwards to Borneo , the Malay Peninsula and Sumatra ; and southwards to Sulawesi and Java . By 500 BC, there is evidence of intensive wetland rice agriculture already established in Java and Bali , especially near very fertile volcanic islands. Rice did not survive
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2432-579: The Spring and Autumn period (722–481 BC), two revolutionary improvements in farming technology took place. One was the use of cast iron tools and beasts of burden to pull plows, and the other was the large-scale harnessing of rivers and development of water conservation projects. Sunshu Ao of the 6th century BC and Ximen Bao of the 5th century BC are two of the earliest hydraulic engineers from China, and their works were focused upon improving irrigation systems. These developments were widely spread during
2508-630: The axils of leaves. Pilularia minuta from SW Europe is one of the smallest of all ferns. Recent work from Pryer Lab accepted four species of Pilularia , with a fifth, P. novae-zealandiae , being conspecific with P. novae-hollandiae . In addition, another species, P. dracomontana , has been described from South Africa . Phylogeny of Pilularia P. novae-hollandiae A.Braun (Austral pillwort) P. minuta Durieu (least pillwort) P. americana A.Braun (American pillwort) P. globulifera L. (Common pillwort) Other species include: This Polypodiidae -related article
2584-472: The class Filices, and later in a Division of the Plant Kingdom named Pteridophyta or Filicophyta. Pteridophyta is no longer recognised as a valid taxon because it is paraphyletic . The ferns are also referred to as Polypodiophyta or, when treated as a subdivision of Tracheophyta (vascular plants), Polypodiopsida, although this name sometimes only refers to leptosporangiate ferns. Traditionally, all of
2660-523: The tanety , which literally means "hill," is also growing upland rice, carried out on the grassy slopes that have been deforested for the production of charcoal (139,337 ha). Among the many varieties, rice of Madagascar includes: Vary lava - a translucent long and large grain rice, considered a luxury rice; Vary Makalioka - a translucent long and thin grain rice; Vary Rojofotsy - a half-long grain rice; and Vary mena , or red rice, exclusive to Madagascar. Paddy fields can be found in most states on
2736-504: The 1970s, and favors protectionist policies regarding cheaper imported rice. Arable land in small alluvial flats of most rural river valleys in South Korea are dedicated to paddy-field farming. Farmers assess paddy fields for any necessary repairs in February. Fields may be rebuilt, and bund breaches are repaired. This work is carried out until mid-March, when warmer spring weather allows
2812-641: The Austronesian voyages into Micronesia and Polynesia ; however, wet-field agriculture was transferred to the cultivation of other crops, most notably for taro cultivation. The Austronesian Lapita culture also came into contact with the non-Austronesian ( Papuan ) early agriculturists of New Guinea and introduced wetland farming techniques to them. In turn, they assimilated their range of indigenous cultivated fruits and tubers before spreading further eastward to Island Melanesia and Polynesia . Rice and wet-field agriculture were also introduced to Madagascar ,
2888-661: The Early Neolithic populations of Lijiacun and Yunchanyan in China. Evidence of possible rice cultivation from ca. 11,500 BC has been found, however it is still questioned whether the rice was indeed being cultivated, or instead being gathered as wild rice. Bruce Smith, an archaeologist at the Smithsonian Institution in Washington, D.C., who has written on the origins of agriculture, says that evidence has been mounting that
2964-623: The Early Mumun pottery period (c. 1100–850 BC). KUM has conducted excavations, that have revealed similarly dated paddy field features, at Yaeum-dong and Okhyeon, in modern-day Ulsan . The earliest Mumun features were usually located in low-lying narrow gullies, that were naturally swampy and fed by the local stream system. Some Mumun paddy fields in flat areas were made of a series of squares and rectangles, separated by bunds approximately 10 cm in height, while terraced paddy fields consisted of long irregular shapes that followed natural contours of
3040-581: The Middle Jeulmun pottery period (c. 3500–2000 BC) in the Korean Peninsula . Ancient paddy fields have been carefully unearthed in Korea by institutes such as Kyungnam University Museum (KUM) of Masan . They excavated paddy field features at the Geumcheon-ni Site near Miryang , South Gyeongsang Province . The paddy field feature was found next to a pit-house that is dated to the latter part of
3116-603: The Monsoon . The paddy cultivation plays a major role in socio-cultural life of rural India. Many regional festivals celebrate the harvest, such as Onam , Bihu , Thai Pongal , Makar Sankranti , and Nabanna . The Kaveri delta region of Thanjavur is historically known as the rice bowl of Tamil Nadu , and Kuttanadu is called the rice bowl of Kerala . Gangavathi is known as the rice bowl of Karnataka . Prime Javanese paddies yield roughly 6 metric tons of unmilled rice (2.5 metric tons of milled rice) per hectare . When irrigation
