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92-599: The Peru–Bolivian Confederation ( Spanish : Confederación Perú-Boliviana ) was a short-lived state that existed in South America between 1836 and 1839. The country was a loose confederation made up of three states: North Peru and South Peru —states that arose from the division of the Peruvian Republic due to the civil wars of 1834 and 1835 to 1836 —as well as the Bolivian State . The geographical limits of

184-696: A Constitution for the new State . Under his direction, they signed a pact on 1 May 1837, which named him Supreme Protector for a ten-year period. Invested with considerable powers, Santa Cruz endeavoured to establish in Peru the same type of authoritarian order he had imposed in Bolivia. He issued a Civil Code , a Penal Code , a Trade Regulation , a Customs Regulation and reorganized tax collection procedures allowing an increase in state revenues while restraining expenditures. The Confederation generated resistances among several groups in both countries, who resented

276-732: A local government on October 17. The Confederate Navy captured the Juan Fernández Islands on November 14. On November 17, after the Chileans were surrounded by Peruvian troops, the Treaty of Paucarpata was signed by Manuel Blanco Encalada under the guarantee of Great Britain , through which the occupation was undone six days later and the Peruvian ships captured by Chile were to be returned. After Blanco Encalada's troops arrived in Valparaíso, he

368-734: A Spanish-based creole language called Chavacano developed in the southern Philippines. However, it is not mutually intelligible with Spanish. The number of Chavacano-speakers was estimated at 1.2 million in 1996. The local languages of the Philippines also retain significant Spanish influence, with many words derived from Mexican Spanish , owing to the administration of the islands by Spain through New Spain until 1821, until direct governance from Madrid afterwards to 1898. Andr%C3%A9s de Santa Cruz Andrés de Santa Cruz y Calahumana ( Spanish pronunciation: [anˈdɾes ðe ˈsanta ˈkɾuθ] ; 30 November 1792 – 25 September 1865)

460-588: A considerable number of words from Arabic , as well as a minor influence from the Germanic Gothic language through the period of Visigoth rule in Iberia. In addition, many more words were borrowed from Latin through the influence of written language and the liturgical language of the Church. The loanwords were taken from both Classical Latin and Renaissance Latin , the form of Latin in use at that time. According to

552-517: A dramatic change in the pronunciation of its sibilant consonants , known in Spanish as the reajuste de las sibilantes , which resulted in the distinctive velar [x] pronunciation of the letter ⟨j⟩ and—in a large part of Spain—the characteristic interdental [θ] ("th-sound") for the letter ⟨z⟩ (and for ⟨c⟩ before ⟨e⟩ or ⟨i⟩ ). See History of Spanish (Modern development of

644-476: A first language by Spaniards and educated Filipinos ( Ilustrados ). Despite a public education system set up by the colonial government, by the end of Spanish rule in 1898, only about 10% of the population had knowledge of Spanish, mostly those of Spanish descent or elite standing. Spanish continued to be official and used in Philippine literature and press during the early years of American administration after

736-471: A long history in the territory of the current-day United States dating back to the 16th century. In the wake of the 1848 Guadalupe Hidalgo Treaty , hundreds of thousands of Spanish speakers became a minoritized community in the United States. The 20th century saw further massive growth of Spanish speakers in areas where they had been hitherto scarce. According to the 2020 census, over 60 million people of

828-498: A primarily Hassaniya Arabic -speaking territory, Spanish was officially spoken as the language of the colonial administration during the late 19th and 20th centuries. Today, Spanish is present in the partially-recognized Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic as its secondary official language, and in the Sahrawi refugee camps in Tindouf ( Algeria ), where the Spanish language is still taught as

920-517: A reward, he was named Commander of Chorrillos . At the time of the landing of the rebel army of José de San Martín on the Peruvian coast, Santa Cruz was commander of militia forces in the region of Huarochirí. In that position, he fought against the independentist in the Battle of Pasco (6 December 1820), but the royalists were defeated and Santa Cruz captured. Taken to San Martin's headquarters at Huaura , he decided to switch sides and joined

1012-518: A second expedition, which defeated the Supreme Protector at the Battle of Yungay (20 January 1839) and forced the dissolution of the Confederation. After resigning from his post as Supreme Protector (20 February 1839), Santa Cruz fled to Ecuador from where he plotted unsuccessfully to regain power. On 13 October 1843, he disembarked at Camarones in the Peruvian province of Tarapacá but

