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112-452: The whole event is called Bun Luang , part of a Buddhist merit-making holiday also known as Bun Phawet (assembly day). The town’s residents invite protection from Phra U-pakut , the spirit of the Mun river. They then hold a series of games and take part in a procession wearing masks made of the sheaths or bottom part of thick palm leaf stems. Bamboo sticky rice steaming baskets are stitched onto

224-478: A 'book of merit' ( Pali : puñña-potthaka , Sanskrit : puṇyapustaka ) was sometimes kept by someone for years and read in the last moments of life. This practice was based on the story of King Duṭṭhagāmaṇi , and was mostly practiced by the royalty and rich during the period of the Mahāvaṁsa chronicle . More recent practice has also been observed, for example, as a form of terminal care . or as part of

336-479: A PPL perspective, it emanates from appropriate actors. In the social contract tradition, Hobbes and Locke focused on NPL (stressing security and liberty, respectively), while Rousseau focused more on PPL ("the people" as the legitimator). Arguably, political stability depends on both forms of legitimacy. Weber's understanding of legitimacy rests on shared values , such as tradition and rational-legality. But policies that aim at (re-)constructing legitimacy by improving

448-454: A basic condition for governing, without which a government will suffer legislative deadlock(s) and collapse. In political systems where this is not the case, unpopular regimes survive because they are considered legitimate by a small, influential elite . In Chinese political philosophy , since the historical period of the Zhou dynasty (1046–256 BC), the political legitimacy of a ruler and government

560-471: A bit of merit is no use to him ( Pali : "anumattenāpi puññena attho mayhaṃ na vijjati" ). Some scholars, supporting the transcendency thesis, have interpreted this to mean that merit can only lead to happiness and progress within Saṃsāra , but does not lead to Nirvana, and must in fact be discarded before attaining Nirvana. Marasinghe believes, however, that the word merit in this passage refers to merit in

672-421: A certain wish or intention also affects the meritorious deed, as the power of the merits can be channeled toward a certain purpose. The manner in which people give is also important: whether someone gives respectfully or not, and whether by giving someone is harming anyone. With regard to the size of the gift, a larger gift is usually more meritorious than a smaller one, but purity of mind affects merit more than

784-567: A community. People were so intent on merit-making and giving, that in some societies, people would even offer themselves and their family to a Buddhist temple, as one high-ranking minister did in the ancient Pagan Kingdom (ninth until fourteenth century Burma). On a similar note, in Sri Lanka, kings and commoners would offer slaves to the temple, and then donate money to pay for their freedom, that way accruing two merits at once. Even more symbolically, kings would sometimes offer their kingdom to

896-565: A conflict zones, may construct legitimacy more successfully than the state in certain strata of the population. Political theorist Ross Mittiga has proposed an alternative typology, consisting of two parts: foundational and contingent legitimacy. According to Mittiga, foundational legitimacy (FL) "pertains to a government's ability to ensure the safety and security of its citizens," while contingent legitimacy (CL) obtains in situations in which governments "exercise[] power in acceptable ways." Mittiga specifies further that FL: ...is bound up with

1008-570: A distinction is made between worldly ( Pali : lokīya ) and transcendental ( Pali : lokuttara ) merit, in which only transcendental merit leads to liberation. The Thai scholar and monastic Phra Payutto believes that merit and kusala are both used to describe the 'cleanliness of the mind' ( RTGS :  khwam sa-at mot chot ). But whereas merit aims for the 'beautiful and praiseworthy' ( RTGS :  suai-ngam na chuenchom ) aspect of such cleanliness, with worldly benefits such as wealth, praise and happiness; kusala aims for

1120-407: A force that results from good deeds done; it is capable of attracting good circumstances in a person's life, as well as improving the person's mind and inner well-being. Moreover, it affects the next lives to come, as well as the destination a person is reborn. The opposite of merit is demerit ( papa ), and it is believed that merit is able to weaken demerit. Indeed, merit has even been connected to

1232-478: A government legitimate, the Center for Public Impact launched a project to hold a global conversation about legitimacy stating, inviting citizens, academics and governments to participate. The organization also publishes case studies that consider the theme of legitimacy as it applies to projects in a number of different countries and cities including Bristol, Lebanon and Canada. The United Nations Human Rights Office of

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1344-538: A happy or a miserable successor. And so, without any definite belief as to how, or in what realm of the universe he will re-arise as that successor to his present self, the pious Buddhist, no less than his pious brethren of other creeds, goes on giving money and effort, time and thought to good works, cheerfully believing that nothing of it can possibly forgo its effect, but that it is all a piling up of merit or creative potency, to result, somewhere, somewhere, somehow, in future happiness—happiness which, though he be altruistic

1456-511: A human, the gift yields more fruits than if the recipient is an animal, but a gift to a sāmaṇera (a young monk), a monk, many monks, and the Buddha yield even more fruits, in ascending order. If the giver is motivated by greed or other defilements of the mind , the merit gained will be much less than if the giver is motivated by loving-kindness or other noble intentions. Even the intention of going to heaven, though in itself not considered wrong,

1568-451: A key term ( communism , democracy , constitutionalism , etc.) has different meanings within a given political argument. Hence, the intellectually restrictive politics of dogmatism ("My answer is right, and all others are wrong"), scepticism ("I don't know what is true, and I even doubt my own opinion"), and eclecticism ("Each meaning gives a partial view, so the more meanings the better") are inappropriate philosophic stances for managing