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3192-564: The Yangtze River in present-day China. There are two likely centers of domestication for rice as well as the development of the wet-field technology. The first is in the lower Yangtze River , believed to be the homelands of the pre-Austronesians and possibly also the Kra-Dai , and associated with the Kuahuqiao , Hemudu , Majiabang , Songze , Liangzhu , and Maquiao cultures . The second
3268-402: The Yangtze cultures and their sizes increased, leading some archeologists to characterize them as true states , with clearly advanced socio-political structures. However, it is unknown if they had centralized control. In the terminal Neolithic (2500 to 2000 BC), Shijiahe shrank in size, and Liangzhu disappeared altogether. This is largely believed to be the result of the southward expansion of
3344-509: The Yangtze was probably the site of the earliest rice cultivation. In 1998, Crawford & Shen reported that the earliest of 14 AMS or radiocarbon dates on rice from at least nine Early to Middle Neolithic sites is no older than 7000 BC, that rice from the Hemudu and Luojiajiao sites indicates that rice domestication likely began before 5000 BC, but that most sites in China from which rice remains have been recovered are younger than 5000 BC. During
3420-490: The Yangtze, but by 1250, 75% of China's population lived south of it. Such large-scale internal migration was possible due to introduction of quick-ripening strains of rice from Vietnam suitable for multi-cropping. Famous rice paddies in China include the Longsheng Rice Terraces and the fields of Yuanyang County, Yunnan . India has the largest paddy output in the world and is also the largest exporter of rice in
3496-525: The archaeological site of Matsutaka in Mie Prefecture that dates to the late 2nd century. Ta ( 田 ) is used as a part of many place names as well as in many family names. Most of these places are somehow related to the paddy field and, in many cases, are based on the history of a particular location. For example, where a river runs through a village, the place east of the river may be called Higashida ( 東田 ), literally "east paddy field." A place with
3572-666: The area along and the delta of the Kaladan River , and the Central plains around Mandalay , though there has been an increase in rice farming in Shan State and Kachin State in recent years. Up until the later 1960s, Myanmar was the main exporter of rice. Termed the rice basket of Southeast Asia, much of the rice grown in Myanmar does not rely on fertilizers and pesticides, thus, although "organic" in
3648-478: The branched sporophyte is the dominant phase. Ferns have complex leaves called megaphylls that are more complex than the microphylls of clubmosses . Most ferns are leptosporangiate ferns . They produce coiled fiddleheads that uncoil and expand into fronds . The group includes about 10,560 known extant species. Ferns are defined here in the broad sense, being all of the Polypodiopsida , comprising both
3724-471: The dominant form of growing rice in modern times. It is practiced extensively in Bangladesh , Cambodia , China , India , Indonesia , northern Iran , Japan , Laos , Malaysia , Mongolia , Myanmar , Nepal , North Korea , Pakistan , the Philippines , South Korea , Sri Lanka , Taiwan , Thailand , and Vietnam . It has also been introduced elsewhere since the colonial era, notably in northern Italy ,
3800-689: The early Sino-Tibetan Longshan culture . Fortifications like walls (as well as extensive moats in Liangzhu cities) are common features in settlements during this period, indicating widespread conflict. This period also coincides with the southward movement of rice-farming cultures to the Lingnan and Fujian regions, as well as the southward migrations of the Austronesian, Kra-Dai, and Austroasiatic -speaking peoples to Mainland Southeast Asia and Island Southeast Asia . The spread of japonica rice cultivation and paddy field agriculture to Southeast Asia started with
3876-621: The ensuing Warring States period (403–221 BC), culminating in the enormous Du Jiang Yan Irrigation System engineered by Li Bing by 256 BC for the State of Qin in ancient Sichuan . During the Eastern Jin (317–420) and the Northern and Southern Dynasties (420–589), land-use became more intensive and efficient, rice was grown twice a year and cattle began to be used for plowing and fertilization . By about 750, 75% of China's population lived north of
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#17331052823953952-613: The farmer to buy or grow rice seedlings. They are transplanted (usually by rice transplanter ) from the indoors into freshly flooded paddy fields in May. Farmers tend and weed their paddy fields through the summer until around the time of Chuseok , a traditional holiday held on 15 August of the Lunar Calendar (circa mid-September on the Solar Calendar). The harvest begins in October. Coordinating
4028-444: The field", "rice plant"). Cognates include Amis panay ; Tagalog pálay ; Kadazan Dusun paai ; Javanese pari ; and Chamorro faʻi , among others. Genetic evidence shows that all forms of paddy rice, including both indica and japonica , spring from a domestication of the wild rice Oryza rufipogon by cultures associated with pre-Austronesian and Hmong-Mien-speakers. This occurred 13,500 to 8,200 years ago south of
