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58-615: Download coordinates as: Features within the Pemberton Belt include: This volcanology article is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . This article about a location on the Coast of British Columbia , Canada is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Volcanology Volcanology (also spelled vulcanology ) is the study of volcanoes , lava , magma and related geological , geophysical and geochemical phenomena ( volcanism ). The term volcanology

116-414: A depiction of an erupting volcano, with a cluster of houses below shows a twin peaked volcano in eruption, with a town at its base (though archaeologists now question this interpretation). The volcano may be either Hasan Dağ , or its smaller neighbour, Melendiz Dağ. The classical world of Greece and the early Roman Empire explained volcanoes as sites of various gods. Greeks considered that Hephaestus ,

174-414: A detailed chronology and description of Vesuvius' eruptions. Eyjafjallaj%C3%B6kull Eyjafjallajökull ( Icelandic: [ˈeiːjaˌfjatl̥aˌjœːkʏtl̥] ; "glacier of (the mountain) Eyjafjöll"), sometimes referred to by the numeronym E15 , is one of the smaller ice caps of Iceland , north of Skógar and west of Mýrdalsjökull . The ice cap covers the caldera of a volcano with

232-466: A key role in volcano explanations until the 16th century after Anaxagoras , in the fifth century BC, had proposed eruptions were caused by a great wind. Lucretius , a Roman philosopher, claimed Etna was completely hollow and the fires of the underground driven by a fierce wind circulating near sea level. Ovid believed that the flame was fed from "fatty foods" and eruptions stopped when the food ran out. Vitruvius contended that sulfur, alum and bitumen fed

290-820: A large area to be monitored easily. They can measure the spread of an ash plume, such as the one from Eyjafjallajökull 's 2010 eruption, as well as SO 2 emissions. InSAR and thermal imaging can monitor large, scarcely populated areas where it would be too expensive to maintain instruments on the ground. Other geophysical techniques (electrical, gravity and magnetic observations) include monitoring fluctuations and sudden change in resistivity, gravity anomalies or magnetic anomaly patterns that may indicate volcano-induced faulting and magma upwelling. Stratigraphic analyses includes analyzing tephra and lava deposits and dating these to give volcano eruption patterns, with estimated cycles of intense activity and size of eruptions. Compositional analysis has been very successful in

348-528: A significant albedo reduction due to the ash. Eyjafjallajökull lies 25 km ( 15 + 1 ⁄ 2  mi) west of another subglacial volcano, Katla , under the Mýrdalsjökull ice cap, which is much more active and known for its powerful subglacial eruptions and its large magma chamber. Each of the eruptions of Eyjafjallajökull in 920, 1612, and 1821–1823 has preceded an eruption of Katla. Katla did not display any unusual activity (such as expansion of

406-507: A spiteful jealous fight ensued. Some Māori will not to this day live on the direct line between Tongariro and Taranaki for fear of the dispute flaring up again. In the Hawaiian religion , Pele ( / ˈ p eɪ l eɪ / Pel-a; [ˈpɛlɛ] ) is the goddess of volcanoes and a popular figure in Hawaiian mythology . Pele was used for various scientific terms as for Pele's hair , Pele's tears , and Limu o Pele (Pele's seaweed). A volcano on

464-532: A summit elevation of 1,651 metres (5,417 ft). The volcano has erupted relatively frequently since the Last Glacial Period , most recently in 2010 , when, although relatively small for a volcanic eruption, it caused enormous disruption to air travel across northern and western Europe for a week. Eyjafjallajökull consists of a volcano completely covered by an ice cap. The retreating ice cap covered an area of 66 km (25 sq mi) in 2019, but

522-562: A thousand earthquakes were measured at the epicenter of the volcano. The eruption begun on 20 March 2010, about 8 km (5 mi) east of the top crater of the volcano, on Fimmvörðuháls , the high neck between Eyjafjallajökull and the neighbouring icecap, Mýrdalsjökull. This first eruption, in the form of a 300-meter-long radial fissure vent , did not occur under the glacier and was smaller in scale than had been expected by some geologists. The eruption consisted of 15 lava fountains reaching heights of up to 185 meters. The fissure opened on