1680-424: A legally constituted government. The Enlightenment -era British social John Locke (1632–1704) said that political legitimacy derives from popular explicit and implicit consent of the governed : "The argument of the [ Second ] Treatise is that the government is not legitimate unless it is carried on with the consent of the governed." The German political philosopher Dolf Sternberger said that "[l]egitimacy

1792-418: A range of political capacities and actions including, among other things, being able to ensure continuous access to essential goods (particularly food, water, and shelter), prevent avoidable catastrophes, provide immediate and effective disaster relief, and combat invading forces or quell unjustified uprisings or rebellions. If a government cannot fulfill these basic security functions, it is not legitimate, if it

1904-415: A relative to ordain as a monk. Young people often temporary ordain as monks, because they believe this will not only yield fruits of merit for themselves, but also for their parents who have allowed them to ordain. In China, Thailand and India, it used to be common to offer land or the first harvest to a monastery. Also, more socially oriented activities such as building a hospital or bridge, or giving to

2016-400: A serving rather than an extractive attitude. As long as authorities do not satisfy people's more immediate expectation of interactive dignity, people support and consider alternative authorities to be more legitimate. In a theocracy , government legitimacy derives from the spiritual authority of a god or a goddess. The political legitimacy of a civil government derives from agreement among

2128-461: A sort of spiritual currency or bookkeeping system. Though objections have been made against this metaphor , it is not new. Similar comparisons have been made in the Milinda Pañhā , and in seventeenth-century China. Moreover, Schopen has shown that Buddhism has had strong connections with the mercantile class, and Rotman thinks that a mercantile ethos may have informed Buddhist texts such as

2240-657: A spiritual practice. But using wealth in unrighteous ways, or hoarding it instead of sharing and giving it, is condemned extensively. Taṇhā (thirst, desire, greed, craving) is what keeps a person wandering in Saṃsāra (the cycle of rebirth) , instead of becoming liberated. It is the attachment to wealth that is an obstacle on the spiritual path, not wealth per se. Stories illustrating these themes in vernacular Buddhist literature, have profoundly influenced popular culture in Buddhist countries. Several scholars have described merit as

2352-446: A stage in a cumulative force of tremendous power. He and his works stand in a mutual relation, somewhat like that of child to parent in the case of past works, of parent to child in the case of future works. Now no normal mother is indifferent as to whether or how she is carrying out her creative potency. Nor can any normal Buddhist not care whether his acts, wrought up hourly in their effect into his present and future character, are making

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2464-668: A story of the Vessantara Jataka in which the Buddha in one of his past lives as a prince made a long journey and was presumed dead. The celebrations on his return were so raucous as to wake the dead. The second day of the festival incorporates elements of the Rocket Festival , plus costume and dance contests and more parades. On the third and final day, the villagers listen to sermons from Buddhist monks . Merit-making Merit ( Sanskrit : puṇya ; Pali : puñña )

2576-426: A temple, which, returned the gift immediately, together with some Dhamma teaching. Also in Sri Lanka, King Mahakuli Mahatissa disguised himself as a peasant and started to earn his living working on a paddy field, so he would be able to gain more merit by working himself to obtain resources to give to Buddhist monks. In some cases, merit-making was even continued after a person's death: in ancient Thai tradition, it

2688-443: A view on the next life and liberation. Among lay people, women tend to engage in merit-making more than men, and this may be a way for them to enhance empowerment . Very often, merit-making is done as a group, and it is believed that such shared merit-making will cause people to be born together in next lives. This belief holds for families, friends, communities and even the country as a whole. In some cases, merit-making took

2800-572: A yearly festival ( RTGS :  Thet Mahachat ) is held focused on the Vessantara Jātaka , a story of a previous life of the Buddha which is held sacred. This festival, seven centuries old, played a major role in legitimating kingship in Thai society. ( see § Kingship , below ) Making merit is the central theme of the festival. Since the period of Rama IV , however, the festival has become less popular. Many countries also celebrate

2912-472: Is a common idea found in Buddhist texts and Buddhist societies, and explains why people are different and lead different lives in many ways. Karma is self-regulatory and natural: it operates without divine intervention and human intention is fundamental to it. Internally, merit makes the mind happy and virtuous. Externally, present good circumstances, such as a long life, health and wealth, as well as

3024-434: Is a concept considered fundamental to Buddhist ethics . It is a beneficial and protective force which accumulates as a result of good deeds, acts, or thoughts. Merit-making is important to Buddhist practice: merit brings good and agreeable results, determines the quality of the next life and contributes to a person's growth towards enlightenment . In addition, merit is also shared with a deceased loved one, in order to help

3136-415: Is a more abstract normative judgment, which is underpinned by shared values. If a person believes that an entity has the right to exercise social control, he or she may also accept personal disadvantages." Establishing legitimacy is not simply transactional; service provision, elections and rule of law do not automatically grant legitimacy. State legitimacy rests on citizens' perceptions and expectations of

3248-593: Is a widespread custom in all Buddhist countries, Mahāyāna, Vajrayāna and Theravāda. In the Pāli tradition, the word pattidāna is used, meaning 'giving of the acquired'. And in the Sanskrit tradition, the word pariṇāmanā is used for transferring merit, meaning 'bending round or towards, transfer, dedication'. Of these translations, 'transfer of merit' has become commonplace, though objected to by some scholars. Legitimacy (political) In political science , legitimacy