4104-431: The fronds are branched more than once, it can also be a combination of the pinnatifid are pinnate shapes. If the leaf blades are divided twice, the plant has bipinnate fronds, and tripinnate fronds if they branch three times, and all the way to tetra- and pentapinnate fronds. In tree ferns, the main stalk that connects the leaf to the stem (known as the stipe), often has multiple leaflets. The leafy structures that grow from
4180-399: The harvest can be challenging because many Korean farmers have small paddy fields in a number of locations around their villages, and modern harvesting machines are sometimes shared between extended family members. Farmers usually dry the harvested grains in the sun before bringing them to market. The Hanja character for 'field', jeon ( Korean : 전 ; Hanja : 田 ),
4256-488: The inclusion of Equisetaceae in the ferns, notably relating to the construction of their sperm and peculiarities of their roots. The leptosporangiate ferns are sometimes called "true ferns". This group includes most plants familiarly known as ferns. Modern research supports older ideas based on morphology that the Osmundaceae diverged early in the evolutionary history of the leptosporangiate ferns; in certain ways this family
4332-623: The land at various levels. Mumun Period rice farmers used all of the elements that are present in today's paddy fields, such as terracing, bunds, canals, and small reservoirs. We can grasp some paddy-field farming techniques of the Middle Mumun (c. 850–550 BC), from the well-preserved wooden tools excavated from archaeological rice fields at the Majeon-ni Site. However, iron tools for paddy-field farming were not introduced until sometime after 200 BC. The spatial scale of paddy-fields increased, with
4408-446: The leptosporangiate ( Polypodiidae ) and eusporangiate ferns , the latter group including horsetails , whisk ferns , marattioid ferns , and ophioglossoid ferns . The fern crown group , consisting of the leptosporangiates and eusporangiates, is estimated to have originated in the late Silurian period 423.2 million years ago, but Polypodiales , the group that makes up 80% of living fern diversity, did not appear and diversify until
4484-467: The leptosporangiate ferns. The Marattiaceae are a primitive group of tropical ferns with large, fleshy rhizomes and are now thought to be a sibling taxon to the leptosporangiate ferns. Several other groups of species were considered fern allies: the clubmosses , spikemosses , and quillworts in Lycopodiophyta ; the whisk ferns of Psilotaceae ; and the horsetails of Equisetaceae . Since this grouping
4560-555: The maternal gametophyte . The green , photosynthetic part of the plant is technically a megaphyll and in ferns, it is often called a frond . New leaves typically expand by the unrolling of a tight spiral called a crozier or fiddlehead into fronds . This uncurling of the leaf is termed circinate vernation . Leaves are divided into two types: sporophylls and tropophylls. Sporophylls produce spores; tropophylls do not. Fern spores are borne in sporangia which are usually clustered to form sori . The sporangia may be covered with
4636-558: The migrations of the Austronesian Dapenkeng culture into Taiwan between 3500 and 2000 BC. The Nanguanli site in Taiwan, dated to ca. 2800 BC, has yielded numerous carbonized remains of both rice and millet in waterlogged conditions, indicating intensive wetland rice cultivation and dryland millet cultivation. From about 2000 to 1500 BC, the Austronesian expansion began, with settlers from Taiwan moving south to migrate to Luzon in
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#17331052823954712-419: The paddy field the most productive farming method. Paddy fields are represented by the kanji 田 (commonly read as ta or as den ) that has had a strong influence on Japanese culture. In fact, the character 田 , which originally meant 'field' in general, is used in Japan exclusively to refer to paddy fields. One of the oldest samples of writing in Japan is widely credited to the kanji 田 found on pottery at
4788-569: The production of rice. It was for that reason, that people usually built their houses next to paddy fields. The very spicy chili pepper that is often eaten in Malaysia, the bird's eye chili , is locally called cili padi , literally "paddy chili". Some research pertaining to Rainfed lowland rice in Sarawak has been reported. Rice is grown in Myanmar primarily in three areas – the Irrawaddy Delta ,
4864-430: The rank of a fifth class, separating the whisk ferns and ophioglossoid ferns. The ferns are related to other groups as shown in the following cladogram: Lycophytes [REDACTED] Ferns [REDACTED] Gymnosperms [REDACTED] Angiosperms [REDACTED] The classification of Smith et al. in 2006 treated ferns as four classes: In addition they defined 11 orders and 37 families. That system
4940-447: The regular use of iron tools, in the Three Kingdoms of Korea Period (c. AD 300/400-668). The first paddy fields in Japan date to the Early Yayoi period (300 BC – 250 AD). The Early Yayoi has been re-dated, and based on studies of early Japanese paddy formations in Kyushu it appears that wet-field rice agriculture in Japan was directly adopted from the Lower Yangtze river basin in Eastern China. Although China's agricultural output