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1104-599: A second language features characteristics involving the variability of the vowel system. While far from its heyday during the Spanish protectorate in Morocco , the Spanish language has some presence in northern Morocco , stemming for example from the availability of certain Spanish-language media. According to a 2012 survey by Morocco's Royal Institute for Strategic Studies (IRES), penetration of Spanish in Morocco reaches 4.6% of

1196-518: A second language, largely by Cuban educators. The number of Spanish speakers is unknown. Spanish is also an official language of the African Union . Spanish was an official language of the Philippines from the beginning of Spanish administration in 1565 to a constitutional change in 1973. During Spanish colonization , it was the language of government, trade, and education, and was spoken as

1288-476: A single country, the latter colloquially known as Upper Peru . The idea of uniting both countries was the general idea of several influential political leaders in Peru—including Francisco Xavier de Luna Pizarro , José María Pando  [ es ] , Manuel Lorenzo de Vidaurre  [ es ] , Agustín Gamarra , among others—who sought to reintegrate the two Perus, disagreeing only in

1380-629: A solid base from which to pursue his main project, the Peru-Bolivian Confederation . As President of Bolivia , Santa Cruz instigated several failed plots to achieve a political union with Peru , taking advantage of that country's chronic political unrest. His best opportunity came in 1835 when the Peruvian President Luis José de Orbegoso requested his assistance to fight the rebel army of Felipe Santiago Salaverry . Santa Cruz defeated Peruvian caudillo Agustín Gamarra at

1472-435: A “provisional president” under Marshal Andrés de Santa Cruz, who was styled the “supreme protector” and was also president of Bolivia . This was in accordance to the constitution's stating that each of the three republics would have its own government, with equal rights between the three, but they were subject to the authority of a General Government, whose three powers would have the following characteristics: In addition to

1564-416: Is cognate to the root word of satisfacer ("to satisfy"), and hecho ("made") is similarly cognate to the root word of satisfecho ("satisfied"). Compare the examples in the following table: Some consonant clusters of Latin also produced characteristically different results in these languages, as shown in the examples in the following table: In the 15th and 16th centuries, Spanish underwent

1656-436: Is Latin in origin, including Latin borrowings from Ancient Greek. Alongside English and French , it is also one of the most taught foreign languages throughout the world. Spanish is well represented in the humanities and social sciences . Spanish is also the third most used language on the internet by number of users after English and Chinese and the second most used language by number of websites after English. Spanish

1748-657: Is a global language with about 500 million native speakers, mainly in the Americas and Spain , and about 600 million when including second language speakers. Spanish is the official language of 20 countries , as well as one of the six official languages of the United Nations . Spanish is the world's second-most spoken native language after Mandarin Chinese ; the world's fourth-most spoken language overall after English , Mandarin Chinese, and Hindustani ( Hindi - Urdu ); and

1840-399: Is estimated that about 486 million people speak Spanish as a native language , making it the second most spoken language by number of native speakers . An additional 75 million speak Spanish as a second or foreign language , making it the fourth most spoken language in the world overall after English, Mandarin Chinese, and Hindi with a total number of 538 million speakers. Spanish is also

1932-740: Is heavily influenced by Venezuelan Spanish. In addition to sharing most of its borders with Spanish-speaking countries, the creation of Mercosur in the early 1990s induced a favorable situation for the promotion of Spanish language teaching in Brazil . In 2005, the National Congress of Brazil approved a bill, signed into law by the President , making it mandatory for schools to offer Spanish as an alternative foreign language course in both public and private secondary schools in Brazil. In September 2016 this law

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2024-806: Is spoken by very small communities in Angola due to Cuban influence from the Cold War and in South Sudan among South Sudanese natives that relocated to Cuba during the Sudanese wars and returned for their country's independence. Spanish is also spoken in the integral territories of Spain in Africa, namely the cities of Ceuta and Melilla and the Canary Islands , located in the Atlantic Ocean some 100 km (62 mi) off

2116-804: Is the de facto national language of the country, Spanish is often used in public services and notices at the federal and state levels. Spanish is also used in administration in the state of New Mexico . The language has a strong influence in major metropolitan areas such as those of Los Angeles , Miami , San Antonio , New York , San Francisco , Dallas , Tucson and Phoenix of the Arizona Sun Corridor , as well as more recently, Chicago , Las Vegas , Boston , Denver , Houston , Indianapolis , Philadelphia , Cleveland , Salt Lake City , Atlanta , Nashville , Orlando , Tampa , Raleigh and Baltimore-Washington, D.C. due to 20th- and 21st-century immigration. Although Spanish has no official recognition in