3360-449: Is a widespread custom of transferring merit to one's deceased relatives, of which the origin is still a matter of scholarly debate. Merit has been that important in Buddhist societies, that kingship was often legitimated through it, and still is. In modern society, merit-making has been criticized as materialist , but merit-making is still ubiquitous in many societies. Examples of the impact of beliefs about merit-making can be seen in

3472-460: Is about the object of legitimation (answering what is legitimate), and positive political legitimacy (PPL), which is about the source of legitimation (answering who is the 'legitimator'). NPL is concerned with establishing where to draw the line between good and bad; PPL with who should be drawing it in the first place. From the NPL perspective, political legitimacy emanates from appropriate actions; from

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3584-544: Is also considered a form of saving, considering there is a rebirth in which people receive back what they have given. As for virtue, this comprises three out of eight aspects of the Noble Eightfold Path , the path central in the Buddhist teaching: right speech , right action and right livelihood . Being the main criterion for moral behaviour in Buddhism, virtue is mostly about the undertaking of five precepts , although

3696-532: Is also part of the Buddhist path, cultivated through loving-kindness and the other sublime attitudes ( Pali : brahamavihāra ). In post-canonical and vernacular Pāli literature, such as the Jātaka stories of the Buddha's previous lives, the Avadānas and Anisaṃsa texts, as well as in many Mahāyāna texts, merit is the main concept. It is regarded as something which can be accumulated throughout different lifetimes in

3808-560: Is always the primary —though, in good states, under reasonably favorable conditions, not the exclusive —end of political power. Aristotle expresses something like this in insisting that the point of political society is to furnish the resources needed not just to live but to live well . Crudely put, FL is about living, CL about living well. And it is of course impossible to live well without living: after all, there can be no democracy of desolation, no fair social cooperation in conditions of extreme scarcity, no real rights when political stability

3920-508: Is associated with goodness and purity of mind. In traditional Buddhist societies, it is believed that merit is more sustainable than that of magical rites , spirit worship or worldly power. The way merit works, is that acts of merit bring good and agreeable results, whereas demeritorious acts bring bad and disagreeable results. A mixture of the two generates mixed results in a person's life. This karmic correspondence ( Pali : kamma-sarikkhatā ) or "automatic cosmic reaction" (Brokaw)

4032-447: Is common, especially those meritorious deeds which are connected to monks and temples. In this regard, there is a saying in Burma, "Your hands are always close to offering donations". Contrary to popular conceptions, merit-making is done by both monastics and laypeople alike. Buddhist monks or lay Buddhists earn merit through mindfulness , meditation, chanting and other rituals. Giving

4144-585: Is compared with a seed planted in fertile ground which reaps more and better fruits than in infertile ground. The Sangha is described as a field of merit, mostly because the members of the Sangha follow the Noble Eightfold Path . But in many texts, the Buddha and the Dhamma, and their representations, are also described as fields of merit. For example, Mahāyāna tradition considers production and reverence of Dharma texts very meritorious—this tradition, sometimes referred to as

4256-412: Is described as the way in which a Bodhisattva prevents "suffering in all evil destinies ". These ten wholesome ways are: These ten actions are described as akusala ('unwholesome'; Sanskrit : akuśala ), and when abstaining from them it is called kusala ('wholesome'; Sanskrit : kuśala ). Moreover, kusala and akusala are depicted as having 'roots' ( mūla ). Akusalamūla are

4368-558: Is even a government at all. [p.3] On the other hand, Mittiga acknowledges that there is "extensive debate" about which factors are relevant to CL, but argues that, "[a]mong the most commonly defended factors" are "the presence of democratic rights and processes, consent, guarantees of equal representation, provision of core public benefits, protection of basic individual rights and freedoms, social justice, and observance of fairness principles." [pp. 4–5] Mittiga specifies further that "[m]ost contemporary theorists maintain that legitimacy [in

4480-552: Is generally considered fundamental to Buddhist ethics , in nearly all Buddhist traditions. Merit-making is very important to Buddhist practice in Buddhist societies. Merit is a "beneficial and protective force which extends over a long period of time" (B.J. Terwiel)—and is the effect of good deeds ( Pali : kamma , Sanskrit : karma ) done through physical action, words, or thought. As its Pāli language (the language of Theravada Buddhism, as practiced in Sri Lanka, Thailand, Myanmar, etc.) definition indicates, this force

4592-455: Is going on pilgrimage , which is mostly common in Tibet and Japan. This practice is highly regarded and considered very meritorious. In several Buddhist countries, it has been common to record merits done. In China, it was common for many centuries to keep record of someone's meritorious deeds in 'merit ledgers' ( pinyin : gōngguò gé ). Although a belief in merit and retribution had preceded

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4704-398: Is maintainable only through raw assertions of coercive power (if it can be maintained at all). In this sense, FL is necessarily prior to CL, and must be regarded as such in moments when trade-offs become a necessary part of the political calculus. [p.7] Max Weber proposed that societies behave cyclically in governing themselves with different types of governmental legitimacy. That democracy

