Nocturnality is a behavior in some non-human animals characterized by being active during the night and sleeping during the day. The common adjective is " nocturnal ", versus diurnal meaning the opposite.
94-564: The Phalangeridae are a family of mostly nocturnal marsupials native to Australia , New Guinea , and Eastern Indonesia , including the cuscuses , brushtail possums , and their close relatives. Considered a type of possum , most species are arboreal , and they inhabit a wide range of forest habitats from alpine woodland to eucalypt forest and tropical jungle. Many species have been introduced to various non-native habitats by humans for thousands of years. Phalangerids are relatively large, compared with other possums . The smallest species,
188-412: A G protein called G olf . cAMP, which is the second messenger here, opens a cyclic nucleotide-gated ion channel (CNG), producing an influx of cations (largely Ca with some Na ) into the cell, slightly depolarising it. The Ca in turn opens a Ca -activated chloride channel , leading to efflux of Cl , further depolarizing the cell and triggering an action potential. Ca is then extruded through
282-433: A sodium-calcium exchanger . A calcium- calmodulin complex also acts to inhibit the binding of cAMP to the cAMP-dependent channel, thus contributing to olfactory adaptation. The main olfactory system of some mammals also contains small subpopulations of olfactory sensory neurons that detect and transduce odors somewhat differently. Olfactory sensory neurons that use trace amine-associated receptors (TAARs) to detect odors use
376-540: A common ancestor who evolved to function as a nocturnal species, decreasing their eyesight in favor of a better sense of smell. The anomaly to this theory were anthropoids , who appeared to have the most divergence from nocturnality of all organisms examined. While most mammals did not exhibit the morphological characteristics expected of a nocturnal creature, reptiles and birds fit in perfectly. A larger cornea and pupil correlated well with whether these two classes of organisms were nocturnal or not. Being active at night
470-485: A decrease in mate calls and continued to move around instead of waiting for a potential mate to arrive. This hurts the overall fitness of the species, which is concerning considering the overall decrease in amphibian populations. Predation Some nocturnal predator-prey relationships are interrupted by artificial lighting. Bats that are fast-moving are often at an advantage with insects being drawn to light; they are fast enough to escape any predators also attracted to
564-593: A highly polymorphic scent signal of genetic identity that appears to underlie kin recognition and inbreeding avoidance. Thus, there are fewer matings between mice sharing MUP haplotypes than would be expected if there were random mating. Some animals use scent trails to guide movement, for example social insects may lay down a trail to a food source, or a tracking dog may follow the scent of its target. A number of scent-tracking strategies have been studied in different species, including gradient search or chemotaxis , anemotaxis, klinotaxis, and tropotaxis. Their success
658-584: A human's. They were bred for the specific purpose of tracking humans, and can detect a scent trail a few days old. The second-most-sensitive nose is possessed by the Basset Hound , which was bred to track and hunt rabbits and other small animals. Grizzly bears have a sense of smell seven times stronger than that of the bloodhound, essential for locating food underground. Using their elongated claws, bears dig deep trenches in search of burrowing animals and nests as well as roots, bulbs, and insects. Bears can detect
752-462: A hundred thousand times more acute than a human's. This does not mean they are overwhelmed by smells our noses can detect; rather, it means they can discern a molecular presence when it is in much greater dilution in the carrier, air. Scenthounds as a group can smell one- to ten-million times more acutely than a human, and bloodhounds , which have the keenest sense of smell of any dogs, have noses ten- to one-hundred-million times more sensitive than
846-416: A key aroma in foods and beverages. Similarly, the odorant receptor OR2J3 is associated with the ability to detect the "grassy" odor, cis-3-hexen-1-ol. The preference (or dislike) of cilantro (coriander) has been linked to the olfactory receptor OR6A2 . The importance and sensitivity of smell varies among different organisms; most mammals have a good sense of smell, whereas most birds do not, except
940-510: A large cecum to ferment this highly fibrous food and extract as much nutrition as possible. Their teeth, though, are not as highly adapted to this diet as other possums, and they also eat fruit, and even some invertebrates. The only exception to these general rules is the ground cuscus , which is carnivorous , and is also less arboreal than other phalangerid species. The dental formula of phalangerids is: Gestation in phalangerids lasts 16–17 days in those species so far studied. The females have
1034-454: A larger olfactory perception (similar to the way visual perception is built up of smaller, information-poor sensations, combined and refined to create a detailed overall perception). According to a new study, researchers have found that a functional relationship exists between molecular volume of odorants and the olfactory neural response. An alternative theory, the vibration theory proposed by Luca Turin , posits that odor receptors detect
