Linen ( / ˈ l ɪ n ə n / ) is a textile made from the fibers of the flax plant.
68-515: Peg or Peggy Stewart may refer to: Peggy Stewart (ship) Peggy Stewart (actress) (1923–2019), American actress Peg Stewart, American actress fl.1970s-1990s; in " Band Candy " episode of Buffy the Vampire Slayer See also [ edit ] Peggy Stewart House , Annapolis, Maryland Margaret Stewart (disambiguation) Stewart (surname) [REDACTED] Topics referred to by
136-475: A linothorax . Additionally, linen was commonly used to make riggings, sail-cloths, nets, ropes, and canvases because the tensility of the cloth would increase by 20% when wet. Because of its strength when wet, Irish linen is a very popular wrap of pool/billiard cues, due to its absorption of sweat from hands. In 1923, the German city Bielefeld issued banknotes printed on linen. United States currency paper
204-512: A "non stick" surface to hold the dough. Then ridges are formed in the couche to keep the dough from spreading. In the past, linen was also used for books (the only surviving example of which is the Liber Linteus ). Due to its strength, in the Middle Ages linen was used for shields , gambesons , and bowstrings ; in classical antiquity it was used to make a type of body armour, referred to as
272-429: A burial at Çatalhöyük , a large settlement dating to around 7,000 BC. To the southeast, in ancient Mesopotamia , flax was domesticated and linen was produced. It was used mainly by the wealthier class of the society, including priests. The Sumerian poem of the courtship of Inanna mentions flax and linen. In ancient Egypt , linen was used for mummification and for burial shrouds. It was also worn as clothing on
340-464: A daily basis; white linen was worn because of the extreme heat. For example, the Tarkhan dress , considered to be among the oldest woven garments in the world and dated to between 3482 and 3102 BC, is made of linen. Plutarch wrote that the priests of Isis also wore linen because of its purity. Linen was sometimes used as a form of currency in ancient Egypt. Egyptian mummies were wrapped in linen as
408-409: A great deal of attention. In addition, flax thread is not elastic, and therefore it is difficult to weave without breaking threads. Thus linen is considerably more expensive to manufacture than cotton. The collective term " linens " is still often used generically to describe a class of woven or knitted bed, bath, table and kitchen textiles traditionally made of flax-based linen but today made from
476-543: A material like cotton although both are natural fibers. It is also more difficult to weave than cotton. Linen textiles appear to be some of the oldest in the world; their history goes back many thousands of years. Dyed flax fibers found in a cave in Southeastern Europe (present-day Georgia ) suggest the use of woven linen fabrics from wild flax may date back over 30,000 years. Linen was used in ancient civilizations including Mesopotamia and ancient Egypt , and linen
544-410: A meeting that afternoon, so they invited the public to contribute to the discussion, and it was decided that all the cargo except the tea could be unloaded, 12 supervisors being appointed by the meeting to ensure that this stipulation was adhered to. A full committee meeting was then arranged for the morning of the following Wednesday, 19 October, and over five days, a great deal of politics occurred. On
612-456: A mingled stuff, wool and linen together" and Leviticus 19:19 , "...neither shall there come upon thee a garment of two kinds of stuff mingled together." There is no explanation for this in the Torah itself and it is categorized as a type of law known as chukim , a statute beyond man's ability to comprehend. First-century Romano-Jewish historian Josephus suggested that the reason for the prohibition
680-584: A practical as well as allegorical purpose, perhaps here preventing a priestly garment that would cause discomfort (or excessive sweat) in a hot climate. Linen is also mentioned in the Bible in Proverbs 31, a passage describing a noble wife. Proverbs 31:22 says, "She makes coverings for her bed; she is clothed in fine linen and purple." Fine white linen is also worn by angels in the New Testament ( Revelation 15:6 ). In
748-516: A symbol of light and purity, and as a display of wealth. Some of these fabrics, woven from hand-spun yarns, were very fine for their day, but are coarse compared with modern linen. When the tomb of the Pharaoh Ramses II , who died in 1213 BC, was discovered in 1881, the linen wrappings were in a state of perfect preservation after more than 3000 years. In the Ulster Museum , Belfast there is
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#1732852649975816-410: A variety of fibers. The term "linens" refers to lightweight undergarments such as shirts, chemises , waist-shirts, lingerie (a cognate with linen ), and detachable shirt collars and cuffs, all of which were historically made almost exclusively out of linen. The inner layer of fine composite cloth garments (as for example dress jackets) was traditionally made of linen, hence the word lining . Over