4816-410: Is not seen as lofty as the intention to want to develop and purify the mind. If the recipient is spiritually "not worthy of the gift", the gift will still be meritorious provided the giver's intention is good, and this is also valid the other way around. Good thoughts must also be maintained after the good deed is done, as regretting the gift will also decrease the merit. Whether the giver pronounces

4928-468: Is reborn in a happy destination, however, one can only stay there as long as merits last. Thus, it is stated in the Tipiṭaka that people cannot take anything with them when they die, except for whatever merit and demerit they have done, which will affect their future. Merit can be accumulated in different quantities, and stored up, but also has an impermanent character: it can run out. Summarising from

5040-400: Is the right and acceptance of an authority , usually a governing law or a regime . Whereas authority denotes a specific position in an established government, the term legitimacy denotes a system of government—wherein government denotes " sphere of influence ". An authority viewed as legitimate often has the right and justification to exercise power . Political legitimacy is considered

5152-460: Is the foundation of such governmental power as is exercised, both with a consciousness on the government's part that it has a right to govern, and with some recognition by the governed of that right". The American political sociologist Seymour Martin Lipset said that legitimacy also "involves the capacity of a political system to engender and maintain the belief that existing political institutions are

5264-548: Is the fundamental way of making merit for many laypeople, as monks are not allowed to cook by themselves. Monastics in their turn practice themselves to be a good field of merit and make merit by teaching the donors. Merit-making has thus created a symbiotic relationship between laypeople and Sangha, and the Sangha is obligated to be accessible to laypeople, for them to make merit. Giving can be done in several ways. Some laypeople offer food, others offer robes and supplies, and others fund ceremonies, build monasteries or persuade

5376-535: Is therefore and thus far responsible. C. A. F. Rhys Davids , A Study of the Buddhist Norm The ten bases of merit are very popular in Buddhist countries. In China, other similar lists are also well-known. In Thai Buddhism , the word "merit" ( RTGS :  bun ) is often combined with "to do, to make" ( RTGS :  tham ), and this expression is frequently used, especially in relation to giving. In Buddhist societies, such merit-making

5488-550: Is those good deeds done with regard to the Triple Gem , that is, the Buddha , his teachings, the Dhamma ( Sanskrit: Dharma ), and the Sangha . In Buddhist societies, a great variety of practices involving merit-making has grown throughout the centuries, sometimes involving great self-sacrifice. Merit has become part of rituals , daily and weekly practice , and festivals . In addition, there

5600-416: Is used in merit transfer ceremonies, for example. Merit is not only a concept, but also a way of living. The Pāli canon identifies three bases of merit ( puññakiriyā-vatthu ), in order of difficulty: In Buddhist texts and practice, giving is considered the easiest of the three bases of merit. It helps to overcome selfishness and stills the mind; it prepares the mind for the practice of virtue. It

5712-485: The Divyāvadāna . Gombrich objects to calling merit-making "dry metaphysical mercantilism ", but he does speculate on a historical relation between the concept of merit and the monetisation of ancient India's economy. Two practices mentioned in the list of meritorious acts have been studied quite extensively by scholars: dedicating (or transferring) merit to others, and rejoicing in others' merits. Transferring merit

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5824-532: The Middle East ; that the rule-proving exceptions are Islamic Iran and Saudi Arabia . Furthermore, the third Weber type of political legitimacy, rational-legal authority, exists in so many permutations no longer allow it to be limited as a type of legitimate authority. In determining the political legitimacy of a system of rule and government, the term proper— political legitimacy —is philosophically an essentially contested concept that facilitates understanding

5936-633: The Phu Mi Bun rebellions which took place in the last centuries, as well as in the revival of certain forms of merit-making, such as the much discussed merit release . Puñña literally translates as 'merit, meritorious action, virtue '. It is glossed by the Theravāda Commentator Dhammapāla as " santanaṃ punāti visodheti ", meaning 'it cleans or purifies the life-continuity'. Its opposites are apuñña (demerit) or pāpa ('infertile, barren, harmful, bringing ill fortune'), of which

6048-639: The eight precepts may be kept now and then. The five precepts are part of many Buddhist ceremonies , and are also considered a merit itself, helping the practitioner to become strong and healthy. The benefits of practicing the three bases of merits are also summarised as three forms of happiness ( Pali : sampatti )—happiness as a human being, happiness in heaven, and happiness in Nirvana . When people die, what world they will be reborn into depends on how intense they practice these three bases of merit. It is, however, only mental development that can take someone to

6160-549: The "cult of the book" ( Gregory Schopen ), stimulated the development of print technology in China . In other traditions a Buddha image is also considered a field of merit, and any good deed involving a Buddha image is considered very meritorious. A meritorious deed will also be very valuable (and sometimes viewed in terms of a field of merit) if performed to repay gratitude to someone (such as parents), or performed out of compassion for those who suffer. Deeds of merit done towards

6272-573: The 'power of blessed substances' ( Standard Tibetan : rdzas ) . These are considered an addition to the traditional list and can help protect against calamities or other negative events caused by bad karma. A number of scholars have criticized the concepts of merit and karma as amoral, egoist and calculative, citing its quantitative nature and emphasis on personal benefits in observing morality. Other scholars have pointed out that in Buddhist ethics egoism and altruism may not be as strictly separated as in western thought, personal benefit and that of

