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46-773: The existence of the Commission was stipulated in Article 22 of the League of Nations Covenant : "A permanent Commission shall be constituted to receive and examine the annual reports of the Mandatories and to advise the Council on all matters relating to the observance of the mandates." Even though the PMC was composed of members from imperial and foreign policy establishments, the organization did act independently of states and established norms that constrained

92-426: A certain interval while Wilson was away, the question of international equality was raised once again. A vote on a motion supporting the "equality of nations and the just treatment of their nationals" was made, and was supported by 11 of the 19 delegates. Upon Wilson's return he declared that "serious objections" by other delegates had negated the majority vote, and the amendment was dismissed. Finally on 11 April 1919,

138-649: A covenant for a future league. The British committee was finally appointed in February 1918; it was led by Walter Phillimore (and became known as the Phillimore Committee) but also included Eyre Crowe , William Tyrrell , and Cecil Hurst . U.S. President Woodrow Wilson was not impressed with the Phillimore Committee's report, and would eventually produce three draft covenants of his own with help from his friend Colonel House . At least one of Wilson's drafts

184-687: A loss of territory and political independence (e.g., the Soviet Union's annexation of the northern part of East Prussia from Nazi Germany after World War II ). U.S. President Woodrow Wilson had secured his proposal to apply to become part of the League of Nations in the final draft of the Treaty of Versailles, but the United States Senate failed to consent to the ratification of the Treaty. (It had voted 49–35 in favor of ratification, but could not reach

230-528: A member when the organization received its charter. A chartered member (British English) is a member who holds an individual chartered designation authorized under that organization's royal charter. Anglo-Saxon charters are documents from the early medieval period in Britain which typically make a grant of land or record a privilege. They are usually written on parchment , in Latin but often with sections in

276-434: A permanent secretariat. Member states were expected to "respect and preserve as against external aggression" the territorial integrity of other members, and to disarm "to the lowest point consistent with domestic safety". All states were required to submit complaints for arbitration or judicial inquiry before going to war. The Executive Council would create a Permanent Court of International Justice to make judgements on

322-449: A preliminary draft co-written by Hurst and President Wilson's adviser David Hunter Miller . During the first four months of 1919 the group met on ten separate occasions, attempting to negotiate the exact terms of the foundational Covenant agreement for the future League . During the ensuing negotiations various major objections arose from various countries. France wanted the League to form an international army to enforce its decisions, but

368-533: A seat on the PMC but was initially rebuffed. The first German member of the PMC was Ludwig Kastl who joined the PMC in October 1927. Germany withdrew from the League in 1933, ending its membership of the PMC. Japan withdrew from the League in 1938, ending its membership on the PMC. According to historian Susan Pedersen , the organization was "very much an imperialists' club," as five out of nine initial members were retired colonial governors, ministers or high officials. By

414-568: A statement by President Wilson to the Senate, he described Article 10 as advisory in nature, and that Congress under the War Powers Clause was free to interpret or reject even a unanimous vote of the League Council invoking Article 10. He went on to say that Article 10 "is a moral, not a legal, obligation...it is binding in conscience only, not in law." Article 16 gave the members of the League

460-427: A university. The form of charter used varies by period and jurisdiction. A charter of " Inspeximus " (Latin, literally "We have inspected") is frequently a royal charter, by which an earlier charter or series of charters relating to a particular foundation (such as a monastery or a guild) was recited and incorporated into a new charter, usually in order to confirm and renew its validity under present authority. Where

506-534: Is that sense which is retained in modern usage of the term. In early medieval Britain, charters transferred land from donors to recipients. The word entered the English language from the Old French charte , via Latin charta , and ultimately from Greek χάρτης ( khartes , meaning "layer of papyrus"). It has come to be synonymous with a document that sets out a grant of rights or privileges. The term

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552-400: Is used for a special case (or as an exception) of an institutional charter. A charter school , for example, is one that has different rules, regulations, and statutes from a state school. Charter can be used as a synonym for "hire" or "lease", as in the "charter" of a bus , boat or plane . A charter member (US English) of an organization is an original member; that is, one who became

