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141-520: Picpus Cemetery is one of only two private cemeteries in Paris. Today, only descendants of the 1,306 victims are eligible to be buried at Picpus Cemetery. The cemetery is of particular interest to American visitors as it also holds the tomb of the Marquis de Lafayette (1757–1834), over which an American flag always flies. The place name, Picpus, is thought to derive from French pique-puce , " flea -bite", because

282-513: A Freemason , and news of the revolt "fired his chivalric—and now Masonic—imagination with descriptions of Americans as 'people fighting for liberty ' ". A third historian, James R. Gaines , recalls Lafayette attending a dinner at this time with the Duke of Gloucester (brother of British King George III), who complained about the Americans who had objected to British rule and mocked their beliefs in equality

423-760: A Marshal of France , had been a companion-at-arms of Joan of Arc 's army during the Siege of Orléans in 1429. According to legend, another ancestor acquired the crown of thorns during the Sixth Crusade . His non-Lafayette ancestors are also notable; his great-grandfather (his mother's maternal grandfather) was the Comte de La Rivière, until his death in 1770 commander of the Mousquetaires du Roi , or "Black Musketeers", King Louis XV 's personal horse guard. Lafayette's paternal uncle Jacques-Roch died on 18 January 1734 while fighting

564-413: A pit was dug at the end of the garden where the decapitated bodies were thrown in together — noblemen and nuns, grocers and soldiers, labourers and innkeepers. The bodies were brought to the garden by cart and entered the garden via an entryway located at what is now 40, 42 avenue de Saint Mandé. The clothes were removed and inventoried and the bodies were thrown in the pit. The pit was left opened until it

705-532: A "truly national assembly", which represented the whole of France. Instead, the king chose to summon an Estates General , to convene in 1789. Lafayette was elected as a representative of the nobility (the Second Estate ) from Riom . The Estates General, traditionally, cast one vote for each of the three Estates: clergy, nobility, and commons, meaning the much larger commons was generally outvoted. The Estates General convened on 5 May 1789; debate began on whether

846-571: A bust from the state of Virginia. Maryland's legislature honored him by making him and his male heirs "natural born Citizens" of the state, which made him a natural-born citizen of the United States after the 1789 ratification of the Constitution . Lafayette later boasted that he had become an American citizen before the concept of French citizenship existed. Connecticut, Massachusetts, and Virginia also granted him citizenship. Lafayette made

987-521: A combined French and Spanish expedition against the British West Indies in 1782, as no formal peace treaty had yet been signed. The Treaty of Paris was signed between Great Britain and the United States in 1783, which made the expedition unnecessary; Lafayette took part in those negotiations. Lafayette worked with Jefferson to establish trade agreements between the United States and France which aimed to reduce America's debt to France. He joined

1128-462: A crowding mob calling for the heads of the monarchs as well as Lafayette. Lafayette had been responsible for the royal family's custody as leader of the National Guard, and he was thus blamed by extremists such as Georges Danton , declaring in a speech directed towards Lafayette "You swore that the king would not leave. Either you sold out your country or you are stupid for having made a promise for

1269-598: A crucial part in the battles to come. Washington, fearing a letter might be captured by the British, could not tell Lafayette that he planned to trap Cornwallis in a decisive campaign. Lafayette evaded Cornwallis' attempts to capture him in Richmond . In June 1781, Cornwallis received orders from London to proceed to the Chesapeake Bay and to oversee construction of a port, in preparation for an overland attack on Philadelphia. As

1410-540: A deep, 30-feet square sand-pit in the Picpus Cemetery . Their burial site, located in the back of the cemetery, is marked with two large, gravel-covered quadrangles. The heads and torsos of the 1,306 people who were guillotined at the Place de la Nation between 13 June and 27 July 1794 are buried there. Their names, including the 16 Martyrs of Compiègne as well as Mulot de la Ménardière, are inscribed on marble plaques covering

1551-551: A draft of the " Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen " to the Assembly, written by himself in consultation with Jefferson. The next day, after the dismissal of Finance Minister Jacques Necker (who was seen as a reformer), lawyer Camille Desmoulins assembled between 700 and 1000 armed insurgents. The king had the royal army under the duc de Broglie surround Paris. On 14 July,

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1692-648: A key figure in the French Revolution of 1789 and the July Revolution of 1830 and continues to be celebrated as a hero in both France and the United States. Lafayette was born into a wealthy land-owning family in Chavaniac in the province of Auvergne in south-central France. He followed the family's martial tradition and was commissioned an officer at age 13. He became convinced that the American revolutionary cause

1833-546: A liberal member of the Chamber of Deputies , a position which he held for most of the remainder of his life. In 1824, President James Monroe invited him to the United States as the nation's guest, where he visited all 24 states in the union and met a rapturous reception. During France's July Revolution of 1830, he declined an offer to become the French dictator. Instead, he supported Louis-Philippe as king, but turned against him when

1974-634: A major command in the French forces. Spain was now France's ally against Britain and sent ships to the English Channel in support. The Spanish ships did not arrive until August 1779 and were met by a faster squadron of British ships that the combined French and Spanish fleet could not catch. In September, the invasion was abandoned, and Lafayette turned his hopes toward returning to America. In December 1779, Adrienne gave birth to Georges Washington Lafayette . Lafayette worked with Benjamin Franklin to secure

2115-419: A meeting held in 1802, underwriters designated 11 of them to form a committee to manage the project: Many of these noble families still use the cemetery as a place of burial. Only people whose ancestors were guillotined and buried at Picpus are eligible to be buried in the cemetery. The one exception to this rule is the historian, G. Lenotre ( nom-de-plume of Louis Léon Théodore Gosselin ; 1855–1935), who wrote

2256-592: A middle course through the years of revolution. In August 1792, radical factions ordered his arrest, and he fled to the Austrian Netherlands . He was captured by Austrian troops and spent more than five years in prison. Lafayette returned to France after Napoleon Bonaparte secured his release in 1797, though he refused to participate in Napoleon's government. After the Bourbon Restoration of 1814, he became

2397-638: A military and political leader in America, and he met Lafayette in Bordeaux and convinced him that the government actually wanted him to go. This was not true, though there was considerable public support for Lafayette in Paris, where the American cause was popular. Lafayette wanted to believe it, and pretended to comply with the order to report to Marseilles, going only a few kilometres east before turning around and returning to his ship. Victoire set sail out of Pauillac on

2538-462: A person whom you could not trust…. France can be free without you." He was further called a traitor to the people by Maximilien Robespierre . These accusations made Lafayette appear a royalist, damaged his reputation in the eyes of the public, and strengthened the hands of the Jacobins and other radicals in opposition to him. He continued to urge the constitutional rule of law, but he was drowned out by