2208-484: Is the official Spanish language of the State. ... The other Spanish languages shall also be official in their respective Autonomous Communities... The Royal Spanish Academy ( Real Academia Española ), on the other hand, currently uses the term español in its publications. However, from 1713 to 1923, it called the language castellano . The Diccionario panhispánico de dudas (a language guide published by

2300-529: Is used as an official language by many international organizations , including the United Nations , European Union , Organization of American States , Union of South American Nations , Community of Latin American and Caribbean States , African Union , among others. In Spain and some other parts of the Spanish-speaking world, Spanish is called not only español but also castellano (Castilian),

2392-567: Is usually assumed to be derived from castillo ('castle'). In the Middle Ages , the language spoken in Castile was generically referred to as Romance and later also as Lengua vulgar . Later in the period, it gained geographical specification as Romance castellano ( romanz castellano , romanz de Castiella ), lenguaje de Castiella , and ultimately simply as castellano (noun). Different etymologies have been suggested for

2484-562: The Army , reforming the bureaucracy , reforming public finances , issuing new currency , issuing a new Constitution , issuing a new Civil Code based on the Napoleonic Code and establishing Cobija as a free port . The authoritarian regime imposed by Santa Cruz brought stability to Bolivia at a time when most countries in Latin America faced widespread unrest . Furthermore, it formed

2576-469: The Battle of Yanacocha (13 August 1835) and Salaverry at the Battle of Uchumayo (4 February 1836) after which he had Salaverry summarily executed . At the instigation of Santa Cruz, a Congress of the Peruvian southern departments ( Arequipa , Ayacucho , Cuzco and Puno ) gathered at Sicuani and declared the establishment of the Republic of South Peru (17 March 1836). A similar assembly at Huaura of

2668-540: The Pact of Tacna  [ es ] , its de facto establishment dated from October 28, 1836—with the end of the war between Salaverry and Santa Cruz —until August 25, 1839, with its dissolution proclaimed by General Agustín Gamarra , the Peruvian restorationist president who declared war against the Confederation , supported by the United Restoration Army headed by himself and Chilean Manuel Bulnes —formerly

2760-520: The Restoration Army of Peru —made up of Peruvian and Bolivian opponents of the Confederation, as well as the governments and armies of Chile and Argentina . Both Chile and Argentina opposed the Confederation as a potential military and economic threat, and for its support for dissidents in exile. Argentina and Bolivia reached an agreement after their war over Tarija , and the Confederate Army

2852-557: The Spanish as a First Foreign Language (SAFFL) initiative in March 2005. Spanish has historically had a significant presence on the Dutch Caribbean islands of Aruba , Bonaire and Curaçao ( ABC Islands ) throughout the centuries and in present times. The majority of the populations of each island (especially Aruba) speaking Spanish at varying although often high degrees of fluency. The local language Papiamentu (Papiamento on Aruba)

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2944-508: The Spanish–American War but was eventually replaced by English as the primary language of administration and education by the 1920s. Nevertheless, despite a significant decrease in influence and speakers, Spanish remained an official language of the Philippines upon independence in 1946, alongside English and Filipino , a standardized version of Tagalog . Spanish was briefly removed from official status in 1973 but reimplemented under

3036-549: The Upper Peru (modern day Bolivia ) from Spanish rule. Santa Cruz also took part in the Spanish colonial campaigns to suppress the insurrection of Mateo Pumacahua (1814–15), further demonstrating his loyalty to the Spanish Crown . His luck ran out at the Battle of La Tablada (15 April 1817), where he was captured and taken as prisoner of war to Buenos Aires . He managed to escape, first to Rio de Janeiro and then to Lima. As

3128-404: The 2021–2022 school year alone. The local business process outsourcing industry has also helped boost the language's economic prospects. Today, while the actual number of proficient Spanish speakers is around 400,000, or under 0.5% of the population, a new generation of Spanish speakers in the Philippines has likewise emerged, though speaker estimates vary widely. Aside from standard Spanish,

3220-574: The 20th century, Spanish was introduced to Equatorial Guinea and the Western Sahara , and to areas of the United States that had not been part of the Spanish Empire, such as Spanish Harlem in New York City . For details on borrowed words and other external influences upon Spanish, see Influences on the Spanish language . Spanish is the primary language in 20 countries worldwide. As of 2023, it

3312-550: The 9th century, and the first systematic written use of the language happened in Toledo , a prominent city of the Kingdom of Castile , in the 13th century. Spanish colonialism in the early modern period spurred the introduction of the language to overseas locations, most notably to the Americas. As a Romance language, Spanish is a descendant of Latin. Around 75% of modern Spanish vocabulary