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#17328527213881128-403: A main olfactory system, which detects volatile stimuli, and an accessory olfactory system, which detects fluid-phase stimuli. Behavioral evidence suggests that these fluid-phase stimuli often function as pheromones , although pheromones can also be detected by the main olfactory system. In the accessory olfactory system, stimuli are detected by the vomeronasal organ , located in the vomer, between
1222-418: A major effect on nocturnal animals, as well as diurnal species. The causes of these can be traced to distinct, sometimes overlapping areas: light pollution and spatial disturbance. Light pollution is a major issue for nocturnal species, and the impact continues to increase as electricity reaches parts of the world that previously had no access. Species in the tropics are generally more affected by this due to
1316-478: A means to find food sources. The tendrils of plants are especially sensitive to airborne volatile organic compounds . Parasites such as dodder make use of this in locating their preferred hosts and locking on to them. The emission of volatile compounds is detected when foliage is browsed by animals. Threatened plants are then able to take defensive chemical measures, such as moving tannin compounds to their foliage. Scientists have devised methods for quantifying
1410-495: A number of threats to the different endangered species. Adults are likely to stay away from artificially lit beaches that they might prefer to lay eggs on, as there is less cover against predators. Additionally, baby sea turtles that hatch from eggs on artificially lit beaches often get lost, heading towards the light sources as opposed to the ocean. Rhythmic behaviors are affected by light pollution both seasonally and daily patterns. Migrating birds or mammals might have issues with
1504-470: A relatively similar spatial habitat as they did before. In comparison, herbivorous prey tend to stay in areas where human disturbance is low, limiting both resources and their spatial habitat. This leads to an imbalance in favor of predators, who increase in population and come out more often at night. In zoos , nocturnal animals are usually kept in special night-illumination enclosures to invert their normal sleep-wake cycle and to keep them active during
1598-451: A social hierarchy. Many fishes use the sense of smell to identify mating partners or to alert to the presence of food. Although conventional wisdom and lay literature, based on impressionistic findings in the 1920s, have long presented human smell as capable of distinguishing between roughly 10,000 unique odors, recent research has suggested that the average individual is capable of distinguishing over one trillion unique odors. Researchers in
1692-423: A specific functional group, or feature, of the odorant, which is why the chemical nature of the odorant is important. After binding the odorant, the receptor is activated and will send a signal to the glomeruli in the olfactory bulb . Each glomerulus receives signals from multiple receptors that detect similar odorant features. Because several receptor types are activated due to the different chemical features of
1786-531: A stronger immune system. Fish, mice, and female humans are able to smell some aspect of the MHC genes of potential sex partners and prefer partners with MHC genes different from their own. Humans can detect blood relatives from olfaction. Mothers can identify by body odor their biological children but not their stepchildren. Pre-adolescent children can olfactorily detect their full siblings but not half-siblings or step siblings, and this might explain incest avoidance and
1880-425: A thousand genes that code for odor reception . Of the genes that code for odor receptors, only a portion are functional. Humans have far fewer active odor receptor genes than other primates and other mammals. In mammals, each olfactory receptor neuron expresses only one functional odor receptor. Odor receptor nerve cells function like a key–lock system: if the airborne molecules of a certain chemical can fit into
1974-399: A well-developed pouch , and typically raise only one or two young at a time, less than many other possums. The adults are typically solitary, defending territories marked by scent-gland spray, odiferous saliva, urine, or dung. Most possums conserve the functions of the epipubic bones . The exception is Trichosurus , which remarkably among marsupials has shifted the hypaxial muscles from
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#17328527213882068-698: Is pollination - nocturnal pollinators such as moths, beetles, thrips, and bats have a lower risk of being seen by predators, and the plants evolved temporal scent production and ambient heat to attract nocturnal pollination. Like with predators hunting the same prey, some plants such as apples can be pollinated both during the day and at night. Nocturnality is a form of crypsis , an adaptation to avoid or enhance predation . Although lions are cathemeral , and may be active at any time of day or night, they prefer to hunt at night because many of their prey species ( zebra , antelope , impala, wildebeest , etc.) have poor night vision . Many species of small rodents, such as
