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105-503: The Phillis Wheatley Clubs (also Phyllis Wheatley Club ) are women's clubs created by African Americans starting in the late 1800s. The first club was founded in Nashville, Tennessee , in 1895. Some clubs are still active. The purpose of Phillis Wheatley Clubs varied from area to area, although most were involved in community and personal improvement. Some clubs helped in desegregation and voting rights efforts. The clubs were named after

210-574: A "Newcomers club" to ensure that the new faculty wives felt welcome and included at the university. Along with fostering relations, the various clubs volunteered their time and skills to benefit their wider community. At Emporia State University the Faculty Wives club made bandages for the Red Cross during World War I , and sewed regularly for the Red Cross during World War II . At Ball State University

315-709: A Michigan women's club, would work to reforest parts of the state. In Idaho, women's clubs helped prevent logging in national forests . GFWC had been active since 1890 in areas related to forestry and had a forestry committee. This committee also disseminated information about conservation to the 800,000 members of the group. The GFWC later sponsored "a natural scenic area survey" of the United States in 1915 in order to discover areas that needed conservation. As women saw environmentally fragile areas start to be developed, many objected. Women worked within existing clubs, and also formed new conservation-based clubs, to protect

420-623: A black member, Fannie Barrier Williams , only after a long approval process, which included the club deciding not to exclude anyone based on race. Few clubs worked together across racial boundaries, although the YWCA and the Association of Southern Women for the Prevention of Lynching (ASWPL) did sometimes welcome bi-racial collaboration. The Woman's Missionary Council for the southern Methodist church spoke out against lynching . Women's clubs, like

525-506: A club in Racine, Wisconsin in 1919. The Fort Scott, Kansas club was started in 1919 to "study current topics, civics and economics." In 1932, a club in Passaic, New Jersey , worked to raise $ 5,000 for the creation of a black community center . The Coshocton, Ohio , club was started in 1933 a few months just before the 159th anniversary of the publication of Poems by Wheatley. The Coshocton club

630-704: A home for older women in 1925. The Billings, Montana club was instrumental in helping desegregate the city. The Billings club also sponsored scholarships for young women. Clubs, such as the Phyllis Wheatley Progressive Club in Pennsylvania , opened a night school in the late 1920s. Some clubs also emphasized continued learning. The Phyllis Wheatley Club in Chicago also emphasized black literature . Clubs also donated books in celebration of Black History Month to public libraries . Atlanta's club helped build

735-514: A leak of 65 million gallons of acidic water from a Cargill phosphate plant on the bay's southern shore severely impacted wetlands in the vicinity of the spill. And in April 2021, a breach of a wastewater reservoir at the long-closed Piney Point phosphate plant sent over 200 millions gallons of nutrient-rich mine tailings streaming into lower Tampa Bay. The resulting growth of red tide algae led to an ecocide and killed over 1000 tons of fish in

840-505: A literary club, women in Galveston created a scientific club, which also focused on learning. Croly notes that women's clubs were not created to copy men's groups; instead, they were often created to give women a space to share ideas as equals; these ideas often developed into practical action. As Mary I. Wood and Anna J. H. (Mrs. Percy V.) Pennybacker described it: "Very early the club women became unwilling to discuss Dante and Browning over

945-455: A marketing venture in support of his publications, Woman's Magazine and the Woman's Farm Journal , which formed local women's "Chapter Houses". Many evolved into prominent women's clubs and the network later became a more traditional organization with dues paid to its national office, the "American Woman's Republic". Women's clubs were very active in women's suffrage (see below) and helped support

1050-446: A million and a half by 1914. The creation of an umbrella organization for the many women's clubs allowed them to work together in a more coordinated fashion. However, the GFWC excluded African-American clubs from its membership, and many white clubs during the late 1800s excluded black women as well as Jewish women from membership. White women's clubs ignored racial inequalities because of

1155-790: A movement. The first wave of the club movement during the progressive era was started by white, middle-class, Protestant women, and a second phase was led by African-American women. These clubs, most of which had started out as socialiterary gatherings, eventually became a source of reform for various issues in the U.S. Both African-American and white women's clubs were involved with issues surrounding education, temperance , child labor , juvenile justice , legal reform, environmental protection, library creation and more. Women's clubs helped start many initiatives such as kindergartens and juvenile court systems. Later, women's clubs tackled issues like women's suffrage , lynching and family planning . The clubs allowed women, who had little political standing at

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1260-530: A reading room, also named after Phiillis Wheatley. In Buffalo , the Phyllis Wheatley Club there celebrated the 30th anniversary of the ending of slavery with a play which they sponsored. The club in Racine, Wisconsin in 1921 brought in Maud Cuney Hare and William H. Richardson to perform to show off black talent. The Charleston, South Carolina club hosted events featuring prominent individuals in

1365-491: A way to facilitate change in their communities. It was also one of the few ways that women were initially allowed to contribute outside of the home. Some of the earliest women-led organizations were started as religious groups in the early part of the nineteenth century. White women were involved in church charity groups as early as the 1790s. Later, women also started to become involved in antislavery groups, temperance groups and women's suffrage organizations starting in