884-410: A yarn having a size of 1 lea will give 300 yards per pound. The fine yarns used in handkerchiefs, etc. might be 40 lea, and give 40x300 = 12,000 yards per pound. This is a specific length therefore an indirect measurement of the fineness of the linen, i.e., the number of length units per unit mass. The symbol is NeL. The metric unit, Nm, is more commonly used in continental Europe. This
952-402: Is because the cellulose fibers in linen yarn are slightly longer and wrapped tighter than those found in cotton yarn. This gives it great durability and allows linen products to be long-lasting. Currently researchers are working on a cotton/flax blend to create new yarns which will improve the feel of denim during hot and humid weather. Conversely, some brands such as 100% Capri specially treat
1020-399: Is comfortable to wear in hot weather and is valued for use in garments. Linen textiles can be made from flax plant fiber, yarn, as well as woven and knitted. Linen also has other distinctive characteristics, such as its tendency to wrinkle. It's also hypoallergenic which makes it a better material for people with allergies or chemical sensitivities. It takes significantly longer to harvest than
1088-581: Is different from Wikidata All article disambiguation pages All disambiguation pages Peggy Stewart (ship) Peggy Stewart was a Maryland cargo vessel burned on October 19, 1774, in Annapolis as a punishment for contravening the boycott on tea imports which had been imposed in retaliation for the British occupation of Boston following the Boston Tea Party . This event became known as
1156-561: Is itself perhaps the most famous linen producing center throughout history; during the Victorian era the majority of the world's linen was produced in the city, which gained it the name Linenopolis . Although the linen industry was already established in Ulster, Louis Crommelin found scope for improvement in weaving, and his efforts were so successful that he was appointed by the Government to develop
1224-431: Is made from 25% linen and 75% cotton. Linen is a bast fiber . Flax fibers vary in length from about 25 to 150 mm (1 to 6 in ) and average 12–16 micrometers in diameter. There are two varieties: shorter tow fibers used for coarser fabrics and longer line fibers used for finer fabrics. Flax fibers can usually be identified by their “nodes” which add to the flexibility and texture of the fabric. The cross-section of
1292-596: Is mentioned in the Bible . In the 18th century and beyond, the linen industry was important in the economies of several countries in Europe as well as the American colonies. Textiles in a linen weave texture, even when made of cotton, hemp , or other non-flax fibers, are also loosely referred to as "linen". The word linen is of West Germanic origin and cognate to the Latin name for
1360-434: Is much easier to iron when damp. Linen wrinkles very easily, and thus some more formal garments require ironing often, in order to maintain perfect smoothness. Nevertheless, the tendency to wrinkle is often considered part of linen's particular "charm", and many modern linen garments are designed to be air-dried on a good clothes hanger and worn without the necessity of ironing. A characteristic often associated with linen yarn
1428-404: Is preferred to cotton for its strength, durability and archival integrity. Linen is also used extensively by artisan bakers. Known as a couche, the flax cloth is used to hold the dough into shape while in the final rise, just before baking. The couche is heavily dusted with flour which is rubbed into the pores of the fabric. Then the shaped dough is placed on the couche. The floured couche makes
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#17328526499751496-461: Is the number of 1,000 m lengths per kilogram. In China, the English Cotton system unit, NeC, is common. This is the number of 840 yard lengths in a pound. Linen is laborious to manufacture. The quality of the finished linen product is often dependent upon growing conditions and harvesting techniques. To generate the longest possible fibers, flax is either hand-harvested by pulling up
1564-440: Is the presence of slubs , or small, soft, irregular lumps, which occur randomly along its length. In the past, slubs were traditionally considered to be defects, and were associated with low-quality linen. However, in the case of many present-day linen fabrics, particularly in the decorative furnishing industry, slubs are considered as part of the aesthetic appeal of an expensive natural product. In addition, slubs do not compromise
1632-403: Is usually an expensive textile produced in relatively small quantities. It has a long staple (individual fiber length) relative to cotton and other natural fibers . Linen fabric has been used for table coverings, bed coverings and clothing for centuries. The significant cost of linen derives not only from the difficulty of working with the thread but also because the flax plant itself requires