2679-460: A quick and relatively unobtrusive way to dispose of the bodies. It was necessary to keep a low profile for the burials because the Terror was already becoming unpopular and the local populations resented having so many dead bodies buried in their neighborhood. The Picpus garden was only five minutes by foot from the spot where the guillotine was set up next to what is now Place de la Nation. In June 1794,

2820-571: A retreat while the British remained indecisive. To feign numerical superiority, Lafayette ordered men to appear from the woods on an outcropping (now Lafayette Hill, Pennsylvania ) and to fire upon the British periodically. His troops simultaneously escaped via a sunken road, and he was then able to cross Matson's Ford with the remainder of his force. The British then marched from Philadelphia toward New York. The Continental Army followed and finally attacked at Monmouth Courthouse in central New Jersey. Washington appointed General Charles Lee to lead

2961-502: A seminal book – Jardin de Picpus – which follows some of the victims on their way to the guillotine and describes what happened subsequently to their bodies and to the garden of Picpus. A religious community led by Mother Henriette Aymer de la Chevalerie and Abbé Pierre Coudrin settled in Picpus and rented the pre-existing convent in 1804. The new occupants of the convent were the Sisters of

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3102-447: A significant olfactory disturbance in the immediate neighborhood, the local population would have quickly provided relevant information to the enquiring aristocrats. The aristocrats decided to form a group of interested parties to buy up the land in order to create a memorial and a private cemetery next to the mass burial site. They bought the garden of Picpus by subscription in June 1802. In

3243-480: A sympathetic woman from the crowd offered the sisters water, but Sister Mary-Henrietta stopped one sister from accepting, insisting that it would break their unity and promising that they would drink when they were in heaven. A crowd gathered, as usual, at the Place du Trône Renversé (now called Place de la Nation ), the site of the executions, to watch, but the sisters showed no fear and forgave their guards. The final song

3384-464: A year of his arrival, and his Masonic membership opened many doors in Philadelphia. After Lafayette offered to serve without pay, Congress commissioned him a major general on 31 July 1777. Lafayette's advocates included the recently arrived American envoy to France, Benjamin Franklin , who by letter urged Congress to accommodate the young Frenchman. General George Washington , commander in chief of

3525-406: Is now place de la Concorde), and the garden closed off. The names of those buried in the two common pits, 1,306 men and women, are inscribed on the walls of the chapel in the cemetery complex. Of the 1,109 men, there were 108 nobles, 108 churchmen, 136 monastics ( gens de robe ), 178 military, and 579 commoners; 197 women are buried there, with 51 from the nobility, 23 nuns and 123 commoners. Among

3666-570: Is situated next to a small chapel, Notre-Dame-de-la-Paix ("Our Lady of Peace"). It is part of the cemetery complex and holds a small 15th-century sculpture of the Vierge de la Paix , reputed to have cured King Louis XIV of a serious illness on 16 August 1658. During the French Revolution, the guillotine was set up on a small square abutting the Place de la Nation , then called the Place du Trône Renversé. Between 13 June and 28 July 1794, during

3807-653: The semaine sanglante ("bloody week") at the end of the Paris Commune in May 1871. During this massacre, 110 priests and gendarmes were executed over a period of several days, including the Picpus Fathers Ladislas Radigue, Polycarpe Tuffier, Marcellin Rouchouze and Frézal Tardieu. Arguably, Picpus Cemetery's most famous tomb is that of Gilbert du Motier, Marquis de Lafayette , the French aristocrat and general who

3948-564: The Catholic Church . Ten days after their execution, Maximilien Robespierre himself was executed, ending the Reign of Terror. Their story has inspired a novella, a motion picture, a television movie, and an opera , Dialogues of the Carmelites , written by French composer Francis Poulenc . According to writer William Bush, the number of Christian martyrs greatly expanded in the early years of

4089-650: The Château de Chavaniac , in Chavaniac-Lafayette , near Le Puy-en-Velay , in the province of Auvergne (now Haute-Loire ). Lafayette's lineage was likely one of the oldest and most distinguished in Auvergne and, perhaps, in all of France. Males of the Lafayette family enjoyed a reputation for courage and chivalry and were noted for their contempt for danger. One of Lafayette's early ancestors, Gilbert de Lafayette III ,

4230-595: The Continental Army , came to Philadelphia to brief Congress on military affairs. Lafayette met him at a dinner on 5 August 1777; according to Leepson, "the two men bonded almost immediately." Washington was impressed by the young man's enthusiasm and was inclined to think well of a fellow Mason; Lafayette was simply in awe of the commanding general. General Washington took the Frenchman to view his military camp; when Washington expressed embarrassment at its state and that of

4371-583: The Duc d'Orléans ). However, the National Assembly thought condemning two significant revolutionaries would hurt the progress and public reception of the revolutionary administration. As leader of the National Guard, Lafayette attempted to maintain order and steer a middle ground, even as the radicals gained increasing influence. He and Paris' mayor Jean Sylvain Bailly instituted a political club on 12 May 1790 called

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4512-594: The Flight to Varennes almost enabled the king to escape from France on 20 June 1791. The king and queen had escaped from the Tuileries Palace, essentially under the watch of Lafayette and the National Guard. Being notified of their escape, Lafayette sent the Guard out in a multitude of directions in order to retrieve the escapee monarchs. Five days later, Lafayette and the National Guard led the royal carriage back into Paris amidst

4653-600: The French Revolution . Thousands of Christians were killed by the guillotine , as well as by mass deportations, drownings, imprisonments, shootings, mob violence, and "sheer butchery". In 1790, the French Revolutionary government passed the Civil Constitution of the Clergy , which outlawed religious life. The community of Carmelite sisters at Compiègne , a commune in northern France, 72 km north of Paris ,

4794-630: The Hôtel de La Fayette in Paris's rue de Bourbon an important meeting place for Americans there. Benjamin Franklin, John and Sarah Jay , and John and Abigail Adams met there every Monday and dined in company with Lafayette's family and the liberal nobility, including Clermont-Tonnerre and Madame de Staël . Lafayette continued to work on lowering trade barriers in France to American goods, and on assisting Franklin and Jefferson in seeking treaties of amity and commerce with European nations. He also sought to correct

4935-487: The Seven Years' War . When Lafayette heard that French officers were being sent to America, he demanded to be among them. He met Deane, and gained inclusion despite his youth. On 7 December 1776, Deane enlisted Lafayette as a major general. The plan to send French officers (as well as other forms of aid) to America came to nothing when the British heard of it and threatened war. Lafayette's father-in-law, de Noailles, scolded

