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68-553: The creek draws its name from the Lenape word pënëpèkw meaning "downward-flowing water" or "deep, dead water; water without much current." Early cartographers gave various spellings for the name, including Pennishpaska , La Riviere de Pennicpacka , and Pennishpacha Kyl . In early Swedish patents it was called Pemipacka . Thomas Holme called it Dublin Creek , while in later maps it is called Pennypack and Pennepack . The Pennypack creek

136-822: A common source language, Proto-Algonquian , which was descended from Algic. The Algonquian languages are spoken across Canada from the Rocky Mountains to the Atlantic coast; on the American Plains; south of the Great Lakes; and on the Atlantic coast. Many of the Algonquian languages are now sleeping. The Eastern Algonquian languages , spoken on the Atlantic coast from what are now called the Canadian Maritime provinces to what

204-497: A consonant, for example *ki·šekat- "be day" + *-ki = *ki·šekaxki "when it is day." Note that Bloomfield here actually reconstructed this word as *ki·šekaθki , but evidence from other Algonquian languages has shown that the cluster should be reconstructed as *xk . When two vowels became contiguous, if one was a long vowel and one was short, the short vowel dropped: *naka·- "stop" + *-en "by hand" = *naka·ne·wa "s/he stops him/her by hand." If both were long, an epenthetic *y

272-460: A few hundred persons per group. Estimates for the early contact period vary considerably, with a range of 8,000 – 12,000 given. Other estimates for approximately 1600 AD suggest 6,500 Unami and 4,500 Munsee, with data lacking for Long Island Munsee. These groups were never united politically or linguistically, and the names Delaware, Munsee, and Unami postdate the period of consolidation of these local groups. The earliest use of

340-417: A few idiosyncratic cases, however, this rule did not operate, and instead the consonants were changed in various ways. For instance, the combination θ+p produced when the root *eθ- "thither, thus" was added to the final *-pahto· "run" simplified to *xp : *expahta·wa "s/he runs thither." One regular exception to the "connective i" rule was when the conjunct suffix *-ki was added to a verb stem ending in

408-598: A glottal stop phoneme is not otherwise reconstructed, given that Bloomfield's ⟨ʔ⟩ in clusters seems to represent the neutralization of *p and *k and its realization in Menominee and Cheyenne is a glottal stop, it probably was indeed phonetically [ʔ] . The cluster written ⟨Hm⟩ shows up as p or m in most of the daughter languages, but as hm in Munsee (for example, PA *wi·kiwa·Hmi "house" becomes Ojibwe wiigiwaam , Fox wîkiyâpi , and Munsee wíikwahm ). The first member of

476-493: A handful of irregular exceptions to this pattern, however. For example, the prefixes lost their vowels before several kinship terms, as in *ne- + *-o·hkomehsa = *no·hkomehsa "my grandmother." Several rules for internal sandhi in morpheme combinations can be reconstructed. The most basic was the insertion of a "connective i" between two consonants. For example, *po·n- "cease" + *-m "act by speech on an animate object" = *po·n i me·wa "s/he stops talking to him/her." In

544-451: A lateral within the historical period. The precise pronunciation of the phoneme written ⟨θ⟩ is unknown. It has merged with the reflex of *r in all Algonquian languages except for Cree and the Arapahoan languages . Leonard Bloomfield originally suggested that it could have been either an interdental fricative or a lateral fricative . One piece of evidence for the interdental fricative

612-660: A period of more than two hundred years. This is also referred to as The Long Walk. It was due to the new United States breaking the first treaty it had ever signed. The currently used names were gradually applied to the larger groups resulting from the genocidal forced relocation policy of the United States. The ultimate result was the displacement of virtually all Lenape-speaking people from the region to present-day Oklahoma , Kansas , Wisconsin , Upstate New York , and Canada . Two distinct Unami-speaking groups emerged in Oklahoma in

680-440: A plural suffix *-ari . Another important distinction involved the contrast between nouns marked as proximate and those marked as obviative . Proximate nouns were those deemed most central or important to the discourse, while obviative nouns were those less important to the discourse. When two third person participants appeared in a sentence, one was marked as proximate and the other as obviative, in order to distinguish which one