2162-450: Is a form of niche differentiation , where a species' niche is partitioned not by the amount of resources but by the amount of time (i.e. temporal division of the ecological niche ). Hawks and owls can hunt the same field or meadow for the same rodents without conflict because hawks are diurnal and owls are nocturnal. This means they are not in competition for each other's prey. Another niche that being nocturnal lessens competition within
2256-566: Is a general idea that the layout of brain structures corresponds to physical features of stimuli (called topographic coding), and similar analogies have been made in smell with concepts such as a layout corresponding to chemical features (called chemotopy) or perceptual features. While chemotopy remains a highly controversial concept, evidence exists for perceptual information implemented in the spatial dimensions of olfactory networks. Many animals, including most mammals and reptiles, but not humans, have two distinct and segregated olfactory systems:
2350-401: Is a great deal of convergence at the level of the olfactory bulb, it may seem strange that human beings are able to distinguish so many different odors. It seems that a highly complex form of processing must be occurring; however, as it can be shown that, while many neurons in the olfactory bulb (and even the pyriform cortex and amygdala) are responsive to many different odors, half the neurons in
2444-422: Is also considerably more densely innervated, with a hundred times more receptors per square centimeter. The sensory olfactory system integrates with other senses to form the perception of flavor . Often, land organisms will have separate olfaction systems for smell and taste (orthonasal smell and retronasal smell ), but water-dwelling organisms usually have only one system. Molecules of odorants passing through
2538-410: Is avoiding the heat of the day. This is especially true in arid biomes like deserts , where nocturnal behavior prevents creatures from losing precious water during the hot, dry daytime. This is an adaptation that enhances osmoregulation . One of the reasons that ( cathemeral ) lions prefer to hunt at night is to conserve water. Hamiltons Frog , found on Stephens and Maud islands, stays hidden for
2632-402: Is essential for hunting in many species of wasps , including Polybia sericea . The two organs insects primarily use for detecting odors are the antennae and specialized mouth parts called the maxillary palps. However, a recent study has demonstrated the olfactory role of ovipositor in fig wasps. Inside of these olfactory organs there are neurons called olfactory receptor neurons which, as
2726-417: Is how attuned the insect is to very small amounts of an odorant or small changes in the concentration of an odorant. Selectivity refers to the insects' ability to tell one odorant apart from another. These compounds are commonly broken into three classes: short chain carboxylic acids , aldehydes and low molecular weight nitrogenous compounds. Some insects, such as the moth Deilephila elpenor , use smell as
2820-500: Is influenced by the turbulence of the air plume that is being followed. Different people smell different odors, and most of these differences are caused by genetic differences. Although odorant receptor genes make up one of the largest gene families in the human genome, only a handful of genes have been linked conclusively to particular smells. For instance, the odorant receptor OR5A1 and its genetic variants (alleles) are responsible for our ability (or failure) to smell β- ionone ,
2914-429: Is not needed anymore due to the evolution of compensatory sensory systems, such as a heightened sense of smell and more astute auditory systems. In a recent study, recently extinct elephant birds and modern day nocturnal kiwi bird skulls were examined to recreate their likely brain and skull formation. They indicated that olfactory bulbs were much larger in comparison to their optic lobes , indicating they both have
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3008-476: Is recognized. The cortex sends centrifugal feedback to the bulb. This feedback could suppress bulbar responses to the recognized odor objects, causing olfactory adaptation to background odors, so that the newly arrived foreground odor objects could be singled out for better recognition. During odor search, feedback could also be used to enhance odor detection. The distributed code allows the brain to detect specific odors in mixtures of many background odors. It
3102-492: Is required before the sample in question is rendered indistinguishable from the "pure" or reference standard. Since each person perceives odor differently, an "odor panel" composed of several different people is assembled, each sniffing the same sample of diluted specimen air. A field olfactometer can be utilized to determine the magnitude of an odor. Many air management districts in the US have numerical standards of acceptability for
3196-412: Is somewhat unusual, in that cAMP works by directly binding to the ion channel rather than through activation of protein kinase A . It is similar to the transduction mechanism for photoreceptors , in which the second messenger cGMP works by directly binding to ion channels, suggesting that maybe one of these receptors was evolutionarily adapted into the other. There are also considerable similarities in