598-721: The Axis powers had been created, consisting of great powers that had quit the League. This left the League powerless against the Japanese full-scale invasion of China , the Anschluss , the German occupation of Czechoslovakia , and the Italian invasion of Albania . Article 17 made it theoretically possible to apply the sanctions of Article 16 against non-members of the League, but no member made any serious attempt to do this, instead preparing their militaries for

644-623: The United States Congress that states the mission, authority, and activities of a group. Congress issued federal charters from 1791 until 1992 under Title 36 of the United States Code . A municipal corporation is the legal term for a local governing body , including (but not necessarily limited to) cities , counties , towns , townships , charter townships , villages , and boroughs . Municipal incorporation occurs when such municipalities become self-governing entities under

690-406: The terms of reference ) is provided by the sponsor to formally authorize the existence of a project. It provides a preliminary delineation of roles and responsibilities, outlines the project purpose and objectives, identifies key stakeholders, and defines the authority of the project manager. It serves as a reference of authority for future planning of the project. The project scope is developed from

736-686: The British League of Nations Society , founded in 1915. Another group in the United States—which included Hamilton Holt and William B. Howland at the Century Association in New York City—had their own plan. This plan was largely supported by the League to Enforce Peace , an organization led by former U.S. President William Howard Taft . In December 1916, Lord Robert Cecil suggested that an official committee be set up to draft

782-570: The British worried such an army would be dominated by the French, and the Americans could not agree as only Congress could declare war. Japan requested that a clause upholding the principle of racial equality should be inserted, parallel to the existing religious equality clause. This was deeply opposed, particularly by American political sentiment, while Wilson himself simply ignored the question . During

828-533: The Commission's entire active life of 18 years as did Pierre Orts  [ fr ] , Italian Marquis Alberto Theodoli, first chairman, for 16 years, the Spaniard M. Palacios for 15 years, Lord Lugard and Van Rees for 13 each while Valentine Dannevig from Norway and the Portuguese Count Jose de Penha Garcia served for 11 years each. Upon joining the League of Nations in 1926, Germany immediately asked for

874-644: The Covenant made the clear distinction that a Mandate territory was not a colony . The Covenant asserted that such territories were "inhabited by peoples not yet able to stand by themselves under the strenuous conditions of the modern world" and so "the tutelage of such peoples should be entrusted to advanced nations who by reason of their resources, their experience or their geographical position can best undertake this responsibility" as "a sacred trust of civilization". Mandate territories were sorted into several sub-categories: [REDACTED] Works related to Covenant of

920-500: The League invoked Article 15, treating the invasion as a 'dispute', and the Council referred the case to the Assembly. In a 35-page report, the Assembly voted 42–1 to recognize Manchuria as territory under Chinese sovereignty, with the negative vote of the Empire of Japan not counting under Article 15 rules, thus making the recognition unanimous. However, without Article 16, there was no way for

966-459: The League of Nations The Covenant of the League of Nations was the charter of the League of Nations . It was signed on 28 June 1919 as Part I of the Treaty of Versailles , and became effective together with the rest of the Treaty on 10 January 1920. Early drafts for a possible League of Nations began even before the end of World War I . The London-based Bryce Group made proposals adopted by

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1012-456: The League of Nations at Wikisource Charter A charter is the grant of authority or rights , stating that the granter formally recognizes the prerogative of the recipient to exercise the rights specified. It is implicit that the granter retains superiority (or sovereignty ), and that the recipient admits a limited (or inferior) status within the relationship, and it is within that sense that charters were historically granted, and it

1058-466: The League to enforce this resolution, and the Empire of Japan withdrew from the League a month later. During the invasion and occupation of Ethiopia by Italy under Mussolini , Article 16 was invoked for the first (and only) time. Proceedings were complicated by the fact that under the Covenant, neither the Council nor the Assembly was responsible for passing sanctions, making the measures voluntary by each state rather than obligatory. Therefore, there