748-884: A self-designation in English. The Unamis residing in Oklahoma are sometimes referred to as Oklahoma Delaware , while the Munsees in Ontario are sometimes referred to as Ontario Delaware or Canadian Delaware. Munsee-speaking residents of Moraviantown use the English term Munsee to refer to residents of Munceytown, approximately 50 km (31 mi) to the east and refer to themselves in English as "Delaware", and in Munsee as /lənáːpeːw/ 'Delaware person, Indian'. Oklahoma Delawares refer to Ontario Delaware as /mwə́nsi/ or /mɔ́nsi/ , terms that are also used for people of Munsee ancestry in their own communities. Some Delawares at Moraviantown also use

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816-480: A significant number of phonological rules in common. For example, both languages share the same basic rules for assigning syllable weight and stress. However, Unami has innovated by regularizing the assignment of stress in some verb forms so that the penultimate syllable is stressed even when the stress assignment rule would predict stress on the antepenultimate syllable. As well, Unami has innovated relative to Munsee by adding phonological rules that significantly change

884-469: A single consonant (other than *h ) or vowel, or with a consonant plus *w or *y ; there were no sequences of consecutive vowels; and the word always ended in a short vowel. The vowels *i and *o never occurred in initial syllables. A sequence of consonant+semivowel could not be followed by *o or *o· . There was also a restriction which prevented two-syllable nouns from ending in a sequence of short vowel + consonant + short vowel. In most cases, when

952-537: A smaller number of consonants than Proto-Algic. The reconstructed consonants are as follows (given in the Americanist phonetic notation common in the literature): The phoneme given in the table as ⟨r⟩ was reconstructed by Bloomfield as *l , but Goddard has more recently argued that it should be reconstructed as *r , largely because the earliest attestations of the majority of languages show some sort of rhotic as its reflex, which in many languages subsequently changed to

1020-547: A writing system with conventional phonetic symbols. The table below presents a sample of Unami words, written first in a linguistically oriented transcription, followed by the same words written in a practical system. The linguistic system uses the acute accent to indicate predictable stress and a raised dot (·) to indicate vowel and consonant length. The practical system interprets the contrast between long and corresponding short vowels as one of quality, using acute and grave accents to indicate vowel quality. Stress, which as noted

1088-586: Is a borrowing from Cree. However, evidence from Munsee and Blackfoot seem to also point toward *št as a valid separate cluster in PA (Munsee wìilùshtíikan , Blackfoot moʼtokááni , "head, hair"). Finally, all consonants and consonant clusters could be followed by *w or *y (although the sequences *čw and *hy did not occur; and *t and *θ were regularly replaced before *y , for which see below). Several allophonic processes, morphophonemic processes, and phonological constraints can be reconstructed. Among

1156-517: Is a branch of the larger Algic language family , is usually divided into three subgroups: Eastern Algonquian , which is a genetic subgroup, and Central Algonquian and Plains Algonquian , both of which are areal groupings. In the historical linguistics of North America, Proto-Algonquian is one of the best studied, most thoroughly reconstructed proto-languages. It is descended from Proto-Algic . Most Algonquian languages are similar enough that their relatedness has been recognized for centuries and

1224-465: Is not clear that they had redeveloped by the time of Proto-Algonquian. All instances in which Bloomfield reconstructed *o can now be reconstructed as *we based on evidence from some of the Eastern languages (for example, Bloomfield's *nekotwi "one" is now reconstructed as *nekwetwi based on forms like Munsee nkwúti ). There are still a handful of instances where *o can be reconstructed, usually as

1292-640: Is now called North Carolina ; many of the languages are now sleeping, and some are known only from very fragmentary records. Eastern Algonquian is considered a genetic subgroup within the Algonquian family , that is, the Eastern Algonquian languages share a sufficient number of common innovations to suggest that they descend from a common intermediate source, Proto-Eastern Algonquian. The linguistic closeness of Munsee and Unami entails that they share an immediate common ancestor which may be called Common Delaware;