3290-419: Is the special sense through which smells (or odors ) are perceived. The sense of smell has many functions, including detecting desirable foods, hazards, and pheromones , and plays a role in taste . In humans, it occurs when an odor binds to a receptor within the nasal cavity , transmitting a signal through the olfactory system . Glomeruli aggregate signals from these receptors and transmit them to
3384-406: Is well developed in the carnivores and ungulates , which must always be aware of each other, and in those that smell for their food, such as moles . Having a strong sense of smell is referred to as macrosmatic in contrast to having a weak sense of smell which is referred to as microsmotic . Figures suggesting greater or lesser sensitivity in various species reflect experimental findings from
3478-521: The IT Corporation waste ponds, Martinez, California . Systems of classifying odors include: Specific terms are used to describe disorders associated with smelling: Viruses can also infect the olfactory epithelium leading to a loss of the sense of olfaction. About 50% of patients with SARS-CoV-2 (causing COVID-19) experience some type of disorder associated with their sense of smell , including anosmia and parosmia. SARS-CoV-1 , MERS-CoV and even
3572-471: The Large Japanese Field Mouse , are active at night because most of the dozen or so birds of prey that hunt them are diurnal. There are many diurnal species that exhibit some nocturnal behaviors. For example, many seabirds and sea turtles only gather at breeding sites or colonies at night to reduce the risk of predation to themselves and/or their offspring. Nocturnal species take advantage of
3666-459: The Mesozoic , many ancestors of modern-day mammals evolved nocturnal characteristics in order to avoid contact with the numerous diurnal predators. A recent study attempts to answer the question as to why so many modern day mammals retain these nocturnal characteristics even though they are not active at night. The leading answer is that the high visual acuity that comes with diurnal characteristics
3760-463: The Sulawesi dwarf cuscus , is cat-sized, averaging 34 cm (13 in) in length, while the largest, the black-spotted cuscus , is around 70 cm (28 in) long, and weighs 5 kg (11 lb). Besides the large size, other key features distinguishing phalangerids from other possums include the presence of bare skin on at least part of the tail, and low-crowned molar teeth. They have claws on
3854-496: The Westermarck effect . Functional imaging shows that this olfactory kinship detection process involves the frontal-temporal junction, the insula , and the dorsomedial prefrontal cortex , but not the primary or secondary olfactory cortices, or the related piriform cortex or orbitofrontal cortex . Since inbreeding is detrimental, it tends to be avoided. In the house mouse, the major urinary protein (MUP) gene cluster provides
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3948-454: The accessory olfactory bulb , which in the mouse is located on the dorsal-posterior portion of the main olfactory bulb . Unlike in the main olfactory system, the axons that leave the accessory olfactory bulb do not project to the brain's cortex but rather to targets in the amygdala and bed nucleus of the stria terminalis , and from there to the hypothalamus , where they may influence aggression and mating behavior. Insect olfaction refers to
4042-488: The antennal lobe (analogous to the olfactory bulb ), and next by the mushroom bodies and lateral horn . The process by which olfactory information is coded in the brain to allow for proper perception is still being researched, and is not completely understood. When an odorant is detected by receptors, they in a sense break the odorant down, and then the brain puts the odorant back together for identification and perception. The odorant binds to receptors that recognize only
4136-402: The nose and the mouth . Snakes use it to smell prey, sticking their tongue out and touching it to the organ. Some mammals make a facial expression called flehmen to direct stimuli to this organ. The sensory receptors of the accessory olfactory system are located in the vomeronasal organ. As in the main olfactory system, the axons of these sensory neurons project from the vomeronasal organ to
4230-423: The olfactory bulb , where the sensory input will start to interact with parts of the brain responsible for smell identification, memory , and emotion . There are many different things which can interfere with a normal sense of smell, including damage to the nose or smell receptors, anosmia , upper respiratory infections , traumatic brain injury , and neurodegenerative disease . Early scientific study of
4324-477: The olfactory epithelium . The olfactory epithelium is made up of at least six morphologically and biochemically different cell types. The proportion of olfactory epithelium compared to respiratory epithelium (not innervated, or supplied with nerves) gives an indication of the animal's olfactory sensitivity. Humans have about 10 cm (1.6 sq in) of olfactory epithelium, whereas some dogs have 170 cm (26 sq in). A dog's olfactory epithelium