580-464: A variety of all-embracing systems. Volcanic eruptions and earthquakes were generally linked in these systems to the existence of great open caverns under the Earth where inflammable vapours could accumulate until they were ignited. According to Thomas Burnet , much of the Earth itself was inflammable, with pitch, coal and brimstone all ready to burn. In William Whiston 's theory the presence of underground air

638-516: Is coming close...we [Iceland] have prepared...it is high time for European governments and airline authorities all over the world to start planning for the eventual Katla eruption". Volcanologists continue to monitor Katla, aware that any eruption from Katla following an eruption from Eyjafjallajökull has historically occurred within months of an Eyjafjallajökull eruption. The Icelandic Meteorological Office updates its website with reports of quakes at both Eyjafjallajökull and Katla. On 8 July 2011 there

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696-504: Is derived from the Latin word vulcan . Vulcan was the ancient Roman god of fire. A volcanologist is a geologist who studies the eruptive activity and formation of volcanoes and their current and historic eruptions. Volcanologists frequently visit volcanoes, especially active ones, to observe volcanic eruptions , collect eruptive products including tephra (such as ash or pumice ), rock and lava samples. One major focus of enquiry

754-509: Is the name of the southern side of the volcanic massif together with the small mountains which form the foot of the volcano. The word jökull [ˈjœːkʏtl̥] , meaning glacier or ice cap, is a cognate with the Middle English word ikil surviving in the -icle of English icicle . The name Eyjafjöll is made up of the words eyja [ˈeiːja] (genitive plural of ey , meaning eyot or island ), and

812-567: Is the prediction of eruptions; there is currently no accurate way to do this, but predicting or forecasting eruptions, like predicting earthquakes, could save many lives. In 1841, the first volcanological observatory, the Vesuvius Observatory , was founded in the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies . Volcanology advances have required more than just structured observation, and the science relies upon

870-482: Is to be found all over the south of Iceland. It is dark grey in colour, small-grained and dacitic intermediate rock containing about 28–40% silicon dioxide . On 26 February 2010, unusual seismic activity along with rapid expansion of the Earth's crust was registered by the Icelandic Meteorological Office . This gave geophysicists evidence that magma was pouring from underneath the crust into

928-451: The 1631 eruption of Mount Vesuvius (1632 and later editions) and Francesco Serao 's account of the eruption of Vesuvius in 1737 (1737, with editions in French and English). The Jesuit Athanasius Kircher (1602–1680) witnessed eruptions of Mount Etna and Stromboli, then visited the crater of Vesuvius and published his view of an Earth with a central fire connected to numerous others caused by

986-521: The Jovian moon Io is also named Pele . Saint Agatha is patron saint of Catania , close to mount Etna, and an important highly venerated (till today ) example of virgin martyrs of Christian antiquity. In 253 CE, one year after her violent death, the stilling of an eruption of Mt. Etna was attributed to her intercession. Catania was however nearly completely destroyed by the eruption of Mt. Etna in 1169, and over 15,000 of its inhabitants died. Nevertheless,

1044-476: The magma chamber of the Eyjafjallajökull volcano and that pressure stemming from the process caused the huge crustal displacement at Þorvaldseyri [ˈθɔrval(t)sˌeiːrɪ] farm. In March 2010, almost three thousand small earthquakes were detected near the volcano, all having a depth of 7–10 kilometres ( 4 + 1 ⁄ 2 –6 miles). The seismic activity continued to increase and from 3–5 March, over

1102-400: The Earth was an animal, and that its internal heat, earthquakes and eruptions were all signs of life. This animistic philosophy was waning by the end of the seventeenth century, but traces continued well into the eighteenth. Science wrestled with the ideas of the combustion of pyrite with water, that rock was solidified bitumen, and with notions of rock being formed from water ( Neptunism ). Of