1360-401: Is predictable, and consonant length are not indicated in the practical system. The table below presents a sample of Munsee words, written first in a linguistically oriented transcription, followed by the same words written in a practical system. The linguistic system uses a raised dot ⟨·⟩ to indicate vowel length. Although stress is mostly predictable, the linguistic system uses

1428-460: Is reflected in the following borrowed words. More recent borrowings tend to be from English such as the following Munsee loan words: ahtamó·mpi·l 'automobile'; kátəl 'cutter'; nfó·təw 's/he votes'. There is one known Swedish loan word in Unami: típa·s 'chicken', from Swedish tippa , 'a call to chickens'. There is no standard writing system for either Munsee or Unami. However,

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1496-524: Is that the permissible consonant clusters were (first member on the left, second member across the top): In several cases the actual phonetic identity of the first member of the clusters was unknown, and Bloomfield's choice of symbols to represent them was purely arbitrary. Thus, ⟨x⟩ does not represent *[x], ⟨ç⟩ does not represent *[ç], and ⟨ʔ⟩ does not necessarily represent *[ ʔ ]. Goddard argues that Bloomfield's arbitrary symbol ⟨x⟩ be reconstructed as *s , and Bloomfield's ⟨ç⟩ be reconstructed as *r . While

1564-758: Is that this is the reflex it has in Arapaho. However, other researchers have argued for its reconstruction as a lateral fricative, */ɬ/ , in part because of the aforementioned merger in most languages with the phoneme traditionally reconstructed as *l . As with *i and *o , it is unclear whether *č was an independent phoneme in Proto-Algonquian. Almost all instances where *č is reconstructed are before *i , *i· , or *y , where it does not contrast with *t (see below), or are cases of diminutive consonant symbolism. However, Goddard recommends continuing to write it in reconstructions, since it seems to have been present in

1632-568: Is the name Unami speakers also use for their own language in English, whereas Munsee speakers call their language in English Lunaapeew . Uniquely among scholars, Kraft uses Lenape as a cover term to refer to all Delaware-speaking groups. Munsee speakers refer to their language as /hə̀lə̆ni·xsəwá·kan/ , meaning "speaking the Delaware language". Munsee and Unami have similar but not identical inventories of consonants and vowels, and have

1700-567: Is therefore Proto-Algonquian > Proto-Eastern Algonquian > Delawarean > Common Delaware + Mahican, with Common Delaware splitting into Munsee and Unami. Lenni Lenape means 'Human Beings' or the 'Real People' in the Unami language. Their autonym is also spelled Lennape or Lenapi , in Unami Lënape and in Munsee Lunaapeew meaning 'the people.' The term Delaware was used by

1768-497: Is underway by the Delaware Tribe of Indians. Equally affected by consolidation and dispersal, Munsee groups moved to several locations in southern Ontario as early as the late 18th century, to Moraviantown , Munceytown , and Six Nations . Several different patterns of migration led to groups of Munsee speakers moving to Stockbridge in present-day Wisconsin , Cattaraugus in present-day New York state, and Kansas . In 1892

1836-792: Is used to indicate length of a preceding consonant or vowel. A full analysis and description of the status of the long consonants is not available, and more than one analysis of Delaware consonants has been proposed. Some analyses only recognize long stops and fricatives as predictable, i.e. as arising by rule. The contrastive long consonants are described as having low functional yield, that is, they differentiate relatively few pairs of words, but nonetheless do occur in contrasting environments. Both languages have rules that lengthen consonants in certain environments. Several additional consonants occur in Munsee loan words: /f/ in e.g. nə̀fó·ti 'I vote'; /r/ in ntáyrəm . A number of alternate analyses of Munsee and Unami vowels have been proposed. In one,

1904-516: The Delaware Water Gap and the Raritan Valley . Three dialects of Unami are distinguished: Northern Unami, Southern Unami, and Unalachtigo. Northern Unami, now extinct, is recorded in large amounts of materials collected by Moravian missionaries but is not reflected in the speech of any modern groups. The Northern Unami groups were south of the Munsee groups, with the southern boundary of