1470-598: A women's organization, the Mount Vernon Ladies' Association , began the process of restoring and preserving Mount Vernon . In addition to their preservation and conservation efforts, women's clubs in the United States (especially women in the African American Club movement) pioneered environmental activism strategies that laid the foundation for later environmental justice organizing. In fact, many black women created "redemptive spaces" for black immigrants from

1575-456: Is extremely vulnerable to sea level rise caused by climate change. The sea level has risen 8 inches (200 mm) since 1946. Tampa Bay is also one of the areas in the US most at risk when hurricanes arrive because of its location, growing population, and the geography of the bay. The Tampa Bay Regional Resiliency Coalition coordinates the region's response to climate change. Communities throughout

1680-527: Is hoping to restore the building and create a public exhibit space on Black women's history. Preservation Chicago listed the last Chicago Phyllis Wheatley Club and Home as one of Chicago's 7 most endangered buildings in February 2021. The New Orleans club, which was founded by Sylvanie Francoz Williams , also opened a kindergarten and day care for working women and the club was also involved in black women's suffrage . The club in Nashville, Tennessee purchased

1785-787: Is silty and sandy, with an average water depth of only about 12 feet (3.7 m). The relatively shallow water and tidal mud flats allow for large sea grass beds, and along with the surrounding mangrove -dominated wetlands, the bay provides habitat for a wide variety of wildlife. More than 200 species of fish are found in the waters of the bay, along with bottlenose dolphins and manatees , plus many types of marine invertebrates including oysters , scallops , clams , shrimp and crab . More than two dozen species of birds, including brown pelicans , several types of heron and egret , Roseate spoonbills , cormorants , and laughing gulls make their year-round home along its shores and small islands, with several other migratory species joining them in

1890-890: The Crockett State School which was originally meant to help "delinquent" black girls. Women's clubs were involved in vocational training and pushing for additional educational options for all young people. The Woman's City Club worked with the Chicago Woman's Club and the Association of Collegiate Alumnae to create a Bureau of Vocational Supervision which could take a "personal interest in schoolchildren, working directly to place them in appropriate jobs when they left school". The Bureau also created scholarships for needy students. The Chicago Woman's Club raised $ 40,000 to create an industrial school for boys in Glenwood, Illinois. Hester C. Jeffrey established woman's clubs which helped raise

1995-649: The Ebell Club in Los Angeles , emphasizes what makes women's clubs unique: "It is a wondrous thing to be constantly surrounded by three generations of women." Women's clubs continue their original missions of concern for the welfare of their communities. The GFWC gives out the Croly Award for excellence in journalism on topics relating to women. The GFWC also provides scholarships for women, especially those who have survived domestic violence. The NACWC continues to be one of

2100-524: The Fort Worth Phyllis Wheatley Club, were also affiliated with the NFCWC. Early club members were normally professional women or married to "prominent men in the community." However, some Phillis Wheatley Clubs were made up of younger members. Other clubs had members of many different demographics. Clubs were named for the poet, Phillis Wheatley . Many clubs have been and are still active into

2205-554: The Great Depression , black women's clubs began to move towards "structural change and electoral politics". The National Council of Negro Women (NCNW) became a dominant group in the women's club movement in African-American circles. After World War II, working class and poor black women took the place of upper-class black women in organizing communities. Faculty Wives clubs began to be formed in many American universities in

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2310-868: The Montgomery bus boycott in 1955 was the Woman's Political Council of Montgomery. Women's clubs were noted for promoting educational efforts around the country by their contemporaries. Putting women onto school boards was part of many women's club agendas in the late 1800s and early 1900s. Women's groups also influenced discussions about classroom size; the Chicago Woman's City Club asking that there be no more than thirty children per class. Chicago clubs also helped sponsor school lunches for students. Clubwomen have also protested cuts in teacher's salaries. Black women's clubs worked to create educational opportunities for their communities when these areas were ignored by white people. Kindergartens and nursery schools in

2415-593: The National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) in 1909 and were often involved in much of the organization's local work. By 1900, almost every black community had a women's club. By 1910, in proportion to population size, African-American women's clubs outpaced white women's clubs in the number of clubs created. By 1914, the NACW had fifty-thousand members and over a thousand clubs participating in

2520-458: The Progressive era and served the same functions of community, cultural education, and service that characterized larger groups. One of the clubs' primary functions was fostering community among those affiliated with the university. The wives at Ball State University held regular dinners for their husbands, both to relieve stress and build relationships. At University of Washington the wives formed

2625-554: The Texas Association of Women's Clubs also denounced lynching. The purpose of the ASWPL was to end lynching in the United States. Women's groups, like the NACWC, began to support desegregation in the 1950s. The Montana Federation of Colored Women's Clubs led campaigns for civil rights between 1949 and 1955. They also helped draft anti-segregation legislation. The initial organizer of