1104-406: The League". It was noted that a League of Nations member was not bound to assist a fellow member in combating internal secessionists , but also meant that no country should provide assistance to such rebels. It was also understood that if any member or non-member of the League was defeated while undertaking an aggressive war, the Covenant did not protect that defeated party against the consequence of

1150-609: The PMC. These territories would ostensibly be governed for the benefit of the inhabitants. The Commission had 10 and later, 11 members (or twelve, if Sweden and Norway, which shared their seat, represented first by Anna Bugge-Wicksell and later by Valentine Dannevig , are counted separately). Four of these members were Mandatory Powers, 7 were independent powers and one seat was held by the International Labour Organisation (ILO). Members served without fixed term. William Rappard , Swiss lawyer and professor, served for

1196-415: The behaviors of colonial powers. The PMC was the first instance that either France or Britain had been subjected to any kind of imperial oversight. The PMC played a key role in establishing that the mandates could not be annexed by the colonial powers. The PMC helped to establish that the mandates had a unique status under international law . The PMC was established by the victors of World War I to oversee

1242-470: The disputes . The treaty entered into force on 10 January 1920. Articles 4, 6, 12, 13, and 15 were amended in 1924. The treaty shares similar provisions and structures with the UN Charter . Article 10 of the Covenant of the League of Nations obliged members of the League "to respect and preserve as against external aggression the territorial integrity and existing political independence of all Members of

1288-516: The earth. These three types were royal colonies, proprietary colonies , and corporate colonies. A charter colony by definition is a "colony chartered to an individual, trading company, etc., by the British crown ." Although charter colonies were not the most prevalent of the three types of colonies in the British Empire, they were by no means insignificant. A congressional charter is a law passed by

1334-600: The fight in the U.S. Senate against ratification, believing that it was best not to become involved in international conflicts. Under the United States Constitution , the President of the United States may not ratify a treaty unless the Senate, by a two-thirds vote, gives its advice and consent . The primary intent of Article 10 was to preserve a balance of power by preventing one country from invading another. In

1380-566: The first meeting, the members determined that they had the right to examine all aspects of administration in the mandated territories (not just those mandated in the Covenant), that a comprehensive list of questions should be asked of all mandate powers, and that mandate powers should send all relevant legislation that affects territories to the Commission. The last meeting was held at the 37th final session from 12 to 21 December 1939. The Commission oversaw three types of mandates. Covenant of

1426-464: The former colonial possessions of the Ottoman Empire and German Empire. The British and French wanted to govern these possessions as colonies, whereas the United States opposed the French and British maneuvers. As a compromise, it was agreed that the former Ottoman and German colonial possessions would be administered as mandates by individual states whose administration would be subject to oversight by

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1472-495: The laws of the state or province in which they are located. Often, this event is marked by the award or declaration of a municipal charter, a term used because municipal power was historically granted by the sovereign, by royal charter . Charters for chivalric orders and other orders, such as the Sovereign Military Order of Malta . In project management , a project charter or project definition (sometimes called

1518-462: The legal fiction that the King had granted it "voluntarily, and by the free exercise of [his] royal authority", in the manner of medieval charters. At one time a royal charter was the only way in which an incorporated body could be formed, but other means (such as the registration process for limited companies ) are generally now used instead. A university charter is a charter issued to create or recognise

1564-592: The members to perform impartiality), and the publication of the organization's deliberations. She argues that the Commission was at its most influential in 1932. According to Pedersen, Commission members believed in a civilizing mission . The Commission met in sessions once or twice a year to consider annual reports from the mandates; within any session, any number of meetings could be held usually in private although any of these could be public. Extraordinary sessions could also be held in special circumstances. The Commission held its first session from 4 to 8 October 1921. At

1610-401: The mid-1920s, the Commission "began to resemble a spa for retired African governors." Even though it was composed of individuals from imperial and foreign policy establishments, the organization did act independently. This was in part because of the lack of term limits (which led to camaraderie among members and the development of expertise), the authority derived from written texts (which allowed