5016-492: The rice bends with age". Most of the rice planting and harvesting is done by hand. The rice is then threshed and stored, ready for the mills. In Nepal, rice (Nepali: धान, Dhaan) is grown in the Terai and hilly regions. It is mainly grown during the summer monsoon in Nepal . Paddy fields are a common sight in the Philippines. Several vast paddy fields exist in the provinces of Ifugao , Nueva Ecija , Isabela , Cagayan , Bulacan , Quezon , and other provinces. Nueva Ecija
5092-476: The spore producing vascular plants were informally denominated the pteridophytes , rendering the term synonymous with ferns and fern allies . This can be confusing because members of the division Pteridophyta were also denominated pteridophytes ( sensu stricto ). Traditionally, three discrete groups have been denominated ferns: two groups of eusporangiate ferns, the families Ophioglossaceae ( adder's tongues , moonworts , and grape ferns) and Marattiaceae ; and
5168-417: The spore wall and are dependent on the parent sporophyte for their nutrition. A fern gametophyte typically consists of: The lifecycle of a fern involves two stages, as in club mosses and horsetails . In stage one, the spores are produced by sporophytes in sporangia , which are clustered together in sori ( s.g. sorus ), developing on the underside of fertile fronds. In stage two, the spores germinate into
5244-442: The spread of rice cultivation throughout southern China. The earliest paddy field found dates to 4330 BC, based on carbon dating of grains of rice and soil organic matter found at the Chaodun site in Kunshan . At Caoxieshan, a site of the Neolithic Majiabang culture , archaeologists excavated paddy fields. Some archaeologists claim that Caoxieshan may date to 4000–3000 BC. There is archaeological evidence that unhusked rice
5320-437: The sterile leaves, and may have no green tissue at all, as in the Blechnaceae and Lomariopsidaceae . The anatomy of fern leaves can be anywhere from simple to highly divided, or even indeterminate (e.g. Gleicheniaceae , Lygodiaceae ). The divided forms are pinnate , where the leaf segments are completely separated from one other, or pinnatifid (partially pinnate), where the leaf segments are still partially connected. When
5396-463: The stipe are known as pinnae and are often again divided into smaller pinnules. Fern stems are often loosely called rhizomes , even though they grow underground only in some of the species. Epiphytic species and many of the terrestrial ones have above-ground creeping stolons (e.g., Polypodiaceae ), and many groups have above-ground erect semi-woody trunks (e.g., Cyatheaceae , the scaly tree ferns). These can reach up to 20 meters (66 ft) tall in
5472-477: The whisk ferns and ophioglossoid ferns are demonstrably a clade , and the horsetails and Marattiaceae are arguably another clade. Smith et al. (2006) carried out the first higher-level pteridophyte classification published in the molecular phylogenetic era, and considered the ferns as monilophytes, as follows: Molecular data, which remain poorly constrained for many parts of the plants' phylogeny, have been supplemented by morphological observations supporting
5548-420: The world as of 2020. In India, West Bengal is the largest rice producing state. Paddy fields are a common sight throughout India, both in the northern Gangetic Plains and the southern peninsular plateaus. Paddy is cultivated at least twice a year in most parts of India, the two seasons being known as Rabi and Kharif respectively. The former cultivation is dependent on irrigation, while the latter depends on
5624-844: Was a consensus of a number of studies, and was further refined. The phylogenetic relationships are shown in the following cladogram (to the level of orders). This division into four major clades was then confirmed using morphology alone. Lycopodiophytes (club mosses, spike mosses, quillworts) Spermatophytes (seed plants) Equisetales (horsetails) [REDACTED] Ophioglossales (grapeferns etc.) Psilotales (whisk ferns) [REDACTED] Marattiales [REDACTED] Osmundales [REDACTED] Hymenophyllales (filmy ferns) [REDACTED] Gleicheniales [REDACTED] Schizaeales Salviniales (heterosporous) Cyatheales (tree ferns) [REDACTED] Polypodiales [REDACTED] Subsequently, Chase and Reveal considered both lycopods and ferns as subclasses of
5700-550: Was also acquired by other cultures in mainland Asia for rice farming, spreading to East Asia , Mainland Southeast Asia , and South Asia . Fields can be built into steep hillsides as terraces or adjacent to depressed or steeply sloped features such as rivers or marshes . They require a great deal of labor and materials to create and need large quantities of water for irrigation. Oxen and water buffalo , adapted for life in wetlands , are important working animals used extensively in paddy field farming. Paddy field farming remains
5776-575: Was stored for the military and for burial with the deceased from the Neolithic period to the Han dynasty in China. By the late Neolithic (3500 to 2500 BC), population in the rice cultivating centers had increased rapidly, centered around the Qujialing - Shijiahe and Liangzhu cultures. There was also evidence of intensive rice cultivation in paddy fields as well as increasingly sophisticated material cultures in these two regions. The number of settlements among
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