1700-512: The Book of Joshua , Rahab , a prostitute in Jericho , hides two Israelite spies under bundles of flax. Many products can be made with linen, such as clothing, bed sheets, aprons, bags, towels (swimming, bath, beach, body and wash towels), napkins, runners, and upholstery. It is used especially in sailcloth and lent cloth, sewing threads, handkerchiefs, table cloth, sheets, collars, cuffs etc.. Today, linen
1768-523: The British East India Company , to sell tea in America without paying tax, but such a one-sided deal seemed as unjust to Americans as the original taxes, eventually leading to the famous Boston Tea Party and, following British overreaction, to a widespread re-introduction of tea boycotts. Most ships' captains refused to carry tea, but in the summer of 1774, one merchant, Thomas Charles Williams,
1836-640: The Edict of Nantes was revoked in 1685, many of the Huguenots who fled France settled in the British Isles and elsewhere. They brought improved methods for linen production with them, contributing to the growth of the linen industry in Ireland in particular. Among them was Louis Crommelin , a leader who was appointed overseer of the royal linen manufacture of Ireland. He settled in the town of Lisburn near Belfast , which
1904-456: The Good Intent case, and the report of the fateful second meeting was oddly abbreviated: The committee were of opinion, if the tea was destroyed by the voluntary act of the owners and proper concessions made, that nothing further ought to be required. This their opinion being reported to the assembly, was not satisfactory to all present. Mr Stewart then voluntarily offered to burn the vessel and
1972-580: The Middle Ages , there was a thriving trade in German flax and linen. The trade spread throughout Germany by the 9th century and spread to Flanders and Brabant by the 11th century. The Lower Rhine was a center of linen making in the Middle Ages. Flax was cultivated and linen used for clothing in Ireland by the 11th century. Evidence suggests that flax may have been grown and sold in Southern England in
2040-557: The flax plant, linum , and the earlier Greek λινόν ( linón ). This word history has given rise to a number of other terms in English, most notably line , from the use of a linen (flax) thread to determine a straight line. It is also etymologically related to a number of other terms, including lining , because linen was often used to create an inner layer for clothing, and lingerie , from French, which originally denoted underwear made of linen. People in various parts of
2108-414: The indentured servants. Stewart knew they could not send the entire cargo back to London because it included the 53 indentured servants, who might easily die in the autumn storms. He therefore guaranteed payment of the tax on the tea himself, got the servants ashore as soon as possible, and left the rest of the cargo aboard to await the committee's decision. Only four of the committee were available for
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2176-491: The "Annapolis Tea Party". In February 1770, the brig Good Intent arrived at Annapolis from London , bringing goods ordered by local merchants during 1769. Some of the orders had been placed before the local resolutions in June–July 1769, to boycott goods subject to British tax under the " Townshend Acts " of 1767. The Customs collector at Annapolis would not allow any goods to be landed, even those not subject to tax, until
2244-437: The 12th and 13th centuries. Textiles, primarily linen and wool, were produced in decentralized home weaving mills. Linen continued to be valued for garments in the 16th century and beyond. Specimens of linen garments worn by historical figures have survived. For example, a linen cap worn by Emperor Charles V was carefully preserved after his death in 1558. There is a long history of the production of linen in Ireland. When
2312-425: The American colonies, where it was brought over with the first settlers and became the most commonly used fabric and a valuable asset for colonial households. The homespun movement encouraged the use of flax to make home spun textiles. Through the 1830s, most farmers in the northern United States continued to grow flax for linen to be used for the family's clothing. In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, linen
2380-715: The British Tea Act. On October 19, 1904, the city of Baltimore commemorated the event with The Burning of the Peggy Stewart , a mural by Charles Yardley Turner (1850–1919), painted on the west wall of the Criminal Court Lobby in the Clarence M. Mitchell, Jr. Courthouse . On October 19, 1974, the Bicentennial Council of the 13 Original States created a silver ingot honoring the two-hundredth anniversary of
2448-582: The London representative of an Annapolis family firm, thought he had found a cunning way around that problem. He loaded 2,320 pounds (about one ton) of tea, in 17 packages, aboard the brig Peggy Stewart , principally owned by Dick and Stewart (business rivals to the Williams firm), which was about to make the Atlantic crossing. The worried captain, Richard Jackson, was told that the packages contained linen , but to avoid