3404-695: The Confederation on May 19, 1837, accusing Santa Cruz of harboring supporters of the Unitarian Party . The accusations ended up being true, as Santa Cruz had financially supported the émigrés. Portales was assassinated in Valparaíso after a mutiny broke out in Quillota , leading to preparations for the invasion of South Peru. Thus, the first "Restorative Expedition" left Valparaíso on September 15, 1837, landing in Quilca , and occupying Arequipa on October 12, establishing

3496-445: The Confederation varied over time, with Bolivia occupying and incorporating the disputed territories in northern Argentina in 1838. It also possessed de facto autonomous indigenous territories, such as Iquicha , all under the supreme command of Marshal Andrés de Santa Cruz , who assumed the position of Supreme Protector in 1836, while he was president of Bolivia . Although its institutional creation arose on May 1, 1837, with

3588-584: The Confederation was defeated, loyalists such as Antonio Huachaca kept fighting against the new Peruvian government, being also defeated in November 1839. According to the Fundamental law of the Peru–Bolivian Confederation ( Spanish : Ley fundamental de la Confederación Perú-Boliviana ) signed on April 18, 1837 , in each of the Confederation's states, there was, from 1837 until the dissolution,

3680-639: The Equatoguinean education system and is the primary language used in government and business. Whereas it is not the mother tongue of virtually any of its speakers, the vast majority of the population is proficient in Spanish. The Instituto Cervantes estimates that 87.7% of the population is fluent in Spanish. The proportion of proficient Spanish speakers in Equatorial Guinea exceeds the proportion of proficient speakers in other West and Central African nations of their respective colonial languages. Spanish

3772-691: The Iberian Peninsula. These languages included Proto-Basque , Iberian , Lusitanian , Celtiberian and Gallaecian . The first documents to show traces of what is today regarded as the precursor of modern Spanish are from the 9th century. Throughout the Middle Ages and into the modern era , the most important influences on the Spanish lexicon came from neighboring Romance languages — Mozarabic ( Andalusi Romance ), Navarro-Aragonese , Leonese , Catalan/Valencian , Portuguese , Galician , Occitan , and later, French and Italian . Spanish also borrowed

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3864-529: The Old Spanish sibilants) for details. The Gramática de la lengua castellana , written in Salamanca in 1492 by Elio Antonio de Nebrija , was the first grammar written for a modern European language. According to a popular anecdote, when Nebrija presented it to Queen Isabella I , she asked him what was the use of such a work, and he answered that language is the instrument of empire. In his introduction to

3956-535: The Patriot Army (8 January 1821). Santa Cruz ascended rapidly, reaching the rank of Colonel later that year and that of Brigade General in 1822 for leading Peruvian troops at the Battle of Pichincha (24 May 1822). He revolted against the Peruvian Congress on 26 February 1823, and forced it to elect José de la Riva Agüero as President . As commander of a Peruvian Army expedition, Santa Cruz occupied

4048-409: The Peruvian border. After the latter's triumph in 1836, assemblies were soon established to make way for the creation of the Confederation. Two constituent congresses were established in each of the three founding states of the confederation, in the cities of Huaura (North Peru), Sicuani (South-Peru) and Tapacarí (Bolivia). Immediately, the representatives of the three states promised to celebrate

4140-571: The Royal Spanish Academy) states that, although the Royal Spanish Academy prefers to use the term español in its publications when referring to the Spanish language, both terms— español and castellano —are regarded as synonymous and equally valid. The term castellano is related to Castile ( Castilla or archaically Castiella ), the kingdom where the language was originally spoken. The name Castile , in turn,

4232-623: The Supreme Protector of the state. Orbegoso also presented his resignation, but it was not approved by the assembly, who named him provisional president. The assembly also established the new territorial divisions of the country. Unlike its new southern neighbour, North Peru maintained the national symbols of its predecessor. In the case of Bolivia, a special session of the Tapacarí Congress  [ es ] had previously been held on June 21, 1836, which authorized Santa Cruz to complete

4324-502: The U.S. population were of Hispanic or Hispanic American by origin. In turn, 41.8 million people in the United States aged five or older speak Spanish at home, or about 13% of the population. Spanish predominates in the unincorporated territory of Puerto Rico , where it is also an official language along with English. Spanish is by far the most common second language in the country, with over 50 million total speakers if non-native or second-language speakers are included. While English