6384-440: The 'purity' ( RTGS :  borisut ) aspect of cleanliness, with enlightenment as its benefit. Phra Payutto does add that both need to be accumulated on the Buddhist path. In making this comparison, he says this only holds for worldly merit, not for transcendental merit. Collins equates transcendental merit with kusala . In the earlier Pāli texts, kusala was much more commonly used than puñña , puñña mostly being used in

6496-549: The Buddha would normally emphasise ethics . The fact that an enlightened person is neutral in terms of karma, does not mean he is ethically neutral. Indeed, the Buddha is quoted in the Tipiṭaka as saying he is foremost in 'higher morality' ( adhisīla ). Keown attempts to overcome this problem by proposing that enlightened people are beyond the accumulative experience of good deeds (merit, puñña ), since they are already perfected. They therefore do not need to accumulate goodness and

6608-419: The Buddhist text Milinda Pañhā , some scholars conclude that merit is inherently stronger than demerit. Moreover, many merits together have the power to prevent demerits from having an effect, by pushing them "to the back of the queue" ( Richard Gombrich ), though demerits can never be undone. All these benefits of merit ( Pali : ānisaṁsa ; Sanskrit : ānuśaṁsa ), whether internal or external, are

6720-522: The High Commission (OHCHR) established standards of what is considered "good governance" that include the key attributes transparency, responsibility, accountability, participation and responsiveness (to the needs of the people). Assessing the political legitimacy of a government can be done by looking at three different aspects of which a government can derive legitimacy. Fritz Scharpf introduced two normative criteria, which are output legitimacy, i.e.

6832-550: The Sangha as a whole ( Pali : saṅghadāna ) yield greater fruits than deeds done towards one particular recipient ( Pali : pāṭipuggalikā dakkhiṇā ) or deeds done with favoritism. Indeed, saṅghadāna yields even more fruits than deeds of merit to the person of the Buddha himself. Thus the Buddhist's view of his present activities has a wider basis, they being but one group of incidents in an indefinitely prolonged past, present and future series. They are, as has been said, no mere train of witnesses for or against him, but

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6944-581: The Teachings' and 'Straightening one's own views' are part of 'Mental development'. Thus, in Theravāda Buddhism, merit is always accrued through morally (good) actions. Such good deeds are also highly valued in the other two Buddhist schools, that is Mahāyāna (China, Japan, etc.) and Vajrayāna (Tibet, Nepal, etc.). In some forms of Mahāyāna or Vajrayāna it is believed, however, that even more merit will accrue from certain ritual actions, sometimes called

7056-532: The Tipiṭaka, Keown believes that only this passage is not enough to base the transcendency thesis on. In the Pāli Canon, an enlightened person is said to be neutral in terms of karma, that is, the person no longer generates karma, merit, or demerit. Some scholars have interpreted this to mean that an enlightened person attains a state where distinctions between good and evil no longer exist. Other scholars have criticized this as making little sense, considering how

7168-435: The activities of lay merit-making associations. The association of wealth with merits done has deeply affected many Buddhist countries. The relation between giving and wealth is ubiquitous in vernacular Pāli literature, and many stories of exemplary donors exist, such as the stories of Anāthapiṇḍika and Jōtika. In Buddhism, by emphasizing the usage of wealth for generosity, accumulating wealth for giving purposes thus became

7280-403: The aim in merit-making, and are often subject of Dharma teachings and texts. Thus, merit is the foundation of heavenly bliss in the future, and in some countries merit was also considered to contribute to the good fortune of the country. Because merit is understood to have these many beneficial effects, it is sometimes compared with cool water, which is poured or which is bathed in. This symbol

7392-627: The aims of monks and laypeople cannot be that easily separated. This transcendency thesis has also been applied to scriptural interpretation. When discussing the path to the attainment of Nirvana, in some passages in the Tipiṭaka merit is rejected. For example, in the Padhāna Sutta, the Bodhisatta (the Buddha Gotama to be) is tempted by Māra to give up his self-torture practices to do meritorious acts instead. The Bodhisatta replies that even

7504-627: The autonomous constituent institutions—legislative, judicial, executive—combined for the national common good. In the United States, this issue has surfaced around how voting is impacted by gerrymandering , the United States Electoral College 's ability to produce winners by minority rule and discouragement of voter turnout outside of swing states , and the repeal of part of the Voting Rights Act in 2013. Another challenge to

7616-454: The character and abilities someone is born with, arise from merits done in the past and vice versa, with demerits. The merits and demerits a person has done may take a while to bear fruit. Merit or demerit may cause a good or bad future respectively, including in the next lives to come. A bad destination after rebirth may be caused by demerit, but merely a lack of merit may also lead a person to be born in an unhappy destination. When someone

7728-423: The citizenry"; and (3) "the problem of exceptional circumstances," which is "the fact that even widely shared and seemingly stable CL factors are routinely relaxed or abandoned during emergencies, often without calling into question the basic legitimacy of the government." Mittiga summarizes the difference between these two types or levels or types of legitimacy as follows: The factors associated with CL condition

7840-536: The complex relationships that constitute a legitimate political system in the 21st century. Moreover, Dogan proposed that traditional authority and charismatic authority are obsolete as forms of contemporary government; e.g., the Islamic Republic of Iran (est. 1979) rule by means of the priestly Koranic interpretations by the Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini . That traditional authority has disappeared in