5076-563: The Society of 1789 whose intention was to provide balance to the influence of the radical Jacobins . Lafayette helped organize and lead the assembly at the Fête de la Fédération on 14 July 1790 where he, alongside the National Guard and the king, took the civic oath on the Champs de Mars on 14 July 1790 vowing to "be ever faithful to the nation, to the law, and to the king; to support with our utmost power

5217-548: The Society of the Friends of the Blacks , a French abolitionist group which advocated for the abolition of the Atlantic slave trade and equal rights for free people of color . He urged the emancipation of American slaves and their establishment as tenant farmers in a 1783 letter to Washington, who was a slave owner . Washington declined to free his slaves, though he expressed interest in

5358-569: The right of the people to rule themselves. Lafayette later recalled the dinner as a turning point in his thinking, and when he learned that Washington was seeking recruits for the Continental Army. In September 1775, when Lafayette turned 18, he returned to Paris and received the captaincy in the Dragoons he had been promised as a wedding present. In December, his first child, Henriette, was born. During these months, Lafayette became convinced that

5499-475: The 12-year-old Lafayette inherited a yearly income of 120,000 livres. In May 1771, aged less than 14, Lafayette was commissioned an officer in the Musketeers, with the rank of sous-lieutenant . His duties, which included marching in military parades and presenting himself to King Louis, were mostly ceremonial and he continued his studies as usual. At this time, Jean-Paul-François de Noailles, Duc d'Ayen

5640-564: The American Revolution reflected his own beliefs, saying "My heart was dedicated." The year 1776 saw delicate negotiations between American agents, including Silas Deane , and Louis XVI and his foreign minister, Comte Charles de Vergennes . The king and his minister hoped that by supplying the Americans with arms and officers, they might restore French influence in North America, and exact revenge against Britain for France's defeat in

5781-520: The American army was bolstered by the display of courage by the men. By August, Cornwallis had established the British at Yorktown, and Lafayette took up position on Malvern Hill , stationing artillery surrounding the British, who were close to the York River , and who had orders to construct fortifications to protect the British ships in Hampton Roads . Lafayette's containment trapped the British when

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5922-704: The American cause at a low ebb, rocked by several military defeats, especially in the south. Lafayette was greeted in Boston with enthusiasm, seen as "a knight in shining armor from the chivalric past, come to save the nation". He journeyed southwest and on 10 May 1780 had a joyous reunion with Washington at Morristown, New Jersey . The general and his officers were delighted to hear that the large French force promised to Lafayette would be coming to their aid. Washington, aware of Lafayette's popularity, had him write (with Alexander Hamilton to correct his spelling) to state officials to urge them to provide more troops and provisions to

6063-476: The American side. The Oneida referred to Lafayette as Kayewla (fearsome horseman). In Valley Forge, he criticized the board's decision to attempt an invasion of Quebec in winter. The Continental Congress agreed, and Gates left the board. Meanwhile, treaties signed by America and France were made public in March 1778, and France formally recognized American independence. Faced with the prospect of French intervention,

6204-550: The Americans, with most battles in the south going against them, and General Benedict Arnold abandoning them for the British side. Lafayette spent the first part of the winter of 1780–81 in Philadelphia , where the American Philosophical Society elected him its first foreign member. Congress asked him to return to France to lobby for more men and supplies, but Lafayette refused, sending letters instead. After

6345-554: The Army of the East's commander. At dinner, both men discussed the ongoing revolt against British rule in the Thirteen Colonies . Historian Marc Leepson argued that Lafayette, "who had grown up loathing the British for killing his father", felt that an American victory in the conflict would diminish Britain's stature internationally. Another historian noted that Lafayette had recently become

6486-695: The Austrians at Milan in the War of the Polish Succession ; upon his death, the title of marquis passed to his brother Michel. Lafayette's father likewise died on the battlefield. On 1 August 1759, Michel de Lafayette was struck by a cannonball while fighting a Anglo -German army at the Battle of Minden in Westphalia . Lafayette became marquis and Lord of Chavaniac, but the estate went to his mother. Perhaps devastated by

6627-464: The British column traveled, Lafayette sent small squads that would appear unexpectedly, attacking the rearguard or foraging parties, and giving the impression that his forces were larger than they were. On 4 July, the British left Williamsburg and prepared to cross the James River . Cornwallis sent only an advance guard to the south side of the river, hiding many of his other troops in the forest on

6768-810: The British defenses. After a failed British counter-attack, Cornwallis surrendered on 19 October 1781. Yorktown was the last major land battle of the American Revolution, but the British still held several major port cities. Lafayette wanted to lead expeditions to capture them, but Washington felt that he would be more useful seeking additional naval support from France. Congress appointed him its advisor to America's envoys in Europe, Benjamin Franklin in Paris, John Jay in Madrid, and John Adams in The Hague, instructing them "to communicate and agree on everything with him". Congress also sent Louis XVI an official letter of commendation on

6909-537: The British sought to concentrate their land and naval forces in New York City, and they began to evacuate Philadelphia in May 1778. Washington dispatched Lafayette with a 2,200-man force on 18 May to reconnoiter near Barren Hill , Pennsylvania. The next day, the British heard that he had made camp nearby and sent 5,000 men to capture him. General Howe led a further 6,000 soldiers on 20 May and ordered an attack on his left flank. The flank scattered, and Lafayette organized

7050-423: The British withdrew in the night and successfully reached New York. The French fleet arrived at Delaware Bay on 8 July 1778 under Admiral d'Estaing , with whom General Washington planned to attack Newport, Rhode Island , the other major British base in the north. Lafayette and General Greene were sent with a 3,000-man force to participate in the attack. Lafayette wanted to control a joint Franco-American force but

7191-672: The Congregation of the Sacred Hearts of Mary and Jesus of Perpetual Adoration, whose role was to pray and perform other religious services in memory of the victims and for the redemption of the souls of their executioners. Later, during the Paris Commune , the community was again afflicted by political violence: the Massacre in the Rue Haxo ( French : le massacre de la rue Haxo ) was a mass execution of priests and gendarmes by communards during

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7332-463: The Continental Army. This bore fruit in the coming months, as Lafayette awaited the arrival of the French fleet. However, when the fleet arrived, there were fewer men and supplies than expected, and Rochambeau decided to wait for reinforcements before seeking battle with the British. This was unsatisfactory to Lafayette, who proposed grandiose schemes for the taking of New York City and other areas, and Rochambeau briefly refused to receive Lafayette until