2730-736: The 1840s. African-American women helped organize many anti-slavery groups, the earliest founded in 1832, and white women followed black women's lead in creating abolition groups. As women began to have more leisure time, they started woman's clubs. Initially, most women's clubs focused on literary endeavors, self-improvement and created social opportunities for white middle-class women. These clubs allowed women to share ideas and helped them realize that their thoughts were important, and that together they could act on them. Literary women's clubs in pioneer areas gave women an outlet to explore reading and make friends. Many women's clubs maintained book collections for use by club members. Instead of forming

2835-606: The 1930s, women's clubs hosted programs in concert with the Works Progress Administration . When World War II broke out, women's clubs were involved in volunteering. In 1964, Congress passed the Civil Rights Act , then, in 1966, the National Organization for Women (NOW) was formed, and women's clubs again grew in size. While there were many organizations that encouraged change around child labor,

2940-403: The 1950s. However, industrial and agricultural runoff along with runoff from developed areas pose a continuing threat to marine ecosystems in the bay, particularly by clouding the water with sediments and algae blooms, and seagrass coverage declined slightly in the late 2010s. Wastewater pollution from old phosphate plants near the shoreline has been a particular problem. For example, in 2004,

3045-435: The 21st century. The El Paso, Texas Phillis Wheatley Club celebrated its 90th anniversary in 2005. The first Phillis Wheatley Club was created in Nashville, Tennessee , in 1895. Another club was formed in Chicago in 1896 and focused on neighborhood improvements and charity work. It was founded by Elizabeth Lindsay Davis and was one of the first groups for African American women in the city. Detroit 's Phillis Wheatley Club

3150-593: The Bay, including St. Petersburg and Tampa are adapting infrastructure and buildings to face changes in sea level. Humans have lived in Florida for millennia, at least 14,000 years. Due to worldwide glaciation, sea levels were much lower at the time, and Florida's peninsula extended almost 60 miles west of today's coastline. Paleo-Indian sites have been found near rivers and lakes in northern Florida, leading to speculation that these first Floridians also lived on Tampa Bay when it

3255-595: The Corps of Engineers dredged another channel from the mouth of Tampa Bay to the Port of Tampa, instantly making the city an important shipping center. The Corps of Engineers currently maintains more than 80 miles of deep-water channels in Tampa Bay up to a depth of 47 feet. These must be continuously re-dredged and deepened due to the sandy nature of the bay bottom. While dredging has enabled seaborne commerce to become an important part of

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3360-513: The Florida Federation of Women's Clubs campaigned to create Florida's first state park in 1916, Royal Palm State Park which became the nucleus of Everglades National Park ". Idaho women's clubs also helped establish some of the first national parks; and in Utah, women's clubs "were instrumental in preserving Monument Valley ". Pennsylvanian women's clubs successfully lobbied for the creation of

3465-513: The Floridian leg of the Trail of Tears . For the next 100 years, many new communities were founded around the bay. Fort Brooke begat Tampa on the northeast shore, Fort Harrison (a minor military outpost on Florida's west coast) begat Clearwater , the trading post of "Braden's Town" developed into Bradenton on the south, and St. Petersburg grew quickly after its founding in the late 19th century, on

3570-655: The GFWC became advocates for some of the first child labor laws. Children were hired because they were cheaper and more manageable than adults. During the early 1900s, women's labor organizations were formed to protect their rights. Among them, was Lenora O'Reilly who helped develop the WTUL that supported wage requests and promoted the end of child labor. Even before African Americans were freed from slavery , black women had started to come together to create organizations which looked after their community's welfare. Black women were very quick to "organize themselves for self-help". One of

3675-483: The Interbay peninsula and Hillsboro Bay on the east with an overall name of Bay of Spiritu Santo . At other times, the entire bay was identified as The Bay of Tocobaga. The United States acquired Florida from Spain in 1821. The name Spirito Santo seems to have disappeared from maps of the region in favor of "Tampa Bay" (sometimes divided into Tampa and Hillsboro Bays) soon after the US established Fort Brooke at

3780-720: The Newark Club. In Cleveland , Jane Edna Hunter founded a group in 1911 that was later renamed the Phillis Wheatley Association. The El Paso, Texas Phillis Wheatley Club was started in 1915. Charleston, South Carolina started a club in 1916 which was named the Phillis Wheatley Literary and Social Club. Another club was founded in 1918 in Billings, Montana , and the first president was Mattie Hambright. The Billings club would continue until 1972. Dora Bell started

3885-809: The Pennsylvania Department of Forestry. In 1916, the GFWC supported the creation of the National Park Service . In the 1930s, clubwomen involved in the PEO Sisterhood , protected the Great Sand Dunes in Colorado. In New Mexico, the Valley of Fires Recreation Area was created through the work of the Carrizozo Woman's Club. Women's clubs also helped preserve historical areas. As early as 1856,

3990-611: The Phyllis Wheatley Club sponsored an annual "Defense Dance" which raised money by charging a fee at the door. Fundraising could go towards other non-profit groups, such as the NAACP . Clubs could be affiliated with the YWCA or worked independently. The first club, started in Nashville, became affiliated with the National Federation of Colored Women's Clubs (NFCWC) in 1897. Other clubs, such as