4416-585: The above, the constitution also defined the flag of the confederation. 13°24′S 68°54′W  /  13.4°S 68.9°W  / -13.4; -68.9 Spanish language Spanish ( español ) or Castilian ( castellano ) is a Romance language of the Indo-European language family that evolved from the Vulgar Latin spoken on the Iberian Peninsula of Europe . Today, it

4508-451: The administration of Ferdinand Marcos two months later. It remained an official language until the ratification of the present constitution in 1987, in which it was re-designated as a voluntary and optional auxiliary language. Additionally, the constitution, in its Article XIV, stipulates that the Government shall provide the people of the Philippines with a Spanish-language translation of

4600-618: The assemblies of the three states, Santa Cruz decreed the establishment of the Peru–Bolivian Confederation, by decree given in Lima on October 28, 1836. A congress known today as the Congress of Tacna ( Spanish : Congreso de Tacna ) was ordered to meet in Tacna to establish the foundations of the confederation. A customs office was also opened in Arica , which employed both South Peruvians and Bolivians. During

4692-612: The city of Cuzco . In 1809 he left the seminary and returned to La Paz. After Santa Cruz's return home, his father enrolled him as an alférez in the Dragones de Apolobamba Regiment of the Spanish Army. As such, he participated in the battles of Guaqui (20 July 1811), Vilcapugio (1 October 1813) and Ayohuma (14 November 1813). The latter resulted in the defeat of the Argentine Independentist forces attempting to liberate

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4784-672: The classic hispanus or hispanicus took the suffix -one from Vulgar Latin , as happened with other words such as bretón (Breton) or sajón (Saxon). Like the other Romance languages , the Spanish language evolved from Vulgar Latin , which was brought to the Iberian Peninsula by the Romans during the Second Punic War , beginning in 210 BC. Several pre-Roman languages (also called Paleohispanic languages )—some distantly related to Latin as Indo-European languages , and some that are not related at all—were previously spoken in

4876-557: The collapse of the Bolivarian regime in Peru on January 27, 1827. Santa Cruz temporarily assumed the post of President until 9 June 1827, when José La Mar was elected by Congress . Removed from power, Santa Cruz was named Peruvian ambassador to Chile , but he was recalled to Bolivia where he had been proclaimed as President . Sworn in on 24 May 1829, he found a country afflicted by endemic internal disorders and very near to bankruptcy. Measures undertaken to resolve these problems included purging conspirators , reforming and strengthening

4968-417: The confederation project to which Bolivia had already adhered with the Law of July 22, 1835. Around that time, Santa Cruz received the diploma and insignia of Grand Officer of the Legion of Honour , with which the King of France honored him. He also received a communication from Pope Gregory XVI and a rosary with his medal, blessed by the Pope himself. Provided, then, with all the legal elements granted by

5060-446: The consonant written b (a bilabial with plosive and fricative allophones). In modern Spanish, there is no difference between the pronunciation of orthographic b and v . Typical of Spanish (as also of neighboring Gascon extending as far north as the Gironde estuary , and found in a small area of Calabria ), attributed by some scholars to a Basque substratum was the mutation of Latin initial f into h- whenever it

5152-404: The country's constitution. In recent years changing attitudes among non-Spanish speaking Filipinos have helped spur a revival of the language, and starting in 2009 Spanish was reintroduced as part of the basic education curriculum in a number of public high schools, becoming the largest foreign language program offered by the public school system, with over 7,000 students studying the language in

5244-462: The country's flag and currency. Fines were put in place to prevent the (now North) Peruvian flag from being flown. The Huaura Assembly lasted from August 3 to 24, 1836, and featured representatives from La Libertad , Lima , Huaylas , Maynas and Junín . On August 11, North Peru was officially established through the promulgation of its constitution by the then President Orbegoso, naming Santa Cruz—who triumphantly entered Lima on August 15—as

5336-464: The design of the flag. Reactions to the pact were mixed event among its signatories, and disagreements led to the establishment of one constituent congress per member state. The act was later promulgated in 1837. Like Orbegoso, Santa Cruz also had many opponents and enemies born in the frequent caudillo clashes of the early years of Peru's republican history. Among those enemies were powerful characters such as Agustín Gamarra and Ramón Castilla , who at

5428-473: The dilution of national identities . An important number of Peruvian politicians opposed to the idea of the Confederation fled to Chile , where they received support from the powerful Minister Diego Portales . Together they amassed a military expedition against Santa Cruz, led by Admiral Manuel Blanco Encalada , but they were encircled by Santa Cruz and had to surrender by the Treaty of Paucarpata , signed on 17 November 1837. The Chilean Government organized

