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129-487: Brasilia Presidential Act The Ecuadorian–Peruvian territorial dispute was a territorial dispute between Ecuador and Peru , which, until 1928, also included Colombia . The dispute had its origins on each country's interpretation of what Real Cedulas Spain used to precisely define its colonial territories in the Americas. After independence, all of Spain's colonial territories signed and agreed to proclaim their limits in

258-418: A diocese in said missions... I THE KING In a footnote, Dr. Antonio José Uribe, Minister of Foreign Affairs of Colombia from 1901 to 1902, wrote, With respect to this Real Cédula of 1802, it is worth noting that there are three specimens available, all of them Peruvian in origin, and not one of them agrees with any of the others, they are: the one produced by Dr. [Enrique Vacas] Galindo; the one contained in

387-537: A subtropical highland climate ( Cfb ) due to its elevated location within the Venezuelan Coastal Range (Maritime Andes) . Caracas precipitation varies between 900 and 1,300 millimeters (35 and 51 inches) (annual), in the city proper to 2,000 millimeters (79 inches) in some parts of the Mountain range. While Caracas is within the tropics, due to its altitude temperatures are cooler compared to other locations with

516-466: A golden shell with the red cross of Santiago; and its seal is a crown with five golden points". In the same act, the king declared Caracas as "The Most Noble and Very Loyal City of Santiago de León de Caracas". The anthem of the city is the Marcha a Caracas , written by the composer Tiero Pezzuti de Matteis with the lyrics by José Enrique Sarabia and approved in 1984. Caracas is contained entirely within

645-475: A good environment for both agricultural and arable farming, which contributed to the system of commerce but meant that the town's population was initially sparse, as it was only large enough to support a few farms. In 1577, Caracas became the capital of the Spanish Empire 's Venezuela Province under the province's new governor, Juan de Pimentel (1576–1583). In the 1580s, Caraqueños started selling food to

774-633: A member of Bolívar's troops during the wars of independence and born in Cuenca, Ecuador, had his own political ambition. De La Mar wanted to establish himself as the formal ruler of Peru, which in precolonial times was called the Inca Empire which controlled parts of Peru, Ecuador, and Bolivia. Because of De La Mars ambition of restoring the glory of the Inca Empire by annexing Ecuador and Bolivia to Peru, relations between Bolívar and De la Mar quickly boiled over and

903-475: A monument dedicated to the fallen during the conflict, and a road system to connect the area with the rest of the country. This purpose, however, has been interrupted by the slow process of demining the area, which remains covered in mines and other boobytraps. The process is expected to finish in 2024. In 1999, the El Cóndor Biological Reserve  [ es ] was established. The park

1032-571: A quarter of its population migrated in 1814, and the Venezuelan War of Independence continued until 24 June 1821, when Simón Bolívar defeated royalists in the Battle of Carabobo . Urban reforms only took place towards the end of the 19th century, under Antonio Guzmán Blanco : some landmarks were built, but the city remained distinctly colonial until the 1930s. Caracas grew in size, population, and economic importance during Venezuela's oil boom in

1161-618: A rectangular shape. The basin is formed by the Caracas Valley, which is relatively high, narrow and long, surrounded by the high and steep Cordillera de la Costa, which runs parallel to the Litoral. Among the characteristics of the hydrographic network associated with the city of Caracas is the high degree of contamination present in the lower parts of the Guaire River due to its tributaries having been used for sewage collection since 1874, during

1290-649: A state-run organization, is the largest company in Venezuela, and negotiates all the international agreements for the distribution and export of petroleum. When it existed, the airline Viasa had its headquarters in the Torre Viasa. Several international companies and embassies are located in El Rosal and Las Mercedes , in the Caracas area. The city also serves as a hub for communication and transportation infrastructure between

1419-570: A sudden nightly drop in temperature, until reaching 8 °C (46 °F). This peculiar weather is known by the natives of Caracas as the Pacheco . In addition, nightly temperatures at any time of the year are much (7 to 11 °C) lower than daytime highs and usually do not remain above 24 °C (75 °F) , resulting in very pleasant evening temperatures. Hailstorms appear in Caracas, although only on rare occasions. Electrical storms are much more frequent, especially between June and October, due to

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1548-532: A third of its land, in poorly-planned slums that are generally dangerous to live in and access. Caracas has exceeded the administrative limits of its perimeter due to accelerated population growth, so that its most suitable demographic study territory is the Metropolitan District or AMC. According to 2011 calculations by the National Institute of Statistics, the metropolitan city had a population for