7473-412: The Continental victory at the Battle of Cowpens in the Province of South Carolina , in January 1781, Washington ordered Lafayette to re-form his force in Philadelphia and go south to the Colony of Virginia to link up with troops commanded by Baron von Steuben . The combined force was to try to trap British forces commanded by Benedict Arnold, with French ships preventing his escape by sea. If Lafayette

7614-419: The Declaration on 26 August, but the king rejected it on 2 October. Three days later, a Parisian crowd led by women fishmongers marched to Versailles in response to the scarcity of bread. Members of the National Guard followed the march, with Lafayette reluctantly leading them. At Versailles, the king accepted the Assembly's votes on the Declaration, but refused requests to go to Paris, and the crowd broke into

7755-422: The French departure from Newport to be a desertion. John Hancock and Lafayette were dispatched to calm the situation, and Lafayette then returned to Rhode Island to prepare the retreat made necessary by d'Estaing's departure. For these actions, he was cited by the Continental Congress for "gallantry, skill, and prudence". He wanted to expand the war to fight the British elsewhere in America and even in Europe under

7896-446: The French flag, but he found little interest in his proposals. In October 1778, he requested permission from Washington and Congress to go home on leave. They agreed, with Congress voting to give him a ceremonial sword to be presented to him in France. His departure was delayed by illness, and he sailed for France in January 1779. Lafayette reached Paris in February 1779 where he was placed under house arrest for eight days for disobeying

8037-496: The French fleet arrived and won the Battle of the Virginia Capes , depriving Cornwallis of naval protection. On 14 September 1781, Washington's forces joined Lafayette's. On 28 September, with the French fleet blockading the British, the combined forces laid siege to Yorktown . On 14 October, Lafayette's 400 men on the American right took Redoubt  9 after Alexander Hamilton 's forces had charged Redoubt 10 in hand-to-hand combat. These two redoubts were key to breaking

8178-404: The Martyrs of Compiègne has inspired a novella , an unproduced film, a play, and an opera . In 1931, German writer Gertrud von Le Fort , a student of Ernst Troeltsch and a convert to Catholicism, drew on the History to write a novella , The Song at the Scaffold , told from the viewpoint of the fictional character Blanche de la Force, "a young aristocrat haunted by fear, who seeks peace in

8319-407: The Picpus cemetery grounds. The entrance to the cemetery is at 35 rue de Picpus in the 12th arrondissement . It can be visited in the afternoon every day except Sunday and holidays, with hours usually from 2 pm to 5 pm (Admission: €2). The Chapel of Our Lady of Peace is located at the entrance of the cemetery. The nearest Paris metro stations are Nation and Picpus . This private cemetery and

8460-420: The Revolution, strong sympathies to the monarchy, and evidence that they continued to live as a community of consecrated Christian women. They also found two letters written by "the unfortunate" Mulot de la Ménardière to his cousin, Sister Euphrasia of the Immaculate Conception, containing unfavorable criticisms of the Revolution. Mulot was accused of helping them and of being a non-juring priest , even though he

8601-640: The West Indies to sell cargo, but Lafayette was fearful of arrest, so he bought the cargo to avoid docking at the islands. He landed on North Island near Georgetown, South Carolina on 13 June 1777. Upon his arrival, Lafayette met Major Benjamin Huger , a wealthy landowner, and stayed with him for two weeks before departing for the revolutionary capital of Philadelphia . The Second Continental Congress , convened in Philadelphia, had been overwhelmed by French officers recruited by Deane, many of whom could not speak English or lacked military experience. Lafayette had learned some English en route and became fluent within

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8742-409: The abolition of slavery, and he urged the Pennsylvania Legislature to help form a federal union (the states were then bound by the Articles of Confederation ). He visited the Mohawk Valley in New York to participate in peace negotiations with the Iroquois , some of whom he had met in 1778. He received an honorary degree from Harvard University , a portrait of Washington from the city of Boston, and

8883-478: The associated convent were added to the list of Monuments Historiques by the French Ministry of Culture on 30 April 1998. Gilbert du Motier, Marquis de Lafayette Marie-Joseph Paul Yves Roch Gilbert du Motier de La Fayette, Marquis de La Fayette ( French: [ʒilbɛʁ dy mɔtje maʁki d(ə) la fajɛt] ; 6 September 1757 – 20 May 1834), known in the United States as Lafayette ( / ˌ l ɑː f i ˈ ɛ t , ˌ l æ f -/ LA(H)F -ee- ET ),

9024-437: The attacking force at the Battle of Monmouth , and Lee moved against the British flank on 28 June. However, he gave conflicting orders soon after fighting began, causing chaos in the American ranks. Lafayette sent a message to Washington to urge him to the front; upon his arrival, he found Lee's men in retreat. Washington relieved Lee, took command, and rallied the American force. After suffering significant casualties at Monmouth,

9165-401: The collusion of Vichy France with Nazi Germany, its patients who survived their illnesses were all deported to concentration camps. The hospital staff managed to save some of their patients from deportation by making false death certificates or false declarations of stillbirth. The patients were then secreted out of the hospital and hidden in the neighborhood, including in the convent located on

9306-402: The coming months. He and part of the National Guard left the Tuileries on 28 February 1791 to handle a conflict in Vincennes, and hundreds of armed nobles arrived at the Tuileries to defend the king while he was gone. However, there were rumors that these nobles had come to take the king away and place him at the head of a counter-revolution. Lafayette quickly returned to the Tuileries and disarmed

9447-415: The commons, and on the 17th, the group declared itself the National Assembly . The loyalist response was to lock out the group, including Lafayette, while those who had not supported the Assembly met inside. This action led to the Tennis Court Oath , where the excluded members swore not to separate until a constitution was established. The Assembly continued to meet, and on 11 July 1789, Lafayette presented

9588-437: The constitution decreed by the National Assembly, and accepted by the king." In the eyes of the royalist factions, Lafayette took a large risk holding a largely undisciplined group at the Champs de Mars in fear for the safety of the king, whereas for Jacobins this solidified in their eyes Lafayette's royalist tendencies and an encouragement of the common people's support of the monarchy. Lafayette continued to work for order in

9729-418: The convent". The novella was the basis for the 1949 play The Song at the Scaffold by Emmet Lavery , which was the basis for a film, The Carmelites. French Dominican Raymond-Leopold Bruckberger and cinematographer Phillippe Agostini developed a film based on the novella, and in 1947, they persuaded Georges Bernanos to write the dialogue. The film was never produced, but the text written by Bernanos