4418-440: The superior nasal concha of the nasal passages dissolve in the mucus that lines the superior portion of the cavity and are detected by olfactory receptors on the dendrites of the olfactory sensory neurons. This may occur by diffusion or by the binding of the odorant to odorant-binding proteins . The mucus overlying the epithelium contains mucopolysaccharides , salts, enzymes , and antibodies (these are highly important, as
4512-420: The tubenoses (e.g., petrels and albatrosses ), certain species of new world vultures , and the kiwis . Also, birds have hundreds of olfactory receptors. Although, recent analysis of the chemical composition of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) from king penguin feathers suggest that VOCs may provide olfactory cues, used by the penguins to locate their colony and recognize individuals. Among mammals, it
4606-800: The World (2005), except where the Mammal Diversity Database and IUCN agree on a change. Blust (1982, 1993, 2002, 2009) reconstructs the form *kandoRa cuscus for Proto- Central–Eastern Malayo-Polynesian (i.e., the reconstructed most recent common ancestor of the Central–Eastern Malayo-Polynesian languages ), but the validity of this reconstruction is doubted by Schapper (2011). Schapper (2011) shows that reconstructed forms for cuscus are in fact quite diverse, and cannot be reconstructed to Proto- Central–Eastern Malayo-Polynesian . Other names for cuscus are: Other local names for
4700-408: The artificial lighting. Insects are the most obvious example, who are attracted by the lighting and are usually killed by either the heat or electrical current. Some species of frogs are blinded by the quick changes in light, while nocturnal migratory birds may be disoriented, causing them to lose direction, tire out, or be captured by predators. Sea turtles are particularly affected by this, adding to
4794-409: The brain must be able to process these details as well. Inputs from the two nostrils have separate inputs to the brain, with the result that, when each nostril takes up a different odorant, a person may experience perceptual rivalry in the olfactory sense akin to that of binocular rivalry . In insects , smells are sensed by sensilla located on the antenna and maxillary palp and first processed by
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#17328527213884888-486: The brain within the olfactory nerve , ( cranial nerve I). These nerve fibers, lacking myelin sheaths, pass to the olfactory bulb of the brain through perforations in the cribriform plate , which in turn projects olfactory information to the olfactory cortex and other areas. The axons from the olfactory receptors converge in the outer layer of the olfactory bulb within small (≈50 micrometers in diameter) structures called glomeruli . Mitral cells , located in
4982-428: The change in their relatively constant light patterns, but temperate species relying on day-night triggers for behavioral patterns are also affected as well. Many diurnal species see the benefit of a "longer day", allowing for a longer hunting period which is detrimental to their nocturnal prey trying to avoid them. Light pollution can disorient species that are used to darkness, as their adaptive eyes are not as used to
5076-476: The chemical structure of the odorant molecules, and the posterior piriform cortex (PPC) has a strong role in categorizing odors and assessing similarities between odors (e.g. minty, woody, and citrus are odors that can, despite being highly variant chemicals, be distinguished via the PPC in a concentration-independent manner). The piriform cortex projects to the medial dorsal nucleus of the thalamus, which then projects to
5170-428: The cost. The increasing amount of habitat destruction worldwide as a result of human expansion has given both advantages and disadvantages to different nocturnal animals. As a result of peak human activity in the daytime, more species are likely to be active at night in order to avoid the new disturbance in their habitat. Carnivorous predators however are less timid of the disturbance, feeding on human waste and keeping
5264-506: The cuscus are: Nocturnal Nocturnal creatures generally have highly developed senses of hearing , smell , and specially adapted eyesight . Some animals, such as cats and ferrets , have eyes that can adapt to both low-level and bright day levels of illumination (see metaturnal ). Others, such as bushbabies and (some) bats , can function only at night. Many nocturnal creatures including tarsiers and some owls have large eyes in comparison with their body size to compensate for
5358-448: The cuticle pores of chemosensory sensilla and get in contact with insect odorant-binding proteins (OBPs) or Chemosensory proteins (CSPs), before activating the sensory neurons. The binding of the ligand (odor molecule or odorant) to the receptor leads to an action potential in the receptor neuron, via a second messenger pathway, depending on the organism. In mammals, the odorants stimulate adenylate cyclase to synthesize cAMP via
5452-399: The daytime. Crepuscular species, such as rabbits , skunks , tigers and hyenas , are often erroneously referred to as nocturnal. Cathemeral species, such as fossas and lions , are active both in the day and at night. While it is difficult to say which came first, nocturnality or diurnality, a hypothesis in evolutionary biology , the nocturnal bottleneck theory, postulates that in