1160-518: The Eyjafjöll". A literal part-by-part translation of Eyjafjallajökull would thus be "Islands' Mountains' glacier". Hence the southern slopes of the mountain Eyjafjöll result in the sea side strip of land beyond being called Undir Eyjafjöllum . The stratovolcano , whose vents follow an east–west trend, is composed of basalt to andesite lavas . Most of its historical eruptions have been explosive . However, fissure vents occur on both (mainly

1218-437: The ash released from the eruption contained a large fraction of fluoride , which in high doses may damage the bone structure of cattle, horses, sheep and humans. The eruption also caused some small and medium glacier runs ( jökulhlaups ) and flooding in nearby rivers Markarfljót and Holtsá [ˈhɔl̥(t)sˌauː] . The eruptive phase started on 19 and 20 December 1821 by a series of explosive eruptions and continued over

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1276-521: The burning of sulfur, bitumen and coal. He published his view of this in Mundus Subterraneus with volcanoes acting as a type of safety valve. The causes of these phenomena were discussed in the large number of theories of the Earth that were published in the hundred years after 1650. The authors of these theories were not themselves observers, but combined the observations of others with Newtonian, Cartesian, Biblical or animistic science to produce

1334-547: The closure of airspace over many parts of Europe. The eruptions also created electrical storms . The London Volcanic Ash Advisory Centre declared the eruption to have stopped on the 23rd of May 2010, but stated that they were continuing to monitor the volcano. As a direct result of this disruption being viewed by some as excessive, new standards for the closure of airspace as a result of air contamination by dust/ash were agreed internationally. The volcano continued to have several earthquakes daily, with volcanologists watching

1392-513: The crust or seismic activity) during the 2010 eruptions of Eyjafjallajökull, though geologists have been concerned about the general instability of Katla since 1999. Some geophysicists in Iceland believe that the Eyjafjallajökull eruption may trigger an eruption of Katla, which would cause major flooding due to melting of glacial ice and send up massive plumes of ash. On 20 April 2010, Icelandic President Ólafur Grímsson said "the time for Katla to erupt

1450-500: The deep fires. Observations by Pliny the Elder noted the presence of earthquakes preceded an eruption; he died in the eruption of Vesuvius in 79 CE while investigating it at Stabiae . His nephew, Pliny the Younger , gave detailed descriptions of the eruption in which his uncle died, attributing his death to the effects of toxic gases. Such eruptions have been named Plinian in honour of

1508-464: The eruption of Vesuvius rained twinned pyroxene crystals and ash upon the nearby villages. The crystals resembled the crucifix and this was interpreted as the work of Saint Januarius . In Naples , the relics of St Januarius are paraded through town at every major eruption of Vesuvius. The register of these processions and the 1779 and 1794 diary of Father Antonio Piaggio allowed British diplomat and amateur naturalist Sir William Hamilton to provide

1566-533: The far north of the country, in Eyjafjörður , and in the southwest, on the peninsula of Seltjarnarnes near Reykjavík . The period from August to December 1822 seemed quieter, but farmers attributed the death of cattle and sheep in the Eyjafjörður area to poisoning from this eruption, which modern analysis identifies as fluoride poisoning . Some small glacier runs occurred in the river Holtsá. A bigger one flooded

1624-487: The flames his breath and the tremors his railing against the bars of his prison. Enceladus' brother Mimas was buried beneath Vesuvius by Hephaestus, and the blood of other defeated giants welled up in the Phlegrean Fields surrounding Vesuvius. The Greek philosopher Empedocles (c. 490-430 BCE) saw the world divided into four elemental forces, of Earth, Air, Fire and Water. Volcanoes, Empedocles maintained, were

1682-460: The god of fire, sat below the volcano Etna , forging the weapons of Zeus . The Greek word used to describe volcanoes was etna , or hiera , after Heracles , the son of Zeus. The Roman poet Virgil , in interpreting the Greek mythos, held that the giant Enceladus was buried beneath Etna by the goddess Athena as punishment for rebellion against the gods; the mountain's rumblings were his tormented cries,