9870-461: The convent's prioress , suggested to the community that they commit themselves to execution, and offer themselves as a sacrifice for France and for the French Church. The prioress almost escaped execution when she returned to her family's home in Paris in order to care for her widowed mother who was ill. However, she returned to Compiègne four days before the execution. All of the sisters were arrested and executed four days later. In August 1792,

10011-444: The convent, becoming wards of the state, which entitled them to receive government pensions. The revolutionary government, at the end of 1791, required all clergy to swear a civic oath supporting the Civil Constitution or risk losing their pensions and becoming destitute. At Easter in 1792, the government plundered churches and interrupted services; it was the last Easter the sisters celebrated at Compiègne. Mother Teresa of St. Augustine,

10152-476: The crowd. Lafayette would later initiate an investigation within the National Assembly on the now declared October Days , which led to the production of the Procédure Criminelle by Jean-Baptiste-Charles Chabroud , a 688-page document accumulating evidence and analysis on the exact events and procedures of the March on Versailles, hoping to condemn those inciting the mob (in his mind being Mirabeau and

10293-403: The delegates should vote by head or by Estate. If by Estate, then the nobility and clergy would be able to outvote the commons; if by head, then the larger Third Estate could dominate. Before the meeting, as a member of the "Committee of Thirty", Lafayette agitated for voting by head, rather than estate. He could not get a majority of his own Estate to agree, but the clergy was willing to join with

10434-467: The end to the horrors of the revolution" and hastened the end of the Reign of Terror. Three of the sisters were away from the community at the time of the arrests and so were not executed along with the others. One of these, Marie de l'Incarnation (Françoise Geneviève Philippe), later wrote an account of the execution, History of the Carmelite nuns of Compiègne , which was published in 1836. The story of

10575-665: The field in November after two months of recuperation in the Moravian settlement of Bethlehem , and received command of the division previously led by Major General Adam Stephen . He assisted General Nathanael Greene in reconnaissance of British positions in New Jersey; with 300 soldiers, he defeated a numerically superior Hessian force in Gloucester , on 24 November 1777. Lafayette stayed at Washington's encampment at Valley Forge in

10716-406: The film "more than does justice to Georges Bernanos' play and provides a thoughtful and emotionally involving reflection on the power and limits of faith". The cast was composed of well-known French actors: Pierre Brasseur , Jeanne Moreau , Madeline Renaud , Alida Valli , Georges Wilson , and Jean-Louis Barrault . In 1984, a version, directed by Pierre Cardinal , based upon Bernanos' dialogue,

10857-527: The fortress known as the Bastille was stormed by the insurgents. On 15 July, Lafayette was acclaimed commander-in-chief of the Parisian National Guard , an armed force established to maintain order under the control of the Assembly military service as well as policing, traffic control, sanitization, lighting, among other matters of local administration. Lafayette proposed the name and the symbol of

10998-506: The government ordered all women's monasteries closed; the seizure and removal of the Compiègne convent's furnishings occurred on 12 September, and the sisters were forced to leave the convent and re-enter the world on 14 September, the end of their cloistered community. Mother Teresa made arrangements for the 20 sisters living in the convent at the time to hide in the city in four separate apartments and find civilian clothes for them to wear, since

11139-604: The grave is soil that Lafayette brought home to France from Bunker Hill in Charlestown, Boston – site of the Battle of Bunker Hill , one of the most prominent early battles of the American Revolutionary War ; in 1825, on the occasion of the 50th anniversary of the battle, Lafayette had laid the cornerstone of the Bunker Hill Monument . On 4 July 1917, three months after the United States entered World War I on

11280-436: The group: a blue, white, and red cockade. This combined the red and blue colors of the city of Paris with the royal white, and originated the French tricolor. He faced a difficult task as head of the Guard; the king and many loyalists considered him and his supporters to be little better than revolutionaries, whereas many commoners felt that he was helping the king to keep power via this position. The National Assembly approved

11421-546: The guard for not killing her, "thereby depriving her of her share in her community's glorious witness for Jesus Christ". Sister Mary-Henrietta stood by her prioress until it was her turn to die, helping the 14 other sisters climb the scaffold steps before climbing them herself, and was the second-to-last to die. Mother Teresa died last. There are no surviving relics of the Martyrs of Compiègne because their heads and bodies were buried, along with 128 other victims executed that day, in

11562-649: The height of, but also the final two months of the period known as the Reign of Terror . The commune had to solve serious problems on the cemeteries because of the smell. The pace of beheading at the Trône Renversé location was rapid. As many as 55 people per day were executed. Of the 2,639 executions carried out in Paris between April 1793 and July 1794, the six weeks of operation of the Trône guillotine accounted for almost half (1306 executions). The Revolutionary Tribunal needed

11703-526: The injustices that Huguenots in France had endured since the revocation of the Edict of Nantes a century before. On 29 December 1786, King Louis XVI called an Assembly of Notables , in response to France's fiscal crisis . The king appointed Lafayette to the body, which convened on 22 February 1787. In speeches, Lafayette decried those with connections at court who had profited from advance knowledge of government land purchases; he advocated reform. He called for

11844-468: The king by going to America. This was merely face-saving by Louis XVI ; Lafayette was given a hero's welcome and was soon invited to hunt with the king. The American envoy was ill, so Benjamin Franklin's grandson William Temple Franklin presented Lafayette with the gold-encrusted sword commissioned by the Continental Congress. Lafayette pushed for an invasion of Britain , with himself to have

11985-529: The local chapter of the Daughters of the American Revolution , and the flag is renewed every Fourth of July by DAR members along with the Society of the Cincinnati and U.S. Embassy officials, who gather at Lafayette's tomb for a celebration. He is buried next to his wife, Adrienne de Lafayette , whose sister, mother and grandmother were among those beheaded and thrown into the common pit. The soil that covers

12126-579: The local monks used to cure skin diseases that caused wounds that resembled fleabites. During the pre-Revolutionary period, the premises upon which the cemetery is located was a walled garden and a convent. The convent was occupied by the Canonesses of Saint Augustine , but their property was confiscated during the Revolution and they were forced to leave by the Revolutionary government in 1792. The property

12267-470: The loss of her husband, she went to live in Paris with her father and grandfather, leaving Lafayette to be raised in Chavaniac-Lafayette by his paternal grandmother, Mme de Chavaniac, who had brought the château into the family with her dowry. In 1768, when Lafayette was 11, he was summoned to Paris to live with his mother and great-grandfather at the comte's apartments in Luxembourg Palace . The boy

12408-533: The marquis's behalf. Lafayette left Boston for France on 18 December 1781 where he was welcomed as a hero, and he was received at the Palace of Versailles on 22 January 1782. He witnessed the birth of his daughter, whom he named Marie-Antoinette Virginie upon Thomas Jefferson's recommendation. He was promoted to maréchal de camp , skipping numerous ranks, and he was made a Knight of the Order of Saint Louis . He worked on