2516-524: The account seem false, but other sources agree that he led the calls for harsh penalties, whipping up mob hysteria. The Gazette did publish a letter from the Williams brothers in which, among other things, they complained that their complete willingness to co-operate with the committee was "kept entirely secret" from the angry throng, and instead "a most ungenerous piece was drawn up by Mathias Hammond." An anonymous letter to another newspaper (quite probably written by Thomas Williams) claimed that "the minds of
2584-629: The board of directors of the Associated Loyalists ; then in 1783 he attempted, with one Samuel Gouldsbury, to found a community called New Edinburgh , in Nova Scotia . Legal obstacles prevented the plan from being fully realised, but the community still exists today. Despite the significant financial loss he sustained in the "Tea Party", Stewart remained wealthy, although the 1,200 acres (4.9 km ) of land he owned in Maryland would be forfeited at
2652-456: The burning. The incident is also honored by "Peggy Stewart Tea", a blend sold by Eastern Shore Tea Co. The burning is honored each year by a ceremony in Annapolis. The story was recounted in a children's book Ahoy, Peggy Stewart by Maud Esther Dilliard, published by Dutton, 1956. Linen Linen is very strong and absorbent and dries faster than cotton . Because of these properties, linen
2720-519: The end of the War in 1783. Ironically, he died on a business visit to Annapolis, in 1791. A token was produced and circulated in 1875 to celebrate the "Peggy Stewart" incident. After the American Revolutionary War, citizens of Maryland came to view the burning of Peggy Stewart as an act of heroism, considering the angry crowd who demanded the burning to be devoted patriots for their resistance of
2788-450: The entire plant or stalks are cut very close to the root. After harvesting, the plants are dried, and then the seeds are removed through a mechanized process called “rippling” ( threshing ) and winnowing . The fibers must then be loosened from the stalk. This is achieved through retting , a process which uses bacteria to decompose the pectin that binds the fibers together. Natural retting methods take place in tanks and pools, or directly in
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2856-422: The fields. There are also chemical retting methods; these are faster, but are typically more harmful to the environment and to the fibers themselves. After retting, the stalks are ready for scutching , which takes place between August and December. Scutching removes the woody portion of the stalks by crushing them between two metal rollers, so that the parts of the stalk can be separated. The fibers are removed and
2924-581: The industry over a much wider range than the small confines of Lisburn and its surroundings. The direct result of his good work was the establishment, under statute, of the Board of Trustees of the Linen Manufacturers of Ireland in the year 1711. Several grades were produced including coarse lockram . The Living Linen Project was set up in 1995 as an oral archive of the knowledge of the Irish linen industry, which
2992-433: The integrity of the fabric, and therefore they are not viewed as a defect. However, the very finest linen has very consistent diameter threads, with no slubs at all. Linen can degrade in a few weeks when buried in soil. Linen is more biodegradable than cotton, making it an eco friendly fiber. The standard measure of bulk linen yarn is the "lea", which is the number of yards in a pound of linen divided by 300. For example,
3060-464: The linen fabric was able to retain durability for about 20 washes. There are many references to linen throughout the Bible , reflecting the textile's entrenched presence in human cultures. In Judaism , the only law concerning which fabrics may be interwoven together in clothing concerns the mixture of linen and wool , called shaatnez ; it is restricted in Deuteronomy 22:11 "Thou shalt not wear
3128-424: The linen fiber is made up of irregular polygonal shapes which contribute to the coarse texture of the fabric. Linen fabric feels cool to touch, a phenomenon which indicates its higher conductivity (the same principle that makes metals feel "cold"). It is smooth, making the finished fabric lint-free, and gets softer the more it is washed. However, constant creasing in the same place in sharp folds will tend to break
3196-645: The linen threads. This wear can show up in collars, hems, and any area that is iron creased during laundering. Linen's poor elasticity means that it easily wrinkles. Mildew, perspiration, and bleach can damage the fabric, but because it is not made from animal fibers ( keratin ) it is impervious to clothes moths and carpet beetles . Linen is relatively easy to take care of, since it resists dirt and stains, has no lint or pilling tendency, and can be dry-cleaned, machine-washed, or steamed. It can withstand high temperatures, and has only moderate initial shrinkage . Linen should not be dried too much by tumble drying, and it