5546-443: The epipubic to the pelvis , employing a more placental -like breathing, having lost the benefits of the epipubic in regards to lung ventilation. In general, these possums are more terrestrial than other members of this group, and resemble terrestrial primates in some respects. This classification is based on Beck et al. (2022). The listing for extant species is based on The Third edition of Wilson & Reeder's Mammal Species of
5640-432: The fore feet, but none on the hind feet, although these do have an opposable first toe to help grip onto branches. Additionally, in all but one species, both the first and second digits of the fore feet are opposable. Their fur is typically dense or woolly, and may be grey, black, or reddish-brown, often with spots or stripes. Most phalangerids are folivores , feeding primarily on leaves. Like some similar species, they have
5734-429: The frequencies of vibrations of odor molecules in the infrared range by quantum tunnelling . However, the behavioral predictions of this theory have been called into question. There is no theory yet that explains olfactory perception completely. Flavor perception is an aggregation of auditory , taste , haptic , and smell sensory information. Retronasal smell plays the biggest role in the sensation of flavor. During
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#17328527213885828-414: The function of chemical receptors that enable insects to detect and identify volatile compounds for foraging , predator avoidance, finding mating partners (via pheromones ) and locating oviposition habitats. Thus, it is the most important sensation for insects. Most important insect behaviors must be timed perfectly which is dependent on what they smell and when they smell it. For example, smell
5922-420: The head. In many species, smell is highly tuned to pheromones ; a male silkworm moth, for example, can sense a single molecule of bombykol . Fish, too, have a well-developed sense of smell, even though they inhabit an aquatic environment. Salmon utilize their sense of smell to identify and return to their home stream waters. Catfish use their sense of smell to identify other individual catfish and to maintain
6016-438: The hippocampus and is involved in motivation and memory. Odor information is stored in long-term memory and has strong connections to emotional memory . This is possibly due to the olfactory system's close anatomical ties to the limbic system and hippocampus, areas of the brain that have long been known to be involved in emotion and place memory, respectively. Since any one receptor is responsive to various odorants, and there
6110-593: The hours when visitors will be there to see them. Hedgehogs and sugar gliders are just two of the many nocturnal species kept as ( exotic ) pets. Cats have adapted to domestication so that each individual, whether stray alley cat or pampered housecat, can change their activity level at will, becoming nocturnal or diurnal in response to their environment or the routine of their owners. Cats normally demonstrate crepuscular behavior, bordering nocturnal, being most active in hunting and exploration at dusk and dawn. Olfaction The sense of smell , or olfaction ,
6204-441: The immediate processing of stimuli by lateral inhibition . Averaged activity of the receptor neurons can be measured in several ways. In vertebrates, responses to an odor can be measured by an electro-olfactogram or through calcium imaging of receptor neuron terminals in the olfactory bulb. In insects, one can perform electroantennography or calcium imaging within the olfactory bulb. Olfactory sensory neurons project axons to
6298-521: The inner layer of the olfactory bulb, form synapses with the axons of the sensory neurons within glomeruli and send the information about the odor to other parts of the olfactory system, where multiple signals may be processed to form a synthesized olfactory perception. A large degree of convergence occurs, with 25,000 axons synapsing on 25 or so mitral cells, and with each of these mitral cells projecting to multiple glomeruli. Mitral cells also project to periglomerular cells and granular cells that inhibit
6392-660: The intensity of odor that is allowed to cross into a residential property. For example, the Bay Area Air Quality Management District has applied its standard in regulating numerous industries, landfills, and sewage treatment plants. Example applications this district has engaged are the San Mateo, California , wastewater treatment plant; the Shoreline Amphitheatre in Mountain View, California ; and
6486-430: The intensity of odors, in particular for the purpose of analyzing unpleasant or objectionable odors released by an industrial source into a community. Since the 1800s industrial countries have encountered incidents where proximity of an industrial source or landfill produced adverse reactions among nearby residents regarding airborne odor. The basic theory of odor analysis is to measure what extent of dilution with "pure" air
6580-399: The light, leaving slow-moving bats at a disadvantage. Another example is harbor seals eating juvenile salmon that moved down a river lit by nearby artificial lighting. Once the lights were turned off, predation levels decreased. Many diurnal prey species forced into being nocturnal are susceptible to nocturnal predators and those species with poor nocturnal eyesight often bear the brunt of