12549-428: The mass grave in the garden at Picpus. The difficulty of their search was compounded by the fact that most of the surviving aristocracy was still alive only because they had left France during the Terror. Therefore, they were not present for the executions nor were they able to inform themselves immediately about burial sites. On the other hand, since the mass burial of more than 1,300 people in less than 2 months generated

12690-530: The mob and its leaders. Martyrs of Compi%C3%A8gne The Martyrs of Compiègne were the 16 members of the Carmel of Compiègne, France : 11 Discalced Carmelite nuns , three lay sisters , and two externs (or tertiaries ). They were executed by the guillotine towards the end of the Reign of Terror , at what is now the Place de la Nation in Paris on 17 July 1794, and are venerated as beatified martyrs of

12831-507: The monarch became autocratic. He died on 20 May 1834 and is buried in Picpus Cemetery in Paris, under soil from Bunker Hill . He is sometimes known as " The Hero of the Two Worlds " for his accomplishments in the service of both France and the United States. Lafayette was born on 6 September 1757 to Michel Louis Christophe Roch Gilbert Paulette du Motier, Marquis de La Fayette , colonel of grenadiers , and Marie Louise Jolie de La Rivière, at

12972-801: The night of 17 July 1794, the sisters were transported through the streets of Paris in an open cart, a journey that took two hours. During that time, they sang "hymns of praise," including the Miserere , the Salve Regina , the evening vespers , and the Compline . Other sources state that they sang a combination of the Office of the Dead , the vespers, the Compline, and other shorter texts. Onlookers berated them, yelling insults and throwing things at them. While waiting to be executed,

13113-471: The nobles after a brief standoff. The event came to be known as the Day of Daggers , and it boosted Lafayette's popularity with the French people for his quick actions to protect the king. Nonetheless, the royal family were increasingly prisoners in their palace. The National Guard disobeyed Lafayette on 18 April and prevented the king from leaving for Saint-Cloud where he planned to attend Mass. A plot known as

13254-399: The north side, hoping to ambush Lafayette. On 6 July, Lafayette ordered General "Mad" Anthony Wayne to strike British troops on the north side with roughly 800 soldiers. Wayne found himself vastly outnumbered, and, instead of retreating, led a bayonet charge. The charge bought time for the Americans, and the British did not pursue. The Battle of Green Spring was a victory for Cornwallis, but

13395-531: The others' innocence. All 16 sisters, along with Mulot, were sentenced to death. At one point, while waiting for the transportation from the Conciergerie to the site of their executions, one of the nuns, Sister St. Louis, after consulting with Mother Teresa, bartered a fur wrap she owned for a cup of chocolate for the sisters to drink from to give them strength after not being able to eat anything all day. There were 26 nights between their arrest and execution. On

13536-592: The palace at dawn. Lafayette took the royal family onto the palace balcony and attempted to restore order, but the crowd insisted that the king and his family move to Paris and the Tuileries Palace . The king came onto the balcony and the crowd started chanting "Vive le Roi!" Marie Antoinette then appeared with her children, but she was told to send the children back in. She returned alone and people shouted to shoot her, but she stood her ground and no one opened fire. Lafayette kissed her hand, leading to cheers from

13677-569: The presence of the illustrious dead, we pledge our hearts and our honor in carrying this war to a successful issue. Lafayette, we are here. During the German occupation of Paris, the American flag flew continuously over Lafayette’s tomb and the German occupiers never entered the cemetery and convent complex. In 1852, financier James Mayer de Rothschild built, next door to the cemetery, the Rothschild Hospital and hospice for Jewish patients. Under

13818-410: The procedure of equipollent canonization for the Martyrs of Compiègne, by which they could be canonized as saints without recognition of a miracle attributed to their intercession. Ten days after the Martyrs of Compiègne were executed, Maximilien Robespierre was executed, ending the Reign of Terror. French Catholics of the time believed that the public executions of the nuns "helped bring about

13959-445: The promise of 6,000 soldiers to be sent to America, commanded by General Jean-Baptiste de Rochambeau . Lafayette would resume his position as a major general of American forces, serving as liaison between Rochambeau and Washington, who would be in command of both nations' forces. In March 1780, he departed from Rochefort for America aboard the frigate Hermione , arriving in Boston on 27 April 1780. On his return, Lafayette found

14100-408: The prosecutor to define the word "fanatic", one of the charges against them. She pretended she did not know what the word meant, thus getting him to admit their fanaticism was due to their religion, which made them "criminals and annihilators of public freedom". Mother Teresa claimed full responsibility for the charges of being counter-revolutionaries and religious fanatics, and defended and insisted on

14241-485: The proximity of these graves, destined for the burials of conspirators who were struck down by the blade of the law". The petition also noted that "those who had been declared enemies of the people and the Republic while they were still alive" are now allowed to "assassinate the people after their death." A second petition, sent a few months after the end of the Reign of Terror, adopts an anti-Robespierre tone: "The patriotes in

14382-606: The riding school of Versailles, where his fellow students included the future Charles X , and at the prestigious Académie de Versailles. He was given a commission as a lieutenant in the Noailles Dragoons in April 1773, the transfer from the royal regiment being done at the request of Lafayette's father-in-law. In 1775, Lafayette took part in his unit's annual training in Metz , where he met Charles François de Broglie, Marquis of Ruffec ,

14523-892: The shores of the Gironde on 25 March 1777. However, Lafayette was not on board in order to avoid being identified by British spies or the French Crown; the vessel moored in Pasaia on the Basque coast, and was supplied with 5,000 rifles and ammunition from the factories in Gipuzkoa . He joined the Victoire , departing to America on 26 April 1777. The two-month journey to the New World was marked by seasickness and boredom. The ship's captain Lebourcier intended to stop in

14664-545: The side of France and her Allies , U.S. Army Colonel Charles E. Stanton visited the General's tomb. Col. Stanton placed an American flag, uttering the famous phrase: "Lafayette, we are here." America has joined forces with the Allied Powers, and what we have of blood and treasure are yours. Therefore it is that with loving pride we drape the colors in tribute of respect to this citizen of your great republic. And here and now, in

14805-471: The sisters sang was Psalm 116 , Laudate Dominum . Sister Constance, a novice , the youngest of the group and the first to die, "spontaneously" began the chant, but it was cut short by the guillotine blade. Each sister joined her and was silenced in the same way. Before their execution they knelt and chanted the "Veni Creator", as at a profession, after which they all renewed aloud their baptismal and religious vows. Sister Charlotte , who at 78 years of age