3264-511: The linen to look like denim. Linen fabric is one of the preferred traditional supports for oil painting . In the United States cotton is popularly used instead, as linen is many times more expensive there, restricting its use to professional painters. In Europe, however, linen is usually the only fabric support available in art shops; in the UK both are freely available with cotton being cheaper. Linen
3332-497: The mummy of ' Takabuti ' the daughter of a priest of Amun , who died 2,500 years ago. The linen on this mummy is also in a perfect state of preservation. The earliest written documentation of a linen industry comes from the Linear B tablets of Pylos , Greece , where linen is depicted as an ideogram and also written as "li-no" ( Greek : λίνον, linon ), and the female linen workers are cataloged as "li-ne-ya" (λίνεια, lineia ). By
3400-480: The one hand, Stewart and the two Williams brothers met with committee chairman Charles Carroll and formulated an agreement that they would burn the tea and publish an apology in the Maryland Gazette . On the other hand, one committee member, Mathias Hammond , published a handbill on 15 October, denouncing Stewart (and omitting to mention that the Williams brothers themselves had been the ones who notified him of
3468-441: The other parts such as linseed , shives , and tow are set aside for other uses. Next the fibers are heckled : the short fibers are separated with heckling combs by 'combing' them away, to leave behind only the long, soft flax fibers. After the fibers have been separated and processed, they are typically spun into yarns and woven or knit into linen textiles. These textiles can then be bleached, dyed, printed on, or finished with
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#17328526499753536-518: The past 30 years the end use for linen has changed dramatically. Approximately 70% of linen production in the 1990s was for apparel textiles, whereas in the 1970s only about 5% was used for fashion fabrics. Linen uses range across bed and bath fabrics ( tablecloths , bath towels, dish towels, bed sheets); home and commercial furnishing items (wallpaper/wall coverings, upholstery, window treatments); apparel items (suits, dresses, skirts, shirts); and industrial products (luggage, canvases, sewing thread). It
3604-518: The people were so inflamed, that they threatened death to Mr. Stewart, and desolation to his store and dwelling-house." The offer to burn Peggy Stewart was enough to satisfy the mob, so the brig was moved to a convenient spot "with her sails and colours flying", and, after reading out a statement apologising for their conduct (which was subsequently published in the Gazette ), Anthony Stewart, Nehemiah Moxley, Joseph Williams and James Williams jointly set
3672-528: The possibility of being prosecuted for smuggling , Williams correctly identified the consignment as tea on his Customs declaration. Hence, when he was clearing Customs at the mouth of the River Thames (some distance from London) Jackson learned that he had been right to suspect the packages and that part of his cargo was going to cause major trouble in America. However, once declared to Customs officials in Britain,
3740-406: The same term This disambiguation page lists articles about people with the same name. If an internal link led you here, you may wish to change the link to point directly to the intended article. Retrieved from " https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Peggy_Stewart&oldid=899946833 " Category : Human name disambiguation pages Hidden categories: Short description
3808-409: The situation. Whatever Thomas had intended, his brothers had no interest in his mad scheme, so they refused to pay the tax, and arranged a meeting with the committee which supervised the tea boycott, to discuss the problem. Anthony Stewart feared a rerun of the Good Intent case, for none of the cargo could come ashore until the tax had been paid on that tea tucked away in a corner of the hold—not even
3876-465: The tax had been paid. The local committee supervising the boycott would not allow tax to be paid on any goods. Merchants importing the goods, led by James Dick and his son-in-law Anthony Stewart, finally gave up, and sent Good Intent back to London, still fully loaded. Ironically, while Good Intent was in mid-Atlantic, the British government gave in to the boycott and removed taxes on all goods—except tea. The Tea Act of 1773 allowed only one company,
3944-519: The tea had to be taken to its appointed destination — preferably before the autumn gales began, for Peggy Stewart needed an overhaul and leaked quite badly. That made the voyage most unpleasant for the main cargo: 53 indentured servants . The Peggy Stewart arrived at Annapolis on the morning of 14 October 1774, and Anthony Stewart was notified of the tax payable on one small part of the cargo. He went immediately to Joseph and James Williams, Thomas's brothers and business partners, and informed them of