4095-488: The Progressive Era. A number of clubs, named after her, were created in large cities across the country. In Chicago, the wealthy former abolitionist Mary Jane Richardson Jones supported the development of several clubs, serving as the first chair of Wells's. Other influential woman's club organizers were Josephine St. Pierre Ruffin and Mary Church Terrell . In 1896, the National Association of Colored Women (NACW)

4200-732: The Progressive era, many black women migrated to the Northern United States and into more urban areas . The club movement for black women in the 1890s began to focus on "social and political reform" and were more secular. Black women had to face the same issues as white women during this period but were often excluded from services and help that benefited whites only. Black women were not only excluded from white clubs but also from clubs created by black men. In addition, many black women felt as though they were defying stereotypes for their community. Woman's clubs allowed black women to combat

4305-495: The Tampa Bay area's economy, it has also damaged the bay's water quality and ecology. More care has been taken in recent decades to lessen the environmental impact of dredging. Dredged material has also been used to create several spoil islands on the eastern side of Hillsboro Bay. These islands have become important nesting sites for many seabirds, including threatened species such as oystercatchers , and have been designated as "sanctuary islands" that are off-limits to boaters. In

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4410-456: The Tampa Bay region would be virtually uninhabited for almost 200 years. Tampa Bay was given different names by early mapmakers. Spanish maps dated from 1584 identifies Tampa Bay as Baya de Spirito Santo ("Bay of the Holy Spirit "). A map dated 1695 identifies the area as Bahia Tampa . Later maps dated 1794 and 1800 show the bay divided with three different names, Tampa Bay west of

4515-451: The United States were the creation of women's clubs. The first nursery school in the United States was created through women's clubs and club members in Chicago. The Woman's Club of El Paso started the first kindergarten in the state of Texas in 1893. Women's clubs were often involved with creating schools for delinquent boys and girls. The Texas Association of Women's Clubs (TAWC) worked for several decades to create what would later become

4620-494: The University of Washington. African-American women's clubs began to decline in the 1920s. By the 1960s, interest and membership in white women's clubs started to decline. As women had more opportunities to socialize, many clubs found their members were aging and were unable to recruit newer members. Woman's clubs began to turn over their work to city entities and became less influential. In addition, more women began to enter

4725-567: The area for over a century. The United States took possession of Florida in 1821 and established Fort Brooke at the mouth of the Hillsborough River in 1824. The communities surrounding Tampa Bay grew tremendously during the 20th century. Today, the area is home to about 4 million residents, making Tampa Bay a heavily used commercial and recreational waterway and subjecting it to increasing amounts of pollutants from industry, agriculture, sewage, and surface runoff . The bay's water quality

4830-529: The bay and along the nearby gulf coast and may lead to further damage to seagrass beds. The effects of Hurricane Milton in October 2024 caused polluted waste from the fertilizer industry including products from Mosaic , which were retained after the production of phosphate, to enter into Tampa Bay. Both Hurricane Milton and Hurricane Helene caused disruption in the production of phosphate fertilizers from Tampa Bay. Tampa Bay, like other parts of Florida ,

4935-475: The bay are distributed among over a hundred small tributaries, rather than a single river. The Hillsborough River is the largest such freshwater source, with the Alafia , Manatee , and Little Manatee rivers the next largest sources. Because of these many flows into the bay, its large watershed covers portions of five Florida counties and approximately 2,200 square miles (5,700 km ). The bottom of Tampa Bay

5040-503: The bay was connected to the Gulf of Mexico. This culture, which relied almost exclusively on the bay for food and other resources, was in turn replaced by the similar Safety Harbor culture by approximately 800 AD. The pre-contact Indigenous nation most associated with the Tampa Bay are the historic Tocobaga nation, who are known to be among the ancestors of the contemporary Seminole and Miccosukee Tribes of Florida. The Safety Harbor culture

5145-483: The bay. Not finding gold or silver in the vicinity and unable to convert the native inhabitants to Christianity, the Spanish did not remain in the Tampa Bay area for long. However, diseases they introduced decimated the native population over the ensuing decades, leading to the near-total collapse of every established culture across peninsular Florida. Between this depopulation and the indifference of its colonial owners,

5250-525: The black community such as Marian Anderson , Mary McCleod Bethune , Countee Cullen , W. E. B. Du Bois , and Langston Hughes . The club in Coshocton, Ohio , also promoted black figures in history, creating a program that featured individuals and inviting other clubs to attend the even annually. To pay for charity work and other endeavors, the clubs held fundraisers. These could be in the form of balls or dances, or theater and musical receptions. In Tampa Bay ,

5355-591: The century and severely impacting the marine ecosystem. Many previously common species became scarce, and bay beaches were regularly closed due to unsafe levels of bacteria and pollutants. Beginning in the early 1980s after federal and state legislation to improve water quality, authorities installed improved water treatment plants and tightened regulation of industrial discharge , leading to slow but steady improvement in water quality and general ecological health. By 2010, measures of sea grass coverage, water clarity, and biodiversity had improved to levels last seen in