1656-401: The necessary two-thirds majority. ) For many Republicans in the Senate, Article 10 was the most objectionable provision. Their objections were based on the fact that, by ratifying such a document, the United States would be bound by an international contract to defend a League of Nations member if it was attacked. Henry Cabot Lodge from Massachusetts and Frank B. Brandegee from Connecticut led

1702-472: The now-inevitable start of World War II in Europe. Article 16, in addition to sanctions, also gave specifically to the Council the power to "recommend" military action against a member of the League that committed a war of aggression. Again there was no enforcement mechanism, the League had no peacekeepers of its own, and members were individually responsible for supplying any military forces. This part of Article 16

1748-422: The policy used was largely appeasement . During the Japanese invasion of Manchuria , there was no attempt by the great powers to invoke Article 16, despite calls to do so from the small powers. The League of Nations Council did attempt to pass a resolution (outside of Article 16) stating that the Empire of Japan must withdraw, but it was vetoed by the single negative vote of the Empire of Japan. Afterward,

1794-470: The power to levy sanctions or use force against another member that committed a war of aggression. However, this article was very weak in practice, as the Covenant had been written under the assumption that League members would be willing to cooperate with each other. Amid the Great Depression , the great powers were reluctant to further damage their own economies by sanctioning another great power, and

1840-469: The project charter. In medieval Europe, royal charters were used to create cities (i.e., localities with recognised legal rights and privileges). The date that such a charter was granted is considered to be when a city was "founded", regardless of when the locality originally began to be settled. The Charter of 1814 , France's constitution during the Bourbon Restoration , was thus called to promote

1886-531: The report, but all members other than Italy verbally stated that they agreed with it, and again referred the case to the Assembly. The Assembly then discussed sanctions, and 50 out of 54 members voluntarily agreed to apply them (Italy, Austria, Hungary, and Albania refused). The sanctions were weak and failed to stop the war, as member states were again reluctant to damage their own economies. Bank loans and arms were sanctioned, but oil and coal, viewed as necessary for Mussolini's war machine, were not. By this point,

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1932-413: The revised Hurst-Miller draft was approved, but without fully resolving certain questions as had been brought forth regarding matters such as national equality, racial equality, and how the new League might be able to practically enforce its various mandates. The new League would include a General Assembly (representing all member states), an Executive Council (with membership limited to major powers), and

1978-488: The vernacular, describing the bounds of estates, which often correspond closely to modern parish boundaries. The earliest surviving charters were drawn up in the 670s; the oldest surviving charters granted land to the Church , but from the 8th century surviving charters were increasingly used to grant land to lay people . The British Empire used three main types of colonies as it sought to expand its territory to distant parts of

2024-399: Was never invoked. Finally, Article 16 gave the League the power to expel Covenant-breaking members. This was only used once against the Soviet Union . Article 22 referred to the creation of Mandate territories, which were given over to be administered by European powers. Though most Mandates were given to countries such as Britain and France, which possessed considerable colonial empires,

2070-401: Was no Council or Assembly resolution mandating sanctions. Instead, Article 15 was initially invoked again, treating the hostilities as a 'dispute', and a non-binding committee appointed by the Council to investigate the dispute (under Article 5) submitted a report explicitly stating that Italy had started a war in violation of the Covenant, and invoking Article 16. The Council then did not vote on

2116-987: Was reportedly based on a proposal to establish a "league of nations" that was written by American peace activist Mary Shapard . Further suggestions were made by Jan Christiaan Smuts in December 1918. At the Paris Peace Conference in 1919, a commission was appointed to agree on a covenant. Members included Woodrow Wilson (as chair), Colonel House (representing the U.S.), Robert Cecil and Jan Smuts (British Empire), Léon Bourgeois and Ferdinand Larnaude (France), Prime Minister Vittorio Orlando and Vittorio Scialoja (Italy), Foreign Minister Makino Nobuaki and Chinda Sutemi (Japan), Paul Hymans (Belgium), Epitácio Pessoa (Brazil), Wellington Koo (China), Jayme Batalha Reis (Portugal), and Milenko Radomar Vesnitch (Serbia). Further representatives of Czechoslovakia, Greece, Poland and Romania were later added. The group considered

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