1972-546: The Lenape languages (Delaware: Lënapei èlixsuwakàn ), are Munsee and Unami , two closely related languages of the Eastern Algonquian subgroup of the Algonquian language family . Munsee and Unami were spoken aboriginally by the Lenape people in the vicinity of the modern New York City area in the United States , including western Long Island , Manhattan Island , Staten Island , as well as adjacent areas on

2040-609: The first bridge built across the creek along the King's Highway (now Frankford Avenue) in 1697; the bridge still stands. Despite the lack of navigability beyond the Fall Line (near the Frankford Avenue bridge), several early settlers built mills along the Pennypack, including Penn's "Pemmapecka Mill," built in 1701. The mills contributed to the growth of Holmesburg , the neighborhood near

2108-539: The Delaware were Dutch explorers and traders, and loan words from Dutch are particularly common. Dutch is the primary source of loan words in Munsee and Unami. Because many of the early encounters between Delaware speakers and Dutch explorers and settlers occurred in Munsee territory, Dutch loanwords are particularly common in Munsee, although there are also a number in Unami as well. Many Delaware borrowings from Dutch are nouns that name items of material culture that were presumably salient or novel for Delaware speakers, as

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2176-557: The English, who named the people for their territory by the Delaware River . They named the river in honor of Lord De La Warr , the governor of the colony at Jamestown, Virginia . The English colonists used the exonym Delaware for almost all the Lenape people living along this river and its tributaries. It is estimated that as late as the 17th century there were approximately forty Lenape local village bands with populations of possibly

2244-877: The Munsee dialect. In Aboriginal teaching materials used by provincial governments this newest standard for Munsee is used in order to teach Muncy to children in the school system. Linguists have tended to use common phonetic transcription symbols of the type found in the International Phonetic Alphabet or similar Americanist symbols in order to represent sounds that are not consistently represented in conventional standard writing systems. Europeans writing down Delaware words and sentences have tended to use adaptations of European alphabets and associated conventions. The quality of such renditions have varied widely, as Europeans attempted to record sounds and sound combinations they were not familiar with. Practical orthographies for both Munsee and Unami have been created in

2312-752: The Munsee-Delaware and Moraviantown children were sent to Mount Elgin Residential School where only English language was permitted to be spoken. The Lenape language began its disappearance along the Grand River in Six Nations and to rapidly vanish in Munsee-Delaware Nation. Only in Moraviantown the Lenape language was used on a daily basis from a majority of the nation and help on the preservation of

2380-587: The Northern Unami area being at Tohickon Creek on the west bank of the Delaware River and between Burlington and Trenton on the east bank. The poorly known Unalachtigo dialect is described as having been spoken in the area between Northern and Southern Unami, with only a small amount of evidence from one group. Southern Unami, to the south of the Northern Unami-Unalachtigo area, is reflected in

2448-523: The Unami Delaware spoken by Delawares in Oklahoma. Names for the speakers of Munsee and Unami are used in complex ways in both English and the Lenape language. The Unami dialect (called a language by non-native speaker students of Lenape) is sometimes called Delaware or Delaware proper, reflecting the original application of the term Delaware to Unami speakers. Both Munsee and Unami speakers use Delaware if enrolled and Lenape if not enrolled as

2516-543: The acute accent to indicate predictable main stress. As well, predictable voiceless or murmured /ă/ is indicated with the breve accent ⟨˘⟩ . Similarly, the breve accent is used to indicate an ultra-short [ə] that typically occurs before a single voiced consonant followed by a vowel. The practical system indicates vowel length by doubling the vowel letter, and maintains the linɡuistic system's practices for marking stress and voiceless/ultra-short vowels. The practical system uses orthographic ⟨sh⟩ for