5520-450: The following table: Spanish is marked by palatalization of the Latin double consonants ( geminates ) nn and ll (thus Latin annum > Spanish año , and Latin anellum > Spanish anillo ). The consonant written u or v in Latin and pronounced [w] in Classical Latin had probably " fortified " to a bilabial fricative /β/ in Vulgar Latin. In early Spanish (but not in Catalan or Portuguese) it merged with

5612-463: The form of the “union”: confederation or merger. An important factor in the desire to unite these two states were the historical ties between both regions, even after independence. After political instability and a coup d'état in 1835, a civil war broke out between newly self-declared president Felipe Santiago Salaverry and constitutional president Luis José de Orbegoso , who allowed Bolivian president Andrés de Santa Cruz to send his troops through

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5704-466: The former British colony of Belize (known until 1973 as British Honduras ) where English is the sole official language, according to the 2022 census, 54% of the total population are able to speak the language. Due to its proximity to Spanish-speaking countries and small existing native Spanish speaking minority, Trinidad and Tobago has implemented Spanish language teaching into its education system. The Trinidadian and Tobagonian government launched

5796-509: The frigate Flora on February 9, but instead of disembarking in Islay , he went to Arica , where he arrived on February 27. The congress was postponed to April 18; Meanwhile, Santa Cruz remained in Arica, but on March 2 he headed for Tacna, where he was received with much fanfare. From Tacna he went to Viacha on March 10, arriving in La Paz the following day. There, together with the Bolivian plenipotentiaries Aguirre and Buitrago, and Bolivian Vice President Mariano Enrique Calvo , he agreed on

5888-454: The grammar, dated 18 August 1492, Nebrija wrote that "... language was always the companion of empire." From the 16th century onwards, the language was taken to the Spanish-discovered America and the Spanish East Indies via Spanish colonization of America . Miguel de Cervantes , author of Don Quixote , is such a well-known reference in the world that Spanish is often called la lengua de Cervantes ("the language of Cervantes"). In

5980-632: The language from the Kingdom of Castile , contrasting it with other languages spoken in Spain such as Galician , Basque , Asturian , Catalan/Valencian , Aragonese , Occitan and other minor languages. The Spanish Constitution of 1978 uses the term castellano to define the official language of the whole of Spain, in contrast to las demás lenguas españolas (lit. "the other Spanish languages "). Article III reads as follows: El castellano es la lengua española oficial del Estado. ... Las demás lenguas españolas serán también oficiales en las respectivas Comunidades Autónomas... Castilian

6072-423: The language's hegemony in an intensely centralising Spanish state were established from the 18th century onward. Other European territories in which it is also widely spoken include Gibraltar and Andorra . Spanish is also spoken by immigrant communities in other European countries, such as the United Kingdom , France , Italy , and Germany . Spanish is an official language of the European Union . Today,

6164-628: The majority of the Spanish speakers live in Hispanic America . Nationally, Spanish is the official language—either de facto or de jure —of Argentina , Bolivia (co-official with 36 indigenous languages), Chile , Colombia , Costa Rica , Cuba , Dominican Republic , Ecuador , El Salvador , Guatemala , Honduras , Mexico (co-official with 63 indigenous languages), Nicaragua , Panama , Paraguay (co-official with Guaraní ), Peru (co-official with Quechua , Aymara , and "the other indigenous languages"), Puerto Rico (co-official with English), Uruguay , and Venezuela . Spanish language has

6256-453: The meeting, Santa Cruz arranged for each state to send a priest, a soldier and a lawyer as delegates before, and consequently, three religious, three lawyers and three soldiers marched to Tacna. The nine delegates were as follows: Initially, January 24, 1837, was chosen as the congress' date, but it had to be postponed. Santa Cruz decided to accompany the plenipotentiaries of the North-Peruvian State, for which reason he left Lima and embarked on

6348-495: The north; and Juan Francisco de Vidal in Huaylas. Santa Cruz occupied Lima on November 10, ending the siege in Callao, but left for the north, where the restaurateurs were located. He was defeated in the Battle of Yungay on January 20, 1839, and thus, the Confederation was dissolved, with Gamarra announcing its dissolution on August 25. The Confederate defeat led to the exile of Santa Cruz, first to Guayaquil , in Ecuador, then to Chile, and finally to Europe, where he died. After