6674-411: The lock, the nerve cell will respond. There are, at present, a number of competing theories regarding the mechanism of odor coding and perception. According to the shape theory , each receptor detects a feature of the odor molecule . The weak-shape theory, known as the odotope theory , suggests that different receptors detect only small pieces of molecules, and these minimal inputs are combined to form
6768-424: The lower light levels at night. More specifically, they have been found to have a larger cornea relative to their eye size than diurnal creatures to increase their visual sensitivity : in the low-light conditions. Nocturnality helps wasps , such as Apoica flavissima , avoid hunting in intense sunlight. Diurnal animals, including humans (except for night owls ), squirrels and songbirds, are active during
6862-408: The majority of the day when temperatures are warmer and are mainly active at night. They will only come out during the day if there are humid and cool conditions. Many plant species native to arid biomes have adapted so that their flowers only open at night when the sun's intense heat cannot wither and destroy their moist, delicate blossoms. These flowers are pollinated by bats, another creature of
6956-440: The mitral cells surrounding it ( lateral inhibition ). Granular cells also mediate inhibition and excitation of mitral cells through pathways from centrifugal fibers and the anterior olfactory nuclei. Neuromodulators like acetylcholine , serotonin and norepinephrine all send axons to the olfactory bulb and have been implicated in gain modulation, pattern separation, and memory functions, respectively. The mitral cells leave
7050-483: The modern understanding) that stimulate the olfactory organ. A modern demonstration of that theory was the cloning of olfactory receptor proteins by Linda B. Buck and Richard Axel (who were awarded the Nobel Prize in 2004), and subsequent pairing of odor molecules to specific receptor proteins. Each odor receptor molecule recognizes only a particular molecular feature or class of odor molecules. Mammals have about
7144-451: The most recent study, which tested the psychophysical responses to combinations of over 128 unique odor molecules with combinations composed of up to 30 different component molecules, noted that this estimate is "conservative" and that some subjects of their research might be capable of deciphering between a thousand trillion odorants, adding that their worst performer could probably still distinguish between 80 million scents. Authors of
7238-412: The name implies, house receptors for scent molecules in their cell membranes. The majority of olfactory receptor neurons typically reside in the antenna . These neurons can be very abundant, for example Drosophila flies have 2,600 olfactory sensory neurons. Insects are capable of smelling and differentiating between thousands of volatile compounds both sensitively and selectively. Sensitivity
7332-428: The night time to prey on species that are used to avoiding diurnal predators. Some nocturnal fish species will use the moonlight to prey on zooplankton species that come to the surface at night. Some species have developed unique adaptations that allow them to hunt in the dark. Bats are famous for using echolocation to hunt down their prey, using sonar sounds to capture them in the dark. Another reason for nocturnality
7426-428: The night. Climate-change and the change in global temperatures has led to an increasing amount of diurnal species to push their activity patterns closer towards crepuscular or fully nocturnal behavior. This adaptive measure allows species to avoid the heat of the day, without having to leave that particular habitat. The exponential increase in human expansion and technological advances in the last few centuries has had
7520-429: The nose can distinguish among hundreds of substances, even in minute quantities. It is during exhalation that the smell's contribution to flavor occurs, in contrast to that of proper smell, which occurs during the inhalation phase of breathing. The olfactory system is the only human sense that bypasses the thalamus and connects directly to the forebrain . Smell and sound information has been shown to converge in
7614-404: The odorant, several glomeruli are activated as well. The signals from the glomeruli are transformed to a pattern of oscillations of neural activities of the mitral cells , the output neurons from the olfactory bulb. Olfactory bulb sends this pattern to the olfactory cortex . Olfactory cortex is thought to have associative memories, so that it resonates to this bulbar pattern when the odor object
7708-428: The odors the researchers had prepared from multiple odor molecules. In November 2014 the study was strongly criticized by Caltech scientist Markus Meister, who wrote that the study's "extravagant claims are based on errors of mathematical logic." The logic of his paper has in turn been criticized by the authors of the original paper. In humans and other vertebrates , smells are sensed by olfactory sensory neurons in
7802-529: The olfactory bulb in the lateral olfactory tract , which synapses on five major regions of the cerebrum: the anterior olfactory nucleus , the olfactory tubercle , the amygdala , the piriform cortex , and the entorhinal cortex . The anterior olfactory nucleus projects, via the anterior commissure , to the contralateral olfactory bulb, inhibiting it. The piriform cortex has two major divisions with anatomically distinct organizations and functions. The anterior piriform cortex (APC) appears to be better at determining