2584-410: The cluster may have been either *h or *ʔ . The clusters *št and *hr are each reconstructed on the basis of only a single correspondence set ( *št in *weštikwa·ni , "his/her head"; and *hr in *re·hre·wa , "s/he breathes") and may not have been part of Proto-Algonquian. David Pentland, for example, argued that Ojibwe oshtigwaan , claimed as the only form requiring the reconstruction of *št ,

2652-444: The clusters *čp and *čk ; since it can be reconstructed before *a in the term *čapo·nk- "splash"; and since *t does appear before *i· in some reconstructions of the onomatopoeic noun ti·nti·wa "blue jay" (however, see Wiktionary for more). Reconstruction of the consonant clusters has been relatively difficult, and the paths the clusters take in their evolutions to the daughter languages have been complex. The current view

2720-445: The context of various language preservation and documentation projects. A recent bilingual dictionary of Munsee uses a practical orthography derived from a linguistic transcription system for Munsee. The same system is also used in a recent word book produced locally at Moraviantown. The online Unami Lenape Talking Dictionary uses a practical system distinct from that for Munsee. However, other practically oriented Unami materials use

2788-399: The daughter languages have innovated a great deal. PA had four classes of verbs: transitive verbs with an animate object (abbreviated TA), transitive verbs with an inanimate object (TI), intransitive verbs with an animate subject (AI), and intransitive verbs with an inanimate subject (II). Transitive verbs had two paradigms, termed objective and absolute . Objective verbs were used when

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2856-553: The exception of /ə/ . In cells with two vowels, the first is long. Similarly, Unami vowels have also been analysed as organized into contrasting long-short pairs. One asymmetry is that high short /u/ is paired with long /o·/ , and the pairing of long and short /ə/ is noteworthy. In cells with two vowels, the first is long. Both Munsee and Unami have loan words from European languages, reflecting early patterns of contact between Delaware speakers and European traders and settlers. The first Europeans to have sustained contact with

2924-563: The history and culture of the Lenape people. Books used in the class included Conversations in Lenape Language and Advanced Supplements (both written by De Paul). Munsee and Unami are linguistically very similar. They are both dialects of one language by Lenape speakers, and together are referred to as the language of the Lenni Lenape or Delaware Indians, as can be seen in the Grammar of

2992-689: The language of the Lenni Lenape or Delaware Indians , written by the Moravian missionary David Zeisberger and published in a translation from German into English by Peter Stephen du Ponceau in 1827. Zeisberger does not even mention the "dialect" names when describing varying grammatical features, while the translator refers to them in two annotations. Despite their relative closeness the two are sufficiently distinguished by features of syntax, phonology, and vocabulary that speakers of both consider them not mutually intelligible so that, more recently, linguists have treated them as separate languages. Munsee Delaware

3060-647: The language. Today Munsee survives only at Moraviantown, where there are two fluent first language speakers aged 77 and 90 as of 2018. There are no fluent speakers left in the Munsee-Delaware nation of the Lenape people living in Canada; however, there are members that are working to revitalize the language within the community. From 2009 through at least 2014, a Lenape language class was taught at Swarthmore College in Swarthmore, Pennsylvania . The class focused on beginner phrases and grammar, but also included information about

3128-578: The late 19th century, the Registered (Cherokee) Delaware in Washington, Nowata, and Craig Counties, and the Absentee Delaware of Caddo County. Until recently there were a small number of Unami speakers in Oklahoma; the language is now extinct there as a first language, but is spoken fluently as a learned language by enrolled members of the two Delaware tribes in Oklahoma. Some language revitalization work

3196-500: The mainland: southeastern New York State , eastern Pennsylvania , New Jersey , Connecticut, Maryland, and Delaware . The Lenape language is part of the Algonquian branch of the Algic language family, and is part of the Eastern Algonquian language grouping which is considered to be a genetically related sub-grouping of Algonquian . The languages of the Algonquian family constitute a group of historically related languages descended from

3264-449: The most significant of these processes was that *t and *θ became *č and *š respectively before *i , *i· , and *y . For example, the initial *went- "from there" (as in *wentenamwa "s/he takes it from there") is realized as *wenč- in the word *wenči·wa "s/he comes from there", since it precedes *i· . There were several restrictions on phonotactics and the shape of the PA word that can be reconstructed. All words began with