6440-440: The northern departments ( Amazonas , Junín , La Libertad and Lima ) founded the Republic of North Peru (11 August 1836). Both recognized Santa Cruz as Supreme Protector with extensive powers, which enabled him to create the Peru-Bolivian Confederation on 28 October 1836. He summoned to the city of Tacna representatives of both legislatures together with those of the Bolivian Congress assembled at Tapacarí to establish

6532-498: The northwest of the African mainland. The Spanish spoken in the Canary Islands traces its origins back to the Castilian conquest in the 15th century , and, in addition to a resemblance to Western Andalusian speech patterns, it also features strong influence from the Spanish varieties spoken in the Americas, which in turn have also been influenced historically by Canarian Spanish. The Spanish spoken in North Africa by native bilingual speakers of Arabic or Berber who also speak Spanish as

6624-529: The population. Many northern Moroccans have rudimentary knowledge of Spanish, with Spanish being particularly significant in areas adjacent to Ceuta and Melilla. Spanish also has a presence in the education system of the country (through either selected education centers implementing Spain's education system, primarily located in the North, or the availability of Spanish as foreign language subject in secondary education). In Western Sahara , formerly Spanish Sahara ,

6716-460: The port of Arica and defeated a royalist army at the Battle of Zepita (27 August 1823). Failing to exploit his victory, he retreated hastily. When Simón Bolívar assumed the presidency of Peru (17 February 1824), Santa Cruz joined his army and was named Chief of Staff of the Peruvian Division . In that condition, he participated of the Battle of Junín (6 August 1824). Afterwards, he

6808-518: The project that should be discussed and approved in Tacna. Then, in the first days of April, he went down to Tacna again. On April 18, 1837, the Tacna Congress was inaugurated, with the presence of the nine delegates. The Pact of Tacna ( Spanish : Pacto de Tacna ) was signed without debate during the congress. It established the legal framework through which the state would operate, and also included

6900-483: The same army. During this time, the Confederation's stability collapsed, as by September, Peru (i.e. North and South Peru) was under the de jure control of seven different presidents at one time: Santa Cruz, who was the Supreme Protector; Gamara, the restorationist president; Orbegoso, leader of the secessionist North Peruvian state; José de la Riva Agüero , who replaced Orbegoso, being appointed by Santa Cruz; Pío de Tristán , president of South Peru; Domingo Nieto , in

6992-528: The term español (Spanish). According to the Royal Spanish Academy, español derives from the Occitan word espaignol and that, in turn, derives from the Vulgar Latin * hispaniolus ('of Hispania'). Hispania was the Roman name for the entire Iberian Peninsula . There are other hypotheses apart from the one suggested by the Royal Spanish Academy. Spanish philologist Ramón Menéndez Pidal suggested that

7084-444: The theories of Ramón Menéndez Pidal , local sociolects of Vulgar Latin evolved into Spanish, in the north of Iberia, in an area centered in the city of Burgos , and this dialect was later brought to the city of Toledo , where the written standard of Spanish was first developed, in the 13th century. In this formative stage, Spanish developed a strongly differing variant from its close cousin, Leonese , and, according to some authors,

7176-623: The third most used language on the Internet , after English and Chinese. Spanish is the official language of Spain . Upon the emergence of the Castilian Crown as the dominant power in the Iberian Peninsula by the end of the Middle Ages, the Romance vernacular associated with this polity became increasingly used in instances of prestige and influence, and the distinction between "Castilian" and "Spanish" started to become blurred. Hard policies imposing

7268-465: The time were exiled in Chile. The rivalry that existed between the ports of Callao and Valparaíso worsened as a result of the establishment of the Confederation. A tariff war soon began between both states, and Orbegoso supported Ramón Freire 's failed expedition against Diego Portales . The Congress of Chile approved the declaration of war on December 26, 1836, claiming that Santa Cruz's rule over Peru

7360-554: The town of Huarina , La Paz . His father was José Santa Cruz y Villavicencio, a Spaniard , and his mother Juana Basilia Calahumana, an Aymara woman from the town of Huarina. In later years, Andrés de Santa Cruz would claim that through his mother, he descended directly from Inca rulers . He began his studies in his hometown at the San Francisco Convent , and continued them at the San Antonio Abad Seminary in

7452-460: The union pact of the Peru–Bolivian Confederation as soon as possible. The Sicuani Assembly was established on March 16, 1836, and closed on March 22. It featured representatives from Ayacucho , Arequipa , Cuzco , Puno and Tacna . On April 10, Orbegoso recognized South Peru as an independent state through a decree, and a Supreme Court was installed in Cuzco on August 24. The assembly also created