14946-487: The time, it was believed that many diseases were caused by miasmas, or putrid vapours that were associated with bad smells. Therefore, the presence of 1306 corpses in largely open pits was not only unpleasant, it was also thought to entail a risk for public health. Several weeks before the execution of Robespierre (which effectively ended the Terror), the neighbours sent a petition in which they said that they were justly "alarmed by

15087-408: The troops, Lafayette responded, "I am here to learn, not to teach." He became a member of Washington's staff, although confusion existed regarding his status. Congress regarded his commission as honorary, while he considered himself a full-fledged commander who would be given control of a division when Washington deemed him prepared. Washington told Lafayette that a division would not be possible as he

15228-572: The vicinity demand in the strongest terms the disappearance of the chasm that was dug on the orders of Robespierre and his accomplices in order to bury their victims." No attempt was made to move the mass burial site from its current location. After the Terror ended, the aristocracy began to return from exile or to leave their hiding places. In 1797, under the Directory, the Picpus site was secretly acquired by Princess Amalie Zephyrine of Salm-Kyrburg , whose brother, Frederick III, Prince of Salm-Kyrburg ,

15369-538: The walls of a nearby church, where prayer is offered continuously. On the day the sisters were killed there were 24 other victims. The Martyrs of Compiègne were beatified on May 27, 1906. They were the first martyrs of the French Revolution to be so recognized by the Holy See . Their feast day is 17 July. On February 22, 2022, the Roman Catholic Diocese of Beauvais announced that Pope Francis had accepted

15510-478: The war, he returned home to France to lobby for an increase in French support for the American Revolution. He returned to America in 1780, and was given senior positions in the Continental Army. In 1781, troops under his command in Virginia blocked a British army led by Lord Cornwallis until other American and French forces could position themselves for the decisive siege of Yorktown. Lafayette returned to France and

15651-448: The wearing of habits and religious apparel had been outlawed. They were dependent on the charity of friends, and "courageously continued to practice community prayer", despite the government's orders. In 1794, after the Terror began, the government searched the sisters' apartments for two days; they found letters revealing their "crimes" against the Revolution, which included hostility to

15792-544: The winter of 1777–78, and shared the hardship of his troops. There, the Board of War , led by Horatio Gates , asked Lafayette to prepare an invasion of Quebec from Albany, New York. When Lafayette arrived in Albany, he found too few men to mount an invasion. He wrote to Washington of the situation, and made plans to return to Valley Forge. Before departing, he recruited the Oneida tribe to

15933-503: The women, 16 Carmelite nuns ranging in age from 29 to 78, were brought to the guillotine together, singing hymns as they were led to the scaffold, an incident commemorated in Poulenc 's opera, Dialogues of the Carmelites . They were beatified in 1906 as the Martyrs of Compiègne . As noted above, the residents of the surrounding neighbourhood were unhappy about the burial site at Picpus. At

16074-530: The young man and told him to go to London and visit the Marquis de Noailles , the French ambassador to Britain and Lafayette's uncle by marriage, which he did in February 1777. In the interim, he did not abandon his plans to go to America. Lafayette was presented to George III , and spent three weeks in London. On his return to France, he went into hiding from his father-in-law (and superior officer), writing to him that he

16215-425: The young man apologized. Washington counseled the marquis to be patient. That summer Washington placed Lafayette in charge of a division of troops. The marquis spent lavishly on his command, which patrolled North Jersey and adjacent New York state. Lafayette saw no significant action, and in November, Washington disbanded the division, sending the soldiers back to their state regiments. The war continued badly for

16356-519: The young man's ideas, and Lafayette purchased three slave plantations in Cayenne , French Guiana to house the project. Lafayette visited America in 1784–1785 where he enjoyed an enthusiastic welcome, visiting all the states. The trip included a visit to Washington's farm at Mount Vernon on 17 August. He addressed the Virginia House of Delegates where he called for "liberty of all mankind" and urged

16497-463: Was a French nobleman and military officer who volunteered to join the Continental Army , led by General George Washington , in the American Revolutionary War . Lafayette was ultimately permitted to command Continental Army troops in the decisive Siege of Yorktown in 1781, the Revolutionary War's final major battle that secured American independence. After returning to France , Lafayette became

16638-414: Was a close friend of many American Founding Fathers including George Washington , Alexander Hamilton and Thomas Jefferson , with other friends including John Laurens , and fought in the Continental Army even before France officially entered the American Revolutionary War . He died in 1834 from natural causes (pneumonia) at the age of 76. An American flag always flies over Lafayette's grave courtesy of

16779-579: Was a heavy Continental Army presence, and then bringing British troops over land to the city. After the British outflanked the Americans, Washington sent Lafayette to join General John Sullivan . Upon his arrival, Lafayette went with the Third Pennsylvania Brigade, under Brigadier Thomas Conway , and attempted to rally the unit to face the attack. British and Hessian troops continued to advance with their superior numbers, and Lafayette

16920-691: Was appointed to the Assembly of Notables in 1787, convened in response to the fiscal crisis. He was elected a member of the Estates General of 1789 , where representatives met from the three traditional orders of French society: the clergy, the nobility, and the commoners. After the National Constituent Assembly was formed, he helped to write the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen with Thomas Jefferson 's assistance. This document

17061-459: Was being abandoned in a backwater while decisive battles took place elsewhere, and objected to his orders in vain. He also sent letters to the Chevalier de la Luzerne , French ambassador in Philadelphia, describing how ill-supplied his troops were. As Lafayette hoped, la Luzerne sent his letter on to France with a recommendation of massive French aid, which, after being approved by the king, would play

17202-516: Was being prepared for her trip, and he sent word asking for information on his family's reaction. The response threw him into emotional turmoil, including letters from his wife and other relatives. Soon after departure, he ordered the ship turned around and returned to Bordeaux, to the frustration of the officers traveling with him. The army commander there ordered Lafayette to report to his father-in-law's regiment in Marseilles . De Broglie hoped to become

17343-419: Was covered and quicklime was spread to counter the odor of decomposing bodies. At the beginning, compensation for the workmen accomplishing the burials consisted only of the clothes removed from the victims of the guillotine. Later, with so many executions taking place, this was thought to be excessive and the Revolutionary government kept the proceeds from the sale of the clothes of the victims. A second pit

17484-429: Was dug a few weeks later when the first filled up. The bodies were tightly packed and the heads were thrown in so as to plug empty spots. Since the plan was to continue executions at a rapid pace in the future, it was felt necessary to use the site efficiently so as to save space for future burials. These plans were not realized, however — the bloodshed stopped when Robespierre himself was beheaded on 29 July 1794 (at what