3332-535: The mouth of the creek, and provided local farmers a place to sell their grain that was nearer than the city of Philadelphia. Fetter's Mill was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1999. With the development of steam power in the Industrial Revolution , water power's influence on industry declined. As a result, many of the mills on the Pennypack closed, and by 1905 the land around it

3400-507: The neighboring Iroquoian languages . The earliest work on reconstructing the Algonquian proto-language was undertaken by the linguists Truman Michelson and Leonard Bloomfield . In 1925 Bloomfield reconstructed what he called "Primitive Central Algonquian", using what were at the time the four best-attested Algonquian languages: Fox , Ojibwe , Menominee , and Plains Cree . Following his initial reconstructions, investigations of other languages revealed that his "Primitive Central Algonquian"

3468-583: The people who are enrolled in the Delaware Tribe of Indians have developed a spelling system that is the most recent standard for writing in the Unami dialect. Out of respect to this intellectual property of The Delaware Tribe of Indians their standard for writing in the Unami dialect should be used. As well, the Muncy at the Six Nations Reserve in what is now called Canada have done the same standardization for

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3536-413: The phonetic symbol /š/ , and ⟨ch⟩ for the phonetic symbol /č/ . Proto-Algonquian language Proto-Algonquian (commonly abbreviated PA ) is the proto-language from which the various Algonquian languages are descended. It is generally estimated to have been spoken around 2,500 to 3,000 years ago, but there is less agreement on where it was spoken. The Algonquian family, which

3604-440: The pronominal prefixes *ne- (first person), *ke- (second person), and *we- (third person) were added to a vowel-initial stem, an epenthetic *-t- was inserted between the prefix and the stem. Thus, the prefixes became *net- , *ket- , and *wet- respectively. For example, *ne- + *-ehkwa- = *netehkwa- "my louse". This feature goes back to Proto-Algic (compare Wiyot du- + híkw = dutíkw "my louse"). There were

3672-543: The pronunciation of many Unami words relative to the corresponding Munsee words. This section focuses upon presenting general information about Munsee and Unami sounds and phonology, with detailed discussion reserved for entries for each language. Munsee and Unami have the same basic inventories of consonants, as in the following chart. In addition, Unami is analysed as having contrastive long voiceless stops: p· , t· , č· , k· ; and long voiceless fricatives: s· , š· , and x· . The raised dot /·/

3740-480: The protolanguage). The initial theory, first put forth by Frank T. Siebert, Jr. in 1967 based on examining of the ranges of numerous species of plants and animals for which reliable Algonquian cognates existed, holds that Proto-Algonquian was spoken between Lake Huron's Georgian Bay and Lake Ontario , in Ontario , Canada, and at least as far south as Niagara Falls . Research a generation later suggests that in fact it

3808-414: The result of a morphophonological process of vowel shortening. Goddard concludes that "an independent phoneme *o is of no great antiquity in Proto-Algonquian", but recommends continuing to use it in reconstructions. Likewise, Berman states that "PA *i is probably also of recent origin", derived from earlier (pre-Proto-Algonquian) *ye sequences and morphophonological shortening. Proto-Algonquian had

3876-460: The term Christian Indian as a preferred self-designation in English. The equivalent Munsee term is ké·ntə̆we·s , meaning "one who prays, Moravian convert". Munsee speakers refer to Oklahoma Delawares as Unami in English or /wə̆ná·mi·w/ in Munsee. The Oklahoma Delawares refer to themselves in English as Delaware and in Unami as /ləná·p·e/ . The name Lenape , which is sometimes used in English for both Delaware languages together,

3944-513: The term Munsee was recorded in 1727, and Unami in 1757. At the time of first contact of Europeans colonizers in the 17th century, the Lenape resided in relatively small communities consisting of a few hundred people. The intensity of contact with European settlers resulted in the gradual displacement of some of the Lenape people from their aboriginal homeland, in a series of population movements of genocidal intent involving forced relocation and consolidation of small local groups, extending over