1740-426: The grouping of volcanoes by type, origin of magma, including matching of volcanoes to a mantle plume of a particular hotspot , mantle plume melting depths, the history of recycled subducted crust, matching of tephra deposits to each other and to volcanoes of origin, and the understanding the formation and evolution of magma reservoirs, an approach which has now been validated by real time sampling. Some of

1798-461: The manifestation of Elemental Fire. Plato contended that channels of hot and cold waters flow in inexhaustible quantities through subterranean rivers. In the depths of the earth snakes a vast river of fire, the Pyriphlegethon , which feeds all the world's volcanoes. Aristotle considered underground fire as the result of "the...friction of the wind when it plunges into narrow passages." Wind played

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1856-479: The miniDOAS), which analyzes the presence of volcanic gases such as sulfur dioxide ; or by infra-red spectroscopy (FTIR). Increased gas emissions, and more particularly changes in gas compositions, may signal an impending volcanic eruption. Temperature changes are monitored using thermometers and observing changes in thermal properties of volcanic lakes and vents, which may indicate upcoming activity. Satellites are widely used to monitor volcanoes, as they allow

1914-427: The movement. When about 15,000,000 cubic metres (530,000,000 cubic feet) of material hit the glacier a massive amount of air, ice, and water began to move out from under the glacier into the lagoon at the foot of the glacier. The mountain itself, a stratovolcano , stands 1,651 metres (5,417 ft) at its highest point, and has a crater three to four kilometres (2 to 2 + 1 ⁄ 2 miles) in diameter, open to

1972-510: The next initial onset time of an eruption, as it might also address the size of a future eruption, and evolution of an eruption once it has begun. Volcanology has an extensive history. The earliest known recording of a volcanic eruption may be on a wall painting dated to about 7,000 BCE found at the Neolithic site at Çatal Höyük in Anatolia , Turkey . This painting has been interpreted as

2030-412: The next several days. The sources describe heavy ash fall in the area around the volcano, especially to the south and west. After that event the sequence of eruptions continued on a more subdued level until June 1822. From the end of June until the beginning of August 1822, another sequence of explosive eruptions followed. The eruption columns were shot to considerable heights, with ashfall in both

2088-418: The north side of Fimmvörðuháls, directly across the popular hiking trail between Skógar, south of the pass, and Þórsmörk , immediately to the north. On 14 April 2010 Eyjafjallajökull resumed erupting after a brief pause, this time from the top crater in the centre of the glacier, causing jökulhlaup ( meltwater floods) to rush down the nearby rivers, and requiring 800 people to be evacuated. This eruption

2146-410: The north. The crater rim has three main peaks (clockwise from the north-east): Guðnasteinn ( [ˈkvʏðnaˌsteitn̥] ), 1,500 m (4,900 ft); Hámundur ( [ˈhauːˌmʏntʏr̥] ), 1,651 m (5,417 ft); and Goðasteinn ( [ˈkɔːðaˌsteitn̥] ), 1,497 m (4,911 ft). The south face of the mountain was once part of Iceland's coastline , from which, over thousands of years,

2204-479: The plains near the river Markarfljót. (The sources do not indicate the exact date.). In 1823, some men went hiking up on Eyjafjallajökull to inspect the craters . They discovered a fissure vent near the summit caldera a bit to the west of Guðnasteinn . In early 1823, the nearby volcano Katla under the Mýrdalsjökull ice cap erupted and at the same time steam columns were seen on the summit of Eyjafjallajökull. The ash of Eyjafjallajökull's 1821 eruptions

2262-409: The plural word fjöll [ˈfjœtl̥] , meaning fells or mountains , and together literally means: "the mountains of the islands". The name probably refers to the close by archipelago of Vestmannaeyjar . The word fjalla [ˈfjatla] is the genitive plural of fjöll , and so Eyjafjalla [ˈeiːjaˌfjatla] is the genitive form of Eyjafjöll and means: "of

2320-466: The rediscovery of Classical descriptions of them by wtiters like Lucretius and Strabo . Vesuvius, Stromboli and Vulcano provided an opportunity to study the nature of volcanic phenomena. Italian natural philosophers living within reach of these volcanoes wrote long and learned books on the subject: Giovanni Alfonso Borelli 's account of the eruption of Mount Etna in 1669 became a standard source of information, as did Giulio Cesare Recupito's account of