7952-577: The construct. These include empirical legitimacy versus normative legitimacy, instrumental versus substantive legitimacy, popular legitimacy, regulative legitimacy, and procedural legitimacy. Types of legitimacy draw distinctions that account for different sources of legitimacy, different frameworks for evaluating legitimacy, or different objects of legitimacy. Legitimacy in conflict zones, where multiple authorities compete over authority and legitimacy, can rest on other sources. The theory of interactive dignity by Weigand shows that interactions are key for

8064-445: The construction of substantive legitimacy in such contexts. The aspect of an authority that most concerns people in the absence of other accountability mechanisms are its actions, particularly with regard to how authorities interact with them on a day-to-day basis. The value-based expectation people have with regard to such interactions is one of human dignity. People expect procedures to be fair and practices to be respectful, reflecting

8176-687: The context of the practice of giving. In a widely quoted theory, Melford Spiro and Winston King have distinguished two forms of Buddhism found in traditional Buddhist societies, "kammatic Buddhism" focused on activities such as merit-making, and "nibbanic Buddhism" which focuses on the liberation from suffering and rebirth. In this theory, called the "transcendency thesis" (Keown), Buddhism has two quite separate aims, which are pursued by separate groups, that is, laypeople (kammatic) and monks (nibbanic). This view has, however, been downplayed or criticized by many other scholars, who believe that kammatic practices are in many ways connected to nibbanic practices, and

8288-690: The contingent sense] requires multiple of these factors—some of which are procedural and others substantive." According to Mittiga, what makes certain aspects of legitimacy "contingent" (as opposed to "foundational") is that they are affected by (1) "the problem of pluralism"—i.e., the idea that "any firm agreement on" which factor(s) matters (or matter most of all) "will remain elusive or at least always open to contestation and renegotiation"; (2) "the problem of partial displacement," which holds that "when new legitimation factors emerge," as they often have historically, "earlier ones may not entirely disappear but only become less salient, at least for sizable portions of

8400-400: The deceased in their new existence. Despite modernization , merit-making remains essential in traditional Buddhist countries and has had a significant impact on the rural economies in these countries. Merit is connected with the notions of purity and goodness. Before Buddhism, merit was used with regard to ancestor worship , but in Buddhism it gained a more general ethical meaning. Merit is

8512-748: The detail. Through these ledgers it was believed someone could offset bad karma. In the fourth century CE , the Baopuzi , and in the twelfth century the Treatise On the Response of the Tao and the Ledger of Merit and Demerit of the Taiwei Immortal introduced the basics of the system of merit ledgers. In the fourteenth century CE, the Tao master Zhao Yizhen recommended the use of

8624-404: The different applications and interpretations of abstract, qualitative , and evaluative concepts such as " art ", " social justice ", et cetera, as applied in aesthetics , political philosophy , the philosophy of history , and the philosophy of religion . Therefore, in defining the political legitimacy of a system of government and rule, the term "essentially contested concept" indicates that

8736-478: The donors who provided gifts for the sacrifice. In Buddhism, it was the Buddhist monk who assumed this role, considered qualified to receive generosity from devotees and thereby generating merit for them. He came to be described as āhuneyyo ('worthy of offering'), by analogy with the Brahmanical term āhavanīya ('worthy of sacrifice', used in offerings to the ritual fire); and as dakkhiṇeyyo ('qualified to accept

8848-424: The effectiveness of policy outcomes for people and input legitimacy, the responsiveness to citizen concerns as a result of participation by the people. A third normative criterion was added by Vivien Schmidt , who analyzes legitimacy also in terms of what she calls throughput, i.e. the governance processes that happen in between input and output. Abulof distinguishes between negative political legitimacy (NPL), which

8960-404: The experience of the consequences of the action. He further points out that in the Pāli suttas (discourses) mental development ( bhāvanā ) practices such as meditation are also included in the path of merit. It is unlikely that in the Tipiṭaka meditation would be regarded as an indirect path or obstacle to Nirvana, and there are passages that directly relate merit to Nirvana. Sometimes

9072-418: The focus on the pitṛ did not really change. In Buddhism, the idea of an eternal heaven was rejected, but it was believed that merit could help achieve a rebirth in a temporary heaven. Merit was no longer merely a product of ritual , but was invested with an ethical meaning and role. In the Tipiṭaka ( Sanskrit : Tripitaka ; the Buddhist scriptures), the importance of merit is often stressed. Merit

9184-436: The form of a community-wide competition, in which different donors tried to outdo each other to prove their generosity and social status. This was the case during merit-making festivals in nineteenth-century Thailand. In modern Thailand, businesses and politicians often make merit to improve their public image and increase confidence among customers or voters. In Burma, lay devotees form associations to engage in merit-making as

9296-471: The gift's size. It is therefore recommended to give as much as you can afford, no more and no less. Such care in choosing whom to give to and how to give, is called being 'skilled in merit' ( Pali : puññassa kovidā ). A teaching that exists in both Mahāyāna sūtras and Theravādin suttas is the teaching on the Ten Wholesome Ways of Action ( Pali : kusaladhamma ). In Mahāyāna, this teaching