7896-419: The olfactory neurons provide a direct passage for infection to pass to the brain ). This mucus acts as a solvent for odor molecules, flows constantly, and is replaced approximately every ten minutes. In insects , smells are sensed by olfactory sensory neurons in the chemosensory sensilla , which are present in insect antenna, palps, and tarsa, but also on other parts of the insect body. Odorants penetrate into
7990-448: The olfactory tubercles of rodents . This neural convergence is proposed to give rise to a perception termed smound . Whereas a flavor results from interactions between smell and taste, a smound may result from interactions between smell and sound. The MHC genes (known as HLA in humans) are a group of genes present in many animals and important for the immune system ; in general, offspring from parents with differing MHC genes have
8084-445: The orbitofrontal cortex are responsive to only one odor, and the rest to only a few. It has been shown through microelectrode studies that each individual odor gives a particular spatial map of excitation in the olfactory bulb. It is possible that the brain is able to distinguish specific odors through spatial encoding, but temporal coding must also be taken into account. Over time, the spatial maps change, even for one particular odor, and
8178-413: The orbitofrontal cortex. The orbitofrontal cortex mediates conscious perception of the odor. The three-layered piriform cortex projects to a number of thalamic and hypothalamic nuclei, the hippocampus and amygdala and the orbitofrontal cortex, but its function is largely unknown. The entorhinal cortex projects to the amygdala and is involved in emotional and autonomic responses to odor. It also projects to
8272-478: The process of mastication , the tongue manipulates food to release odorants. These odorants enter the nasal cavity during exhalation. The smell of food has the sensation of being in the mouth because of co-activation of the motor cortex and olfactory epithelium during mastication. Smell, taste , and trigeminal receptors (also called chemesthesis ) together contribute to flavor . The human tongue can distinguish only among five distinct qualities of taste, while
8366-411: The reactions of animals exposed to aromas in known extreme dilutions. These are, therefore, based on perceptions by these animals, rather than mere nasal function. That is, the brain's smell-recognizing centers must react to the stimulus detected for the animal to be said to show a response to the smell in question. It is estimated that dogs, in general, have an olfactory sense approximately ten thousand to
8460-445: The same second messenger signaling cascade as do the canonical olfactory sensory neurons. Other subpopulations, such as those that express the receptor guanylyl cyclase GC-D (Gucy2d) or the soluble guanylyl cyclase Gucy1b2, use a cGMP cascade to transduce their odorant ligands. These distinct subpopulations (olfactory subsystems) appear specialized for the detection of small groups of chemical stimuli. This mechanism of transduction
8554-444: The scent of food from up to eighteen miles away; because of their immense size, they often scavenge new kills, driving away the predators (including packs of wolves and human hunters) in the process. The sense of smell is less developed in the catarrhine primates , and nonexistent in cetaceans , which compensate with a well-developed sense of taste . In some strepsirrhines , such as the red-bellied lemur , scent glands occur atop
8648-465: The sense of smell includes the extensive doctoral dissertation of Eleanor Gamble , published in 1898, which compared olfactory to other stimulus modalities , and implied that smell had a lower intensity discrimination. As the Epicurean and atomistic Roman philosopher Lucretius (1st century BCE) speculated, different odors are attributed to different shapes and sizes of "atoms" (odor molecules in
8742-554: The study concluded, "This is far more than previous estimates of distinguishable olfactory stimuli. It demonstrates that the human olfactory system, with its hundreds of different olfactory receptors, far out performs the other senses in the number of physically different stimuli it can discriminate." However, it was also noted by the authors that the ability to distinguish between smells is not analogous to being able to consistently identify them, and that subjects were not typically capable of identifying individual odor stimulants from within
8836-704: The timing of their movement for example. On a day-to-day basis, species can see significant changes in their internal temperatures, their general movement, feeding and body mass. These small scale changes can eventually lead to a population decline, as well as hurting local trophic levels and interconnecting species. Some typically diurnal species have even become crepuscular or nocturnal as a result of light pollution and general human disturbance. There have been documented effects of light pollution on reproductive cycles and factors in different species. It can affect mate choice , migration to breeding grounds, and nest site selection. In male green frogs , artificial light causes
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