4012-411: The two languages are analysed as having the same basic vowel system, consisting of four long vowels /i· o· e· a·/ , and two short vowels /ə a/ . This vowel system is equivalent to the vowel system reconstructed for Proto-Eastern-Algonquian. Alternative analyses reflect several differences between the two languages. In this analysis Munsee is analysed as having contrasting length in all positions, with

4080-428: The two languages have diverged in distinct ways from Common Delaware. Several shared phonological innovations support a genetic subgroup consisting of the Delaware languages and Mahican , sometimes referred to as Delawaran . Nonetheless Unami and Munsee are more closely related to each other than to Mahican. Some historical evidence suggests commonalities between Mahican and Munsee. The line of historical descent

4148-690: Was acquired by the city for parkland. The creek now runs through Pennypack Park in Philadelphia and Lorimer Park in Montgomery County. Segments of park trail help form the East Coast Greenway , a 3,000 mile long trail system connecting Maine to Florida. Several historic bridges cross Pennypack Creek and its tributaries. 40°04′30″N 75°03′38″W  /  40.07501°N 75.06056°W  / 40.07501; -75.06056 Lenape language The Delaware languages , also known as

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4216-432: Was commented on by the early English and French colonists and explorers. For example, in 1787 (over a decade before Sir William Jones' famous speech on Indo-European), the theologian and linguist Jonathan Edwards Jr. deduced that the Algonquian languages of the eastern and central United States were "radically the same" ('radically' meaning having a common 'root', since radix is Latin for 'root'), and contrasted them with

4284-481: Was essentially equivalent to Proto-Algonquian. Bloomfield wrote a refinement and expansion of his reconstruction in 1946, and his two papers remain the starting point for all research and reconstructions of Proto-Algonquian. In the years since there has been an enormous amount of comparative work undertaken on the Algonquian family. There remains some disagreement over the Algonquian Urheimat (homeland of

4352-638: Was first surveyed by Thomas Holme in 1687. The creek begins in two branches, one in Horsham , the other in Warminster , joining in Bryn Athyn . The creek then flows through Lower Moreland , Abington and Northeast Philadelphia . Pennypack Creek was once the site of several mills. When William Penn founded the province of Pennsylvania in 1682, the Pennypack valley was occupied by Swedish colonists , who continued to live as English settlement began. Penn ordered

4420-418: Was inserted between the two. Proto-Algonquian nouns had an animate/inanimate contrast: nouns representing animate beings (and some traditional items viewed as having spiritual powers) were classed as animate , while all other nouns were inanimate . The plural marker differed in form depending on whether the noun was animate or inanimate: animate nouns took a plural suffix *-aki , while inanimate nouns took

4488-643: Was spoken farther west than this, perhaps "somewhere immediately west of Lake Superior " or on the Columbia Plateau . Proto-Algonquian had four basic vowels, *i , *e , *a , *o , each of which had a long counterpart (commonly written *i· , *e· , *a· , *o· ), for a total of eight vowels. The same inventory of eight vowels was found in Proto-Algic, but Proto-Algonquian did not inherit its inventory directly from Proto-Algic. Rather, several sound changes left pre-Proto-Algonquian without short * i and * o . It

4556-479: Was spoken in the central and lower Hudson River Valley , western Long Island , the upper Delaware River Valley , and the northern third of New Jersey in present-day North Jersey . While dialect variation in Munsee was likely there is no information about possible dialectal subgroupings. Unami Delaware was spoken in the area south of Munsee speakers in the Delaware River Valley and New Jersey, south of

4624-519: Was the subject and which was the object (since verbs inflected for whether they had a proximate or obviative subject and a proximate or obviative object). In a given stretch of discourse, there will not be two proximate or two obviative participants. There were personal pronouns which distinguished three persons, two numbers (singular and plural), inclusive and exclusive first person plural , and proximate and obviative third persons. Demonstrative pronouns have been more difficult to reconstruct, as many of

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