9408-745: The highest heavenly worlds, or to Nirvana. Post-canonical texts and commentaries such as the Dhammasaṅganī and Atthasālinī , elaborating on the three bases of merit, state that lay devotees can make merit by performing ten deeds. Seven items are then added to the previous three: These ten, the Commentator Buddhaghosa says, all fit within the three first bases of merit: 'Giving' includes 'Transferring merit to others' and 'Rejoicing in others' merit' by extension, whereas 'Virtue' includes 'Honouring others' and 'Offering service'. The remaining items 'Listening to Teachings', 'Instructing others in

9520-434: The ledgers to examine oneself, to bring emotion in harmony with reason. From the fourth to the sixteenth centuries, many types of ledgers were produced by Buddhist and Tao schools, and the usage of the ledgers grew widespread. The practice of recording merits has survived in China and Japan until the present day. In Theravāda countries, for example in Burma and Sri Lanka, similar customs have been observed. In Sri Lanka,

9632-492: The merit ledgers by many centuries, during the Ming dynasty , through the ledgers a practice of systematic merit accumulation was established for the first time. The merit ledgers were lists of good deeds and bad deeds, organized in the form of a calendar for users to calculate to what extent they had been practicing good deeds and avoiding bad deeds every day. The ledgers also listed the exact retributions of every number of deeds done, to

9744-513: The monk, whereas the Brahmanical yajña only emphasized offerings to the Brahmin priest. That is not to say that such offerings were not important in early Buddhism : giving to the Sangha was the first Buddhist activity which allowed for community participation, and preceded the first rituals in Buddhism. The main concept of the field of merit is that good deeds done towards some recipients accrue more merit than good deeds to other recipients. This

9856-468: The most appropriate and proper ones for the society". The American political scientist Robert A. Dahl explained legitimacy as a reservoir: so long as the water is at a given level, political stability is maintained, if it falls below the required level, political legitimacy is endangered. Legitimacy is "a value whereby something or someone is recognized and accepted as right and proper". In political science, legitimacy has traditionally been understood as

9968-409: The negatives akusala and pāpa have almost the same meaning, there are some differences between the positives, kusala and puñña . According to P. D. Premasiri , Kusala is used to describe a more direct path to Nirvana than puñña . Damien Keown , however, believes they are merely different angles of the same concept: kusala refers to the moral status of an action, whereas puñña refers to

10080-399: The next life, but also in adjacent lives after that. Wealth, lifespan, and position are all contingent on merit. In Buddhist texts further details are given in what way and to what extent a meritorious deed will bring results: this depends on the spiritual quality of the recipient, the spiritual attitude of the giver, the manner in which one gives and the object given. If the recipient is

10192-401: The offering'), by analogy with the Brahmanical dakśiṇā , the sacrificial offering itself. The Sangha (monastic community) was also described as 'field of merit' ( Pali : puññakkhetta ; Sanskrit : puṇyakṣetra ). The difference with the Brahmanical tradition was, according to Marasinghe, that Buddhism did recognize other ways of generating merit apart from offerings to

10304-415: The other becoming one as the practitioner progresses on the spiritual path. Buddhist ethics is informed by Buddhist metaphysics, notably, the not-self doctrine , and therefore some western ethical concepts may not apply. Besides, as Keown notices, moral action would not be possible if it was not preceded by moral concern for others, as is illustrated by the example of the Buddha himself. Such moral concern

10416-434: The path to Nirvana itself, but many scholars say that this refers only to some types of merit. Merit can be gained in a number of ways, such as giving , virtue and mental development . In addition, there are many forms of merit-making described in ancient Buddhist texts . A similar concept of kusala ( Sanskrit: kusala ) is also known, which is different from merit in some details. The most fruitful form of merit-making

10528-485: The political legitimacy offered by elections is whether or not marginalized groups such as women or those who are incarcerated are allowed to vote. Civil legitimacy can be granted through different measures for accountability than voting, such as financial transparency and stake-holder accountability. In the international system another method for measuring civil legitimacy is through accountability to international human rights norms. In an effort to determine what makes

10640-743: The poor are included in the Tipiṭaka, and by many Buddhists considered meritorious. In fieldwork studies done by researchers, devotees appreciated the merits of becoming ordained and supporting the building of a temple the most. Fisher found that building a temple was considered a great merit by devotees, because they believed they would in that way have part in all the wisdom which would be taught at that temple. People may pursue merit-making for different reasons, as Buddhist orthodoxy allows for various ideals, this-worldly or ultimate. Although many scholars have pointed out that devotees often aim for this-worldly benefits in merit-making, it has also been pointed out that in old age, people tend to make merit with

10752-498: The popular acceptance and recognition by the public of the authority of a governing régime, whereby authority has political power through consent and mutual understandings, not coercion. The three types of political legitimacy described by German sociologist Max Weber , in "Politics as Vocation", are traditional, charismatic, and rational-legal: More recent scholarship distinguishes between multiple other types of legitimacy in an effort to draw distinctions between various approaches to

10864-458: The pre-Buddhist Brahmanical sense, connected with rituals and sacrifice, and the lay life. Another example often quoted in this context is the simile of the raft , which states that both dhamma and adhamma should be let go of in order to attain liberation. Whereas the term adhamma in the text clearly refers to evil views, the meaning of dhamma is subject to different interpretations. Considering that no other similar passage can be found in

10976-514: The process of attaining Buddhahood , and is also instrumental in attaining it. The Bodhisatta intent on accomplishing Buddhahood and bringing other beings across the ocean of suffering, must do so by accumulating all sorts of merits, in this context also called perfections ( Pali : pāramī ; Sanskrit : pāramitā ). This form of merit-making is always led by a vow for enlightenment ( Pali : panidhāna ; Sanskrit : praṇidhāna ), and an intention to enlighten others as well, as well as