2378-659: The rise of molten rock to the surface. During the Renaissance, observers as Bernard Palissy , Conrad Gessner , and Johannes Kentmann (1518–1568) showed a deep intense interest in the nature, behavior, origin and history of the terrestrial globe. Many theories of volcanic action were framed during the late sixteenth mid-seventeenth centuries. Georgius Agricola argued the rays of the sun, as later proposed by Descartes had nothing to do with volcanoes. Agricola believed vapor under pressure caused eruptions of 'mointain oil' and basalt. Johannes Kepler considered volcanoes as conduits for

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2436-470: The saint was invoked again for the 1669 Etna eruption and, for an outbreak that was endangering the town of Nicolosi in 1886. The way the saint is invoked and dealt with in Italian folk religion , in a quid pro quo manner, or bargaining approach which is sometimes used in prayerful interactions with saints, has been related (in the tradition of James Frazer ) to earlier pagan beliefs and practices. In 1660

2494-452: The sea has retreated some 5 km (3 mi). The former coastline now consists of sheer cliffs with many waterfalls , of which the best known is Skógafoss . In strong winds, the water of the smaller falls can even be blown up the mountain. The area between the mountain and the present coast is a relatively flat strand, 2–5 km (1–3 mi) wide. The name means " glacier of Eyjafjöll" (or more properly here " ice cap "). Eyjafjöll

2552-399: The tears and excrement of the Earth, voiding bitumen, tar and sulfur. Descartes, pronouncing that God had created the Earth in an instant, declared he had done so in three layers; the fiery depths, a layer of water, and the air. Volcanoes, he said, were formed where the rays of the sun pierced the earth. The volcanoes of southern Italy attracted naturalists ever since the Renaissance led to

2610-464: The techniques mentioned above, combined with modelling, have proved useful and successful in the forecasting of some eruptions, such as the evacuation of the locality around Mount Pinatubo in 1991 that may have saved 20,000 lives. Short-term forecasts tend to use seismic or multiple monitoring data with long term forecasting involving the study of the previous history of local volcanism. However, volcanology forecasting does not just involve predicting

2668-420: The travel disruptions following the 2010 eruption. Emo band The World Is a Beautiful Place & I Am No Longer Afraid to Die released a song on their 2010 EP Formlessness called "Eyjafjallajokull Dance." An Operator in the mobile game Arknights is named after it. In the season 1 episode 8 of Sense8 , Will wants to see "the volcano no one can pronounce the name of", and Riley responds with it. If

2726-423: The two authors. Thirteenth century Dominican scholar Restoro d'Arezzo devoted two entire chapters (11.6.4.6 and 11.6.4.7) of his seminal treatise La composizione del mondo colle sue cascioni to the origin of the endogenous energy of the Earth. Restoro maintained that the interior of the Earth was very hot and insisted, following Empedocles , that the Earth had a molten center and that volcanoes erupted through

2784-930: The understanding and integration of knowledge in many fields including geology , tectonics , physics , chemistry and mathematics , with many advances only being able to occur after the advance had occurred in another field of science. For example, the study of radioactivity only commenced in 1896, and its application to the theory of plate tectonics and radiometric dating took about 50 years after this. Many other developments in fluid dynamics , experimental physics and chemistry, techniques of mathematical modelling , instrumentation and in other sciences have been applied to volcanology since 1841. Seismic observations are made using seismographs deployed near volcanic areas, watching out for increased seismicity during volcanic events, in particular looking for long period harmonic tremors, which signal magma movement through volcanic conduits. Surface deformation monitoring includes

2842-433: The use of geodetic techniques such as leveling, tilt, strain, angle and distance measurements through tiltmeters, total stations and EDMs. This also includes GNSS observations and InSAR. Surface deformation indicates magma upwelling: increased magma supply produces bulges in the volcanic center's surface. Gas emissions may be monitored with equipment including portable ultra-violet spectrometers (COSPEC, now superseded by