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5460-470: The city of Tampa's downtown wharves on Hillsboro Bay. Most ships would anchor well out from shore and transfer cargo and passengers to and from the city in smaller boats. Henry B. Plant 's railroad line reached the area in 1884 and ran across the Interbay Peninsula to Old Tampa Bay, where he built the town and shipping facility of Port Tampa at its terminus. In 1898, Plant used his connections in

5565-399: The clearing of mangroves for shoreline development were important factors. Most damaging was the discharge of waste water and other pollutants into the bay, which drastically degraded water quality. The bay's health reached a low point in the 1970s. The water was so murky that sunlight could not reach the shallow bottom, reducing sea grass coverage by more than 80% compared to earlier in

5670-405: The club sewed regularly at the local hospital. The Faculty Wives clubs were prominent throughout much of the 20th century. During the latter half, some of the clubs merged with other groups to form University Women's club, reflecting the change in faculty diversity and gender roles in the United States. Other wives clubs have remained independent and vibrant in their community, like the one at

5775-427: The community as recently as 2007 with the creation of an evening group. Some clubs have had success with creating programs that are meant to be attractive to younger women. The Des Moines Women's Club established in 1885, continues to support the community today with scholarships, an annual art exhibition, and continued support to its historic club house and museum, Hoyt Sherman Place . Shirlee Haizlip , president of

5880-465: The controversy surrounding the issue, and even if they addressed racial inequalities, they did so "tactfully in order to gain members and support". Some white women's clubs were frankly unconcerned with issues relating to African Americans because they "supported the racist ideology and practices of their era". In 1907, magazine publisher Edward Gardner Lewis created the American Woman's League as

5985-507: The country. Clubwomen would often donate art to schools. Other clubs created traveling art collections and art libraries for communities. Clubs also hosted arts exhibits. The FFWC promoted Old Folks at Home by Stephen Foster as the state song. African-American women promoted the arts, focusing on "celebrating African American traditions and culture." These included African-American music, theater and dance. Clubwomen saw themselves as carrying on both art and tradition of their lives in

6090-403: The country. Woman's clubs in the late 1800s described themselves as attempting to "exert a refining and ennobling influence" on their communities. They also saw woman's clubs as an intellectual and practical good which would create better women and a better country. Sorosis and the GFWC saw large increases in membership in 1889 and 1890. The GFWC grew to around a million women by 1910, and to

6195-603: The creation of hospitals. In Seattle, Anna Herr Clise created what later became the Seattle Children's Hospital . Other clubs helped set up health centers and clinics. Tampa Bay The shores of Tampa Bay were home to the Weeden Island Culture and then the Safety Harbor culture for thousands of years. These cultures relied heavily on Tampa Bay for food, and the waters were rich enough that they were one of

6300-408: The early 20th century, traveling overland between the growing communities around Tampa Bay was an arduous process. The trip between Tampa and St. Petersburg was almost 50 miles (80 km) around the north end of Old Tampa Bay and took up to 12 hours by train and over a full day over uncertain roads by car. The trip between St. Petersburg and Bradenton was even longer – over 70 miles (110 km) all

6405-581: The early 20th century. They were brought together through the careers of the members' spouses. The clubs were localized around their particular affiliation and geographically restricted, thus most of their clubs did not receive the same volume of members nor the publicity of some of the earlier groups. However, their existence can still be seen in various archives at universities across the United States such as University of Washington , Kent State University , Emporia State University , and Ball State University . These Faculty Wives clubs were formed during

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6510-675: The environment. Women's clubs helped in the creation of the Mesa Verde National Park . Under the direction of Virginia McClurg , women's organizations in Colorado supported the creation of the park. The Colorado Federation of Women's Clubs (CFWC) helped McClurg, and created a committee that would eventually become the Colorado Cliff Dwellings Association. In California, women's clubs helped preserve Sequoia trees and protested against "the environmentally destructive Hetch Hetchy Dam ". May Mann Jennings and

6615-554: The federal government to make Port Tampa a major embarkation point for the U.S. Army during the Spanish–American War , leading to the U.S. Congress appropriating funds for the United States Army Corps of Engineers to begin the first large dredging operation in Tampa Bay. A deep shipping channel was created which linked Port Tampa to the mouth of the bay, enabling Plant to greatly expand his steamship line. In 1917,

6720-409: The few Native American cultures that did not have to farm. The Tocobaga was likely the dominant chiefdom in the area when Spanish explorers arrived in the early 1500s, but there were likely smaller chiefdoms on the eastern side of the bay which were not well documented. The indigenous population had been decimated by disease and warfare by the late 1600s, and there were no permanent human settlements in

6825-781: The first African-American women's club was the Female Benevolent Society of St. Thomas, in Philadelphia, which was started in 1793. At the time, Philadelphia had numerous black organizations. After the African Benevolent Society in Newport, Rhode Island , would not allow women to be officers or vote, women created their own group. Another group, the Colored Female Religious and Moral Society in Salem, Massachusetts