17625-749: Was founded in 1641, a daughter house of the monastery in Amiens . The community grew rapidly, and "was renowned for its fervor and fidelity". It was supported by the French court from its beginnings, until interrupted by the French Revolution, which was hostile towards religion and the Catholic Church. Shortly after Bastille Day , on 4 August 1790, government officials, with armed guards, interviewed each sister at their convent in Compiègne and forced them to choose between breaking their vows or risking further punishment. They all refused to abandon their lives of obedience, chastity, and poverty. They were allowed to stay at

17766-418: Was guillotined and buried in one of the common graves. In the early 1800s, a group of family members (notably, Madame de Lafayette and her sister, Madame de Montagu), launched a search to find the burial place of their loved ones, victims of the Terror. With the help of a young commoner who had lost her father and brother to the guillotine and who had followed the cart to the burial site, they finally located

17907-537: Was inspired by the United States Declaration of Independence , which was authored primarily by Jefferson, and invoked natural law to establish basic principles of the democratic nation-state. He also advocated for the abolition of slavery , in keeping with the philosophy of natural rights . After the storming of the Bastille , he was appointed commander-in-chief of France's National Guard and tried to steer

18048-400: Was looking to marry off some of his five daughters. The young Lafayette, aged 14, seemed a good match for his 12-year-old daughter, Marie Adrienne Françoise , and the duke spoke to the boy's guardian (Lafayette's uncle, the new comte) to negotiate a deal. However, the arranged marriage was opposed by the duke's wife , who felt the couple, and especially her daughter, were too young. The matter

18189-604: Was married, and was arrested and imprisoned with the sisters. On 22 June, the sisters and Mulot were arrested and locked up in the former convent of the Visitation, an improvised jail for political prisoners in Compiègne. On 10 July 1794, they were transferred to the Conciergerie Prison in Paris to await trial. The sisters recanted their civic oath while in prison. During their trial on 17 July 1794, in which they received no legal counsel, Sister Mary-Henrietta tried to force

18330-461: Was noble, and he traveled to the New World seeking glory in it. He was made a major general at age 19, but he was initially not given American troops to command. He fought with the Continental Army at the Battle of Brandywine near Chadds Ford, Pennsylvania , where he was wounded but managed to organize an orderly retreat, and he served with distinction in the Battle of Rhode Island . In the middle of

18471-466: Was of foreign birth, but that he would be happy to hold him in confidence as "friend and father". Lafayette first saw combat at the Battle of Brandywine near Chadds Ford, Pennsylvania , on 11 September 1777. British commander Sir William Howe made plans to occupy Philadelphia by moving troops south by ship to Chesapeake Bay rather than approaching the city through the Delaware Bay , which there

18612-539: Was planning to go to America. De Noailles was furious, and convinced Louis to issue a decree forbidding French officers from serving in America, specifically naming Lafayette. Vergennes may have persuaded the king to order Lafayette's arrest, though this is uncertain. Lafayette learned that the Continental Congress lacked funds for his voyage, so he bought the sailing ship Victoire with his own money for 112,000 pounds. He journeyed to Bordeaux , where Victoire

18753-497: Was produced for French television. The television version included more of Bernanos' dialogue than the 1960 film, and Anne Caudry, who was his granddaughter, was featured in it. French composer Francis Poulenc was commissioned to write a ballet based on Bernanos' dialogue for La Scala and Casa Ricordi , but he wrote an opera instead, titled Dialogues of the Carmelites . As of 2019, the Metropolitan Opera had performed

18894-580: Was rebuffed by the admiral. On 9 August, the American land force attacked the British without consulting d'Estaing. The Americans asked d'Estaing to place his ships in Narragansett Bay , but he refused and sought to defeat the British Royal Navy at sea. The fighting was inconclusive as a storm scattered and damaged both fleets. D'Estaing moved his ships north to Boston for repairs, where it faced an angry demonstration from Bostonians who considered

19035-514: Was sent to school at the Collège du Plessis , part of the University of Paris , and it was decided that he would carry on the family martial tradition. The comte, the boy's great-grandfather, enrolled the boy in a program to train future Musketeers. Lafayette's mother and grandfather died, on 3 and 24 April 1770 respectively, leaving Lafayette an income of 25,000  livres . Upon the death of an uncle,

19176-547: Was settled by agreeing not to mention the marriage plans for two years, during which time the two spouses-to-be would meet from time to time in casual settings and get to know each other better. The scheme worked; the two fell in love, and were happy together from the time of their marriage in 1774 until her death in 1807. After the marriage contract was signed in 1773, Lafayette lived with his young wife in his father-in-law's house in Versailles . He continued his education, both at

19317-408: Was shot in the leg. During the American retreat, Lafayette rallied the troops, allowing a more orderly pullback, before being treated for his wound. After the battle, Washington cited him for "bravery and military ardour" and recommended him for the command of a division in a letter to Congress, which was hastily evacuating, as the British occupied Philadelphia later that month. Lafayette returned to

19458-532: Was staged as a play that premiered in 1951 in Zurich and ran for 300 performances the following year. Bernanos' text, due to Bruckberger's efforts, was used as the basis for the French film Le Dialogue des Carmélites , which was written and directed by Agostini and released in 1960. James Travers and Willems Henri stated that the film, even with its cast and production values, "stood the test of time and deserves to be more widely known". Travers and Henri also said that

19599-599: Was successful, Arnold was to be summarily hanged. British command of the seas prevented the plan, though Lafayette and a small part of his force was able to reach von Steuben in Yorktown, Virginia . Von Steuben sent a plan to Washington, proposing to use land forces and French ships to trap the main British force under Lord Cornwallis . When he received no new orders from Washington, Lafayette began to move his troops north toward Philadelphia, only to be ordered to Virginia to assume military command there. An outraged Lafayette assumed he

19740-436: Was the oldest sister, walked with a crutch and was unable to stand up and get out of the cart because her hands were tied and the other sisters were unable to help her. Eventually a guard gathered her up in his arms and threw her on the street; she lay face down on the pavement stones, with no signs of life as the crowd protested against the guard's treatment of her. She stirred, lifted up her blood-smeared face, and warmly thanked

19881-408: Was then sold to a commoner, Coignard, who turned it into a maison de santé — a kind of convalescent home that also served as a prison for those fortunate enough to be able to pay the rent. Several aristocrats rented rooms from him during the Terror. The novelist Choderos de Laclos , the Marquis de Sade and the philosopher Comte de Volney all spent part of the Terror on the premises. The cemetery

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