4012-481: The tea importation), and stirred up a great deal of popular fervor. Thus the second committee meeting was thronged with people, many of whom had come specifically to make an example of the wicked Mr Stewart and his cronies. The reporting of this affair in the Maryland Gazette was, by modern standards, less than conscientious. No mention was made of the indentured servants, no attempt was made to remind readers of
4080-515: The tea in her... A letter to the Baltimore Patriot newspaper immediately after the death of successful physician and businessman Dr Charles Alexander Warfield , in 1813 expands greatly on that short account. Warfield, recently appointed a Major in the new Anne Arundel County militia, had not only argued with moderate patriots like Charles Carroll and Samuel Chase ; he had allegedly had a gallows erected outside Stewart's house. Some details of
4148-864: The vessel and the tea alight. Within a few hours, "in the presence of a great number of spectators" Peggy Stewart had burned down to the waterline. The event has since become known as the "Annapolis Tea Party". Thomas Charles Williams, the real cause of the problem, later published an apology for his own actions - but if the anonymous letter really was his work (it was published in the Philadelphia Public Ledger on 4 January 1775, just two days after Thomas signed his apology, also in Philadelphia) he blamed everybody except himself. The letter outlined an alleged plot involving another rival firm, Wallace, Davidson and Johnson- Davidson being Deputy Comptroller of Customs in addition to his business interests. Stewart
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#17328526499754216-771: The world began weaving linen at least several thousand years ago. It was also recovered from Qumran Cave 1 near the Dead Sea. The discovery of dyed flax fibers in a cave in Southern Caucasus , West Asia (modern day country, Georgia ) dated to 36,000 years ago suggests that ancient people used wild flax fibers to create linen-like fabrics from an early date. Fragments of straw, seeds, fibers, yarns, and various types of fabrics, including linen samples, dating to about 8,000 BC have been found in Swiss lake dwellings. Woven flax textile fragments have been "found between infant and child" in
4284-503: Was at that time still available within a nucleus of people who formerly worked in the industry in Ulster . The linen industry was increasingly critical in the economies of Europe in the 18th and 19th centuries. In England and then in Germany, industrialization and machine production replaced manual work and production moved from the home to new factories. Linen was also an important product in
4352-554: Was convinced that the plot would have failed if Stewart had followed Joseph and James's lead- but then, the writer knew nothing about the 53 indentured servants, and claimed instead that Stewart, as an owner of the vessel, was "anxious for dispatch, in order that she might proceed to another port." Anthony Stewart and his family spent most of the years of the American Revolutionary War living in New York, where he served on
4420-490: Was once the preferred yarn for hand-sewing the uppers of moccasin -style shoes ( loafers ), but has been replaced by synthetics. A linen handkerchief , pressed and folded to display the corners, was a standard decoration of a well-dressed man's suit during most of the first part of the 20th century. Nowadays, linen is one of the most preferred materials for bed sheets due to its durability and hypoallergenic properties. Linen can be up to three times stronger than cotton. This
4488-570: Was the principal victim, partly because he had voted against a proposal (nominally in retaliation against the British government's punishment of the people of Boston) for American lawyers to refuse to handle actions for debts due to persons in Great Britain, partly because Peggy Stewart had taken trade the Wallace firm had lost when a vessel of theirs ran aground in the English Channel . The writer
4556-491: Was to keep the laity from wearing the official garb of the priests, while medieval Sephardic Jewish philosopher Maimonides thought that the reason was that heathen priests wore such mixed garments. Others explain that it is because God often forbids mixtures of disparate kinds, not designed by God to be compatible in a certain way, with mixing animal and vegetable fibers being similar to having two different types of plowing animals yoked together; also, such commands serve both
4624-875: Was very significant to Russia and its economy. At one time it was the country's greatest export item and Russia produced about 80% of the world's fiber flax crop. In December 2006, the General Assembly of the United Nations proclaimed 2009 to be the International Year of Natural Fibres in order to raise people's awareness of linen and other natural fibers . One study suggests that the functional properties of linen fabric can be improved by incorporating chitosan-citric acid and phytic acid thiourea. The effects of this process include improved levels of antibacterial activity, increased wrinkle resistance, flame retardancy, UV protection, and antioxidant properties. Additionally,
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