6930-500: The forefront of various civil rights issues, denouncing lynching, promoting women's rights and voting rights. Women's clubs helped promote civil rights , as well as improving conditions for black women in the country. Some women's clubs also worked to understand people's fear of immigrants during the late 1900s. Settlement houses , created by woman's clubs, helped settle and integrate European immigrants. The Fannie Jackson Coppin Club

7035-585: The founding of the first Progressive era women's clubs, Sorosis and the New England Women's Club , most organizations for women were auxiliaries of groups for men or were church-related. Jane Cunningham Croly of the General Federation of Women's Clubs (GFWC) wrote in 1898 that women were first able to reach out of their homes through religious institutions. By becoming involved in church or charitable groups, women were able to find companionship and

7140-477: The funds for young black women to take classes at what would later become the Rochester Institute of Technology . Clubs, like the Chicago Woman's Club, taught the blind and provided job skills. Many women's clubs believed that compulsory education for young people would help solve many child labor issues. In Chicago, the Woman's City Club worked with other clubs in order to help students stay in school past age 14. The Illinois Collegiate Alumnae association helped

7245-745: The government draw up a law in 1897 to ensure that children between the ages of seven and fourteen were in school for sixteen weeks of the year. Women's clubs helped support and influence the creation of higher education. The Texas Federation of Women's Clubs "was a significant force behind the establishment of Texas Woman's University ." Women's clubs helped raise money for new college buildings. Other clubs created scholarship funds for their communities. These organizations also helped produce research showing that higher education benefited women. Women's clubs today continue to sponsor scholarships for higher education. Women's club activities were seen by contemporaries as helping to spread art appreciation across

7350-498: The idea of municipal housekeeping , women were also able to justify their involvement in government. Later, in 1921, Alice Ames Winter describes how women had begun to see "their homes as the units out of which society was built", and that home life and public life were linked. Women's clubs "established the idea that women had a moral duty and responsibility to transform, define and shape public policy". Women's clubs were also "training schools" for women who wanted to get involved in

7455-483: The isolation of the COVID-19 pandemic in the United States . Women's clubs, especially during the Progressive era , helped shape their communities and the country. Many progressive ideals were pressed into action through the resources of women's clubs, including kindergartens, juvenile courts, and park conservation. Women's clubs, many with their literary backgrounds, helped promote and raise money for schools, universities and libraries. Women's clubs were often at

7560-478: The lake-to-bay transformation is not completely understood, the leading theory is that rising sea levels following the last ice age coupled with the formation of a massive sink hole near the current mouth of the bay created a connection between the lake and the gulf. Tampa Bay is Florida's largest open-water estuary, extending over 400 square miles (1,000 km ) and forming coastlines of Hillsborough , Manatee and Pinellas counties. The freshwater sources of

7665-590: The late nineteenth century and early twentieth century. The Chicago and Northern District Association of Colored Women's Clubs (CNDA) hosted well-known singers such as Etta Moten . CNDA also hosted an exhibit of African art, literature, and music called The Negro in Art Week in 1927. Women's clubs were involved in protecting natural resources . Many women's clubs started out by beautifying their cities and states. Clubs would sponsor and maintain playgrounds , and dedicate and maintain cemeteries . Later, clubs, like

7770-508: The misconception that it is the name of a particular municipality when this is not the case. Tampa Bay formed approximately 6,000 years ago as a brackish drowned river valley type estuary with a wide mouth connecting it to the Gulf of Mexico . Prior to that time, it was a large fresh water lake, possibly fed by the Floridan Aquifer through natural springs . Though the exact process of

7875-668: The modern era were adaptable in response to societal changes over time. The missions of women's clubs, like the Colony Club , founded in 1903, and the Cosmopolitan Club , founded in 1909, remain relevant today, and the clubs remain successful. During the early 21st century, numerous new private women's clubs formed in support of personal and professional affiliations and business networking , including AllBright , Belizean Grove , The Riveter , The Wing and Chief , with growth attributed to factors including advances in technology and

7980-563: The mouth of the Hillsborough River in 1824. For the next several decades, during the Seminole Wars , the Tampa Bay would be a primary point of confrontation, detention, and forced expulsion of the Seminole & Miccosukee people of Florida. Fort Brooke, Fort Dade, and the American military's miscellaneous Egmont Key facilities were the primary sites associated with the removal of the Seminole in

8085-455: The ongoing health of the estuary. The term "Tampa Bay" is often used as shorthand to refer to all or parts of the Tampa Bay area , which comprises many towns and cities in several counties surrounding the large body of water. Local marketing and branding efforts (including several professional sports teams, tourist boards, and chambers of commerce) commonly use the moniker "Tampa Bay", furthering

8190-430: The period's stereotypes which "portrayed African American women as devoid of morality, sexually wanton and incapable of upholding marital and family responsibilities". Being a member of a woman's club also helped give black women greater social standing in their communities. Black colleges helped the creation of African-American women's clubs. Ida B. Wells was an important figure in the growth of these clubs during