11088-399: The resulting happiness anymore. They no longer need to strive for a happy rebirth in the next life, because they have gone beyond rebirth. Their enlightenment is, however, an ethical perfection as well, though this is solely described as kusala , not as puñña . In pre-Buddhist Brahmanism , Brahmin priests used to perform yajña s (sacrifices) and thereby generating merit for

11200-399: The roots of evil in the mind (the defilements ), whereas the kusalamūla are roots connected with good qualities of the mind. Both of them are called roots because they are qualities that can be cultivated and grown in the mind. Puñña and pāpa are close in meaning to kusala and akusala . Both pairs are used for distinguishing between ethically right and wrong. However, even though

11312-475: The service delivery or 'output' of a state often only respond to shared needs . Therefore, Weigand distinguishes substantive sources of legitimacy from more instrumental ones. Instrumental legitimacy rests on "the rational assessment of the usefulness of an authority ..., describing to what extent an authority responds to shared needs. Instrumental legitimacy is very much based on the perceived effectiveness of service delivery. Conversely, substantive legitimacy

11424-520: The state, and these may be co-constructed between state actors and citizens. What legitimizes a state is also contextually specific. McCullough et al. (2020) show that in different countries, provision of different services build state legitimacy. In Nepal public water provision was most associated with state legitimacy, while in Pakistan it was health services. But it is not only states that that can build legitimacy. Other authorities, such as armed groups in

11536-477: The term pāpa has become most common. The term merit , originally a Christian term , has in the latter part of the twentieth century gradually been used as a translation of the Buddhist term puṇya or puñña . The Buddhist term has, however, more of an impermanent character than the English translation implies, and the Buddhist term does not imply a sense of deserving . Before the arising of Buddhism, merit

11648-438: The tops of the sheaths to make the top section of the mask. Artists paint the masks with very creative and intricate designs and add carved wooden noses and ear-like appendages. The dancers wear loose and colorful patchwork pants and shirts, with strings of bells hanging down from their belts, in the back. They tease the spectators with big wooden phalluses . The origins of this part of the festival are traditionally ascribed to

11760-456: The transferring of merits to all living beings to that effect. Another aspect of meritorious acts, emphasised more in later literature, is the idea that a single meritorious act done will reap many fruits, as, for example, expressed in the Vimānavatthu . Not only is the quality of people's next rebirth affected by their merits, but also the circumstances in which they are reborn; not only in

11872-435: The use of political power by specifying, for instance, what can or cannot be done or sacrificed, how decisions should be made, and who counts (and for how much). The answers to these questions often appear to us as moral universals; yet, in practice, they are the products of long and contentious historical processes. FL, on the other hand, does not vary between societies, generations, or circumstances. Ensuring safety and security

11984-426: The while, is yet more a future asset of his, than of some one in whom he naturally is less interested than in his present self. He believes that, because of what he is now doing, some one now in process of mental creation by him, and to all intents and purposes his future " self," will one day taste less or more of life's trials. To that embryonic character he is inextricably bound ever making or marring it, and for it he

12096-493: The yearly Kaṭhina , when they offer robes, money and other requisites to the Sangha as a way to make merit. In Burma, the two yearly Light Festivals are typically occasions to make merit, as gifts are given to elders, and robes are sewn for the Sangha. In South Korea, a Buddha Day ( Korean : seog-ga-tan-sin-il ) is held, on which Buddhists pray and offer alms . Other kinds of occasions of merit-making are also upheld. A special form of merit-making less frequently engaged in

12208-466: Was commonly used in the context of Brahmanical sacrifice, and it was believed that merit accrued through such sacrifice would bring the devotee to an eternal heaven of the 'fathers' ( Sanskrit : pitṛ, pitara ) . Later, in the period of the Upanishads , a concept of rebirth was established and it was believed that life in heaven was determined by the merit accumulated in previous lives, but

12320-500: Was considered meritorious for people to dedicate their corpses to feed the wild animals after death. Many devout Buddhists observe regular "rest days" ( Pali : uposatha ) by keeping five precepts, listening to teachings, practicing meditation and living at the temple. Besides these weekly observances, ceremonies and festivities are yearly held and are often occasions to make merit, and are sometimes believed to yield greater merits than other, ordinary days. In Thailand and Laos,

12432-456: Was derived from the Mandate of Heaven , and unjust rulers who lost said mandate therefore lost the right to rule the people. In moral philosophy , the term legitimacy is often positively interpreted as the normative status conferred by a governed people upon their governors' institutions, offices, and actions, based upon the belief that their government's actions are appropriate uses of power by

12544-733: Was unnecessary for establishing legitimacy, a condition that can be established with codified laws, customs, and cultural principles, not by means of popular suffrage . That a society might decide to revert from the legitimate government of a rational–legal authority to the charismatic government of a leader; e.g., the Nazi Germany of Adolf Hitler , Fascist Italy under Benito Mussolini , and Francoist Spain under General Francisco Franco . The French political scientist Mattei Dogan 's contemporary interpretation of Weber's types of political legitimacy (traditional, charismatic, legal-rational) proposes that they are conceptually insufficient to comprehend

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