1677-410: A typical tropical savanna climate. The annual average temperature is approximately 23.4 °C (74 °F), with the average of the coldest month (January) 21.7 °C (71 °F) and the average of the warmest month (May) 24.5 °C (76 °F), which gives a small annual thermal amplitude of 2.8 °C (5.0 °F). In the months of December and January abundant fog may appear, in addition to

1806-526: A valley of the Venezuelan Central Range , and is separated from the Caribbean coast by a roughly 15-kilometer (9 mi) expanse of El Ávila National Park . The valley is relatively small and quite irregular, and the altitude varies from between 870 and 1,043 meters (2,854 and 3,422 ft) above sea level ; the historic center lies at about 900 meters (3,000 feet) above sea level. This, along with

1935-462: Is based upon a fixed currency-exchange-rate of 2003 and might not be completely realistic, due to the elevated inflation rates of the last several years. In 2013, the World Economic Forum evaluated countries in terms of how successful they were in advertising campaigns to attract foreign visitors. Out of the 140 countries evaluated, Venezuela came last. A major factor that has contributed to

2064-478: Is called ranchos, built improvised, without any official planning, with deficiencies and inadequate materials, marking a difference between those who live in the valley proper, 45% of the population in 25% of the urban area lives in these settlements. The city center, developed around a small historic center, represents less than a quarter of the total area of the city, which has spread along the valley and has also been connected in recent years with satellite cities in

2193-426: Is clear, for example, by looking at original documentation of the many treaties signed between Colombia and Peru before 1830. In Peru, the dissolution of Gran Colombia is seen as a country ceasing to exist, giving way to the formation of new nation states that had nothing to do with the original federation. The significant implication of this view is that the treaties Peru had signed with Gran Colombia were voided, as

2322-554: Is divided in two areas, one belonging to Ecuador and the other to Peru. As per the treaty, Ecuador would also be granted two 150 ha territories in the Peruvian towns of Pijuayal and Saramiriza for 50 years, where Trade and Navigation Centers ( Spanish : Centros de Comercio y Navegación , CECONA ) would be established in order to provide the country an outlet to the Amazon River . Protests from local tribes have slowed down

2451-591: Is located along the Guaire River in the northern part of the country, within the Caracas Valley of the Venezuelan coastal mountain range (Cordillera de la Costa). The valley is close to the Caribbean Sea , separated from the coast by a steep 2,200-meter-high (7,200 ft) mountain range, Cerro El Ávila ; to the south there are more hills and mountains. The Metropolitan Region of Caracas has an estimated population of almost 5 million inhabitants. The historic center of

2580-620: Is now Peru . The eastern limit was ill-defined at the time, due to a lack of geographical knowledge and the low importance given to unpopulated, hard-to-reach territories. As the Jesuit Missionaries from Quito and other missionaries entered the Amazon Basin, the Amazon region with its tributaries were more clearly defined and by 1740, the Real Cedula of 1740 precisely defined the borders between

2709-586: Is that Peru's invasion was an unprovoked act of aggression carried out with the explicit purpose of forcing Ecuador to sign an unfavorable treaty that would impose the status quo border line. A communiqué by Ecuador's Foreign Ministry indicated that Peruvian forces had been seen advancing north towards the border; all of the Peruvian troops stationed in Tumbes had left Zarumilla and those in Piura and other nearby sites were in turn advancing towards Zarumilla . According to

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2838-586: Is the largest private company in Venezuela. Caracas is also Venezuela's cultural capital, with many restaurants, theaters, museums, and shopping centers. Caracas has some of the tallest skyscrapers in Latin America, such as the Parque Central Towers . The Museum of Contemporary Art of Caracas is one of the most important in South America. Before the city was founded in 1567, the valley of Caracas

2967-479: The Battle of Pichincha on May 24, 1822, and freed the territory that was then Ecuador. Gran Colombia comprised what is now Colombia , Ecuador , Venezuela and Panama . It was Simón Bolívar's dream to unite all of South America, a project which he would never achieve. Even before the battles for the freedom of the South American colonies were over, Bolívar established the uti possidetis juris principle as

3096-617: The Battle of Tarqui ) by Sucre on February 27, 1829. A coup supported by General Gamarra in the Peruvian Army against President De la Mar paved the way for a peace treaty. Subsequently, the