8295-490: The poet Phillis Wheatley . Phillis Wheatley Clubs worked on improving their neighborhoods and the lives of people in their communities. Clubs were also involved in social reform . In New Orleans , the Phyllis Wheatley Club founded the only training hospital for black doctors and nurses in 1896. The hospital was originally named the Phyllis Wheatley Sanitarium and Training Hospital for Nurses. The Chicago club

8400-520: The public sphere. They helped women attain both social and political power. Many women's clubs increased their memberships by having other members sponsor or nominate new members to the group. Clubs often organized themselves by committee, or division. Many women's clubs created and occupied their own clubhouses. Today these clubhouses have continued to be the site of women's meetings and other gatherings. Some women's clubs created and continue to publish their own journals and newsletters. Prior to

8505-611: The ratification of the 13th Amendment in 1865, black women continued to organize and often worked with churches to ensure their communities were taken care of. Many of these organizations were "so resilient that they were able to survive the twin disasters of bank failure and yellow fever ". In 1868, black women's clubs were formed in Harris County, Texas . Between 1880 and 1920, black women in Indianapolis, Indiana had created more than 500 clubs addressing various issues. During

8610-510: The refuge on Egmont Key . Most of the islands (including several man-made islands built from dredge spoil ) and sandbars are off-limits to the public, due to their fragile ecology and their use as nesting sites by many species of birds. The Tampa Bay Estuary Program keeps watch over the Bay's health. Tampa Bay was once teeming with fish and wildlife. People of the Safety Harbor culture lived almost entirely from mullet, shellfish, sea turtles, manatees, crabs, and other bounties harvested from

8715-648: The rural south in northern cities in the United States where they repurposed abandoned buildings as "community centers, settlement houses, parks and playgrounds." The Woman's City Club and the City Club of Chicago both worked on issues relating to waste disposal . The Woman's City Club was, in contrast, more interested in the health and safety of the city as opposed to the men's group who were more interested in making money from sanitation. The Carrizozo Woman's Club of New Mexico helped bring sanitation to their city. Women's club members were involved in hospital reform and

8820-408: The sea. As late as the early 20th century, visitors still reported huge schools of mullet swimming across the bay in such numbers that they "impeded the passage of boats". The establishment and rapid growth of surrounding communities during the 20th century caused serious damage to the bay's natural environment. Heavy harvesting of fish and other sea life, constant dredging of shipping channels, and

8925-499: The surrounding communities much faster and furthering the economic development of the Tampa Bay area. The difficulty of traveling between Tampa and St. Petersburg in the early 20th century inspired the world's first scheduled air service, the St. Petersburg-Tampa Airboat Line , which operated during the tourist season of 1914. While the construction of bridges made air travel across Tampa Bay unnecessary, several airports have been built along

9030-568: The teacups, at meetings of their peers in some lady's drawing room, while unsightly heaps of rubbish flanked the paths over which they had passed in their journeys thither." Women justified their movement into social reform by using the Victorian idea that women were naturally morally superior to men. As clubs moved from self-improvement to community improvement, women's clubs in the Western U.S. lagged somewhat behind clubs formed in more developed parts of

9135-406: The time, to gain greater influence in their communities. As women gained more rights, the need for clubs to exercise political and social influence became less important. Over time, participation in women's clubs has waned in the United States. However, many clubs still continue to operate and influence their communities. The woman's club movement became part of Progressive era social reform, which

9240-457: The top ten non-profit organizations in the United States. It has adopted modern issues to tackle, such as fighting AIDS and violence against women. Many of today's women's clubs also provide cultural opportunities for their communities. Some groups continue to support their original missions, such as the Alpha Home, which provides care for elderly black people. Women's clubs that endured into

9345-460: The umbrella organization. Black women wanted to be visible and NACW helped them organize to improve conditions in their communities. There were also many African-American versions of the WCTU and the YWCA . The NACW raised more than $ 5 million in war bonds during World War I . The Woman's Club of Norfolk wrote letters and sent care packages to the segregated black units sent to fight overseas. During

9450-512: The war effort during World War I . Women in clubs raised money, worked with the Red Cross , financed the Home Guard and set up communications within the community to share information quickly. Woman's clubs also knitted socks, rolled bandages for soldiers and sold war bonds . In Texas, the Texas Federation of Women's Clubs (TFWC) helped create recreational canteens for soldiers. During

9555-608: The way around Tampa Bay, a trip that still took about two hours into the 1950s. In 1924, the Gandy Bridge over Old Tampa Bay reduced the driving distance between Tampa and St. Petersburg to 19 miles (31 km). Ten years later, the Davis Causeway (later renamed the Courtney Campbell Causeway ) was built between Clearwater and Tampa. More bridges criss-crossed Tampa Bay over the ensuing decades, making travel between