2900-452: The volcano closely. As of August 2010, Eyjafjallajökull was considered dormant. Infrasound sensors have been installed around Eyjafjallajökull to monitor for future eruptions. In total, the 2010 eruptions generated about 0.27 cubic km (270,000,000 cubic metres) of tephra, causing ash fallout over central southern Iceland and parts of continental Europe. Nearby areas saw an ash layer of up to several centimeters, and surrounding glaciers saw

2958-537: The volcanoes then known, all were near the water, hence the action of the sea upon the land was used to explain volcanism . Tribal legends of volcanoes abound from the Pacific Ring of Fire and the Americas, usually invoking the forces of the supernatural or the divine to explain the violent outbursts of volcanoes. Taranaki and Tongariro , according to Māori mythology, were lovers who fell in love with Pihanga , and

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3016-626: The west) sides of the volcano. The volcano is 800,000 years old. The volcano is fed by a magma chamber under the mountain, which in turn derives from the tectonic divergence of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge . It is part of a chain of volcanoes stretching across Iceland. Its nearest active neighbours are Katla , to the northeast, and Eldfell , on Heimaey , to the southwest. The volcano is thought to be related to Katla geologically, in that eruptions of Eyjafjallajökull have generally been followed by eruptions of Katla. Eyjafjallajökull erupted in

3074-500: The years 920, 1612, 1821, and 2010. The Skerin Ridge eruption in 920 was a VEI 3 radial fissure eruption while the subsequent 1612 and 1821 eruptions were VEI 2 small summit eruptions. In the case of the 1821 eruption, a short explosive phase in December 1821 was followed by a year of intermittent explosive to effusive activity. Some damage was caused by a minor eruption in 1821. Notably,

3132-531: Was a jökulhlaup that destroyed a bridge on the Ring Road and caused cracks to appear on Katla's glacier. Icelandic Post issued three special stamps in 2010 for the eruption of the Eyjafjallajökull volcano. All stamps contain real volcanic ash which fell on 17 April 2010. The volcano was featured in the 2013 movie The Secret Life of Walter Mitty , where Walter had to flee from an eruption after pursuing photographer Sean O'Connell to Iceland. Eyjafjallajökull

3190-744: Was explosive, due to meltwater getting into the volcanic vent. It was estimated to be ten to twenty times larger than the previous one in Fimmvörðuháls . Pulsating explosive activity on 17 April 2010 was later understood to be due to periodic clogging/plugging of the conduit associated with the rise and degassing of more magma. This second eruption threw volcanic ash several kilometres up in the atmosphere, which led to air travel disruption in northwest Europe for six days from 15 to 21 April 2010. This disruption affected over 20 countries and as many as 10 million air travelers. The volcano erupted again in May 2010, causing

3248-466: Was necessary if ignition were to take place, while John Woodward stressed that water was essential. Athanasius Kircher maintained that the caverns and sources of the heat were deep, and reached down towards the centre of the Earth, while other writers, notably Georges Buffon , believed they were relatively superficial, and that volcanic fires were seated well up within the volcanic cone itself. A number of writers, most notably Thomas Robinson, believed that

3306-507: Was previously more than 80 square kilometres (30 square miles), with many outlet glaciers . The main outlet glaciers are to the north: Gígjökull, flowing into Lónið, and Steinsholtsjökull, flowing into Steinsholtslón. In 1967, there was a massive landslide on the Steinsholtsjökull glacial tongue. On 16 January 1967 at 13:47:55 there was an explosion on the glacier. It can be timed because the seismometers at Kirkjubæjarklaustur monitored

3364-691: Was used in Season 5 Episode 6 of Madam Secretary which aired on 11 November 2018. It was used as the basis of the airport being closed in Ireland trapping Secretary of State Elizabeth McCord and her delegation and the Turkish foreign minister and his delegation. It is mentioned in the JJ DOOM song, "Guv'nor". Valencian singer-songwriter Pau Alabajos released a song called "Eyjafjallajökull" on his 2011 album "Una Amable, una Trista, una Petita Pàtria," drawing imagery from

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