7544-580: The world's most widely spoken Romance language. The country with the largest population of native speakers is Mexico . Spanish is part of the Ibero-Romance language group , in which the language is also known as Castilian ( castellano ). The group evolved from several dialects of Vulgar Latin in Iberia after the collapse of the Western Roman Empire in the 5th century. The oldest Latin texts with traces of Spanish come from mid-northern Iberia in

7636-407: Was a Bolivian general and politician who served as interim president of Peru in 1827, the interim president of Peru from 1836 to 1838 and the sixth president of Bolivia from 1829 to 1839. He also served as Supreme Protector of the short-lived Peru-Bolivian Confederation from 1836 to 1839, a political entity created mainly by his personal endeavors. Santa Cruz was born on 30 November 1792, in

7728-514: Was captured while trying to reach Bolivia . Delivered to the Chilean Government, he was imprisoned at Chillán from 1844 until 1846 when he was freed. He was named ambassador to several European countries by Manuel Belzú (1848–55) and then ran for president of Bolivia but was defeated by General Jorge Córdova . After staying for a while in Argentina, he returned to France where he lived

7820-680: Was developed in the cities of Toledo , in the 13th to 16th centuries, and Madrid , from the 1570s. The development of the Spanish sound system from that of Vulgar Latin exhibits most of the changes that are typical of Western Romance languages , including lenition of intervocalic consonants (thus Latin vīta > Spanish vida ). The diphthongization of Latin stressed short e and o —which occurred in open syllables in French and Italian, but not at all in Catalan or Portuguese—is found in both open and closed syllables in Spanish, as shown in

7912-604: Was distinguished by a heavy Basque influence (see Iberian Romance languages ). This distinctive dialect spread to southern Spain with the advance of the Reconquista , and meanwhile gathered a sizable lexical influence from the Arabic of Al-Andalus , much of it indirectly, through the Romance Mozarabic dialects (some 4,000 Arabic -derived words, make up around 8% of the language today). The written standard for this new language

8004-713: Was followed by a vowel that did not diphthongize. The h- , still preserved in spelling, is now silent in most varieties of the language, although in some Andalusian and Caribbean dialects, it is still aspirated in some words. Because of borrowings from Latin and neighboring Romance languages, there are many f -/ h - doublets in modern Spanish: Fernando and Hernando (both Spanish for "Ferdinand"), ferrero and herrero (both Spanish for "smith"), fierro and hierro (both Spanish for "iron"), and fondo and hondo (both words pertaining to depth in Spanish, though fondo means "bottom", while hondo means "deep"); additionally, hacer ("to make")

8096-420: Was illegitimate, and that his influence threatened the integrity of other South American nations, as seen by Orbegoso's support for the attempted invasion of Chile by Freire, specifically pointing out the attempt on Portales. A territorial dispute between Argentina and Bolivia over the territory of Tarija escalated, as Bolivia occupied and annexed the territory and Juan Manuel de Rosas then declared war on

8188-626: Was met with hostile demonstrations and the Chilean government repudiated the treaty of Paucarpata. A second expedition headed by Manuel Bulnes was organized, which left for Peru on July 19, 1838. Around the same time, North Peru seceded from the Confederation on July 30, but was nevertheless attacked and defeated by the United Restoration Army in the Battle of Portada de Guías of August 21. Meanwhile, Confederate troops in Callao were besieged by

8280-636: Was named Prefect of Ayacucho , and then Chief of Staff of the Patriot Army during the campaign for the liberation of Bolivia . As a reward for his actions, Santa Cruz received the titles of Marshal and Prefect of Chuquisaca in April 1825. Named President of the Government Council in Lima , he was in charge of the Peruvian Executive after Bolívar returned to Gran Colombia on 4 September 1826, until

8372-462: Was revoked by Michel Temer after the impeachment of Dilma Rousseff . In many border towns and villages along Paraguay and Uruguay, a mixed language known as Portuñol is spoken. Equatorial Guinea is the only Spanish-speaking country located entirely in Africa, with the language introduced during the Spanish colonial period . Enshrined in the constitution as an official language (alongside French and Portuguese), Spanish features prominently in

8464-511: Was ultimately defeated by the United Restoration Army in the 1839 Battle of Yungay , which put an end to the War of the Confederation . Historian Jorge Basadre frames the confederation as part of a period of "determination of the nationalities" in western South America. At the beginning of the 19th century, Simón Bolívar postulated the idea of creating a great nation, coinciding with Andrés de Santa Cruz , who thought of uniting Peru and Bolivia in

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