9660-543: The western bay shore opposite Tampa. By 2010, the Tampa Bay Area was home to over 4 million residents. As Tampa began to grow in the mid-1800s, roads across central Florida were still just rough trails and rail lines did not yet extend down the Florida peninsula, so the most convenient means of traveling to and from the area was by sea. By the late 19th century, however, the shallow nature of Tampa Bay made it impossible for large modern vessels with deeper drafts to reach

9765-592: The winter. The cooler months are also when warm-water outfalls from power plants bordering the bay draw one out of every six West Indian manatees , an endangered species, to the area. Tampa Bay was designated as an "estuary of national significance" by the United States Environmental Protection Agency in 1990. Two National Wildlife Refuges are located in Tampa Bay: Pinellas National Wildlife Refuge and

9870-648: The workforce during the 1960s and had less spare time to devote to club work. Many women today are working long hours or spending time with their children's extracurricular activities . By 2010, the number of women's clubs had significantly decreased across the country. This reflects a trend in all club memberships in the United States: most clubs are losing members because there is a lack of leisure time for younger people. Some clubs are still active. The Houston Heights Woman's Club and The Women's Club of Forest Hills have found ways to reach out to younger residents in

9975-484: Was affiliated with the YWCA and started by Thelma Crowthers. Woman%27s club movement The woman's club movement was a social movement that took place throughout the United States that established the idea that women had a moral duty and responsibility to transform public policy. While women's organizations had existed earlier, it was not until the Progressive era (1896–1917) that they came to be considered

10080-468: Was created in 1818. Black women's clubs helped raise money for the anti-slavery newspaper The North Star . Many black churches owed their existence to the dedicated work of African-American women organizing in their communities. Black women's literary clubs began to show up as early as 1831, with the Female Literary Society of Philadelphia. After slavery was ended in the United States with

10185-555: Was created in 1899 by members of the Beth Eden Baptist Church, one of the oldest African-American religious institutions in Oakland, California , to "provide hospitality and housing services to African-American visitors who were not welcomed in the segregated hotels and other businesses" in the state. Some white woman's clubs promoted desegregation early on, though these efforts were small in scope. The Chicago Woman's Club admitted

10290-413: Was dominant in the area at the time of first contact with Europeans in the mid-1500s. The Tocobaga , who built their principal town near today's Safety Harbor in the northwest corner of Old Tampa Bay, are the most documented group from that era because they had the most interactions with Spanish explorers . However, there were many other coastal villages organized into various small chiefdoms all around

10395-421: Was founded in 1896 by a group of Black women led by Elizabeth Lindsay Davis , and created a home for young women without permanent housing. It was the first Black women's club formed in Chicago, and was supported by Mary Jane Richardson Jones , a prominent older black activist and wealthy widow. The first Phyllis Wheatley Home, located on Chicago's South Side , was purchased for $ 3,400 in 1906, and Jennie Lawrence

10500-492: Was founded. The NACW grew out of anti-lynching campaigns spearheaded by Wells. Wells's anti-lynching campaign provoked the president of the Missouri Press Association who viciously attacked black women in a letter that was widely circulated among women's clubs by Ruffin. Ruffin eventually helped bring together the NACW, using the letter as a "call to action". Both black and white women were involved in creating

10605-518: Was hired to oversee it. It opened in 1908, and served as a settlement house , providing accommodations to Black women during the Great Migration . It moved into a larger building in 1913, before moving to its final location on South Michigan Avenue in the mid-1920s. It remained open until the 1970s. The first two locations have been demolished, while a hearing in demolition court is scheduled for its final location on March 16, 2021. However, its owner

10710-467: Was reflected by many of the reforms and issues addressed by club members. According to Maureen A. Flanagan, many women's clubs focused on the welfare of their community because of their shared experiences in tending to the well-being of home-life. Tending to the community was often called "municipal housekeeping" during the Progressive era and reflected a shared belief by many club members that home and city life were linked through city hall. By constructing

10815-463: Was seriously degraded by the early 1980s, resulting in a sharp decline in sea life and decreased availability for recreational use. Greater care has been taken in recent decades to mitigate the effects of human habitation on Tampa Bay, most notably upgraded sewage treatment facilities and several sea grass restoration projects, resulting in improved water quality over time. However, occasional red tide and other algae blooms have caused concern about

10920-592: Was started in 1897. Mame Josenberger , who founded the Phillis Wheatley Club in 1898 in Fort Smith, Arkansas , would go on to later serve as president of the Arkansas Association of Colored Women (AACW). The Newark, New Jersey Phillis Wheatley Club was founded in 1909 with a focus on literature. Musette Brooks Gregory , a suffragist and civil rights advocate, served as one of the elected presidents of

11025-649: Was still a freshwater lake. Evidence of human habitation from this early period has been found at the Harney Flats site, which is approximately 10 miles east of the current location of Tampa's downtown waterfront. The earliest evidence of human habitation directly on the shores of Tampa Bay comes from the Manasota culture , a variant of the Weeden Island culture , who lived in the area beginning around 5,000–6,000 years ago, after sea levels had risen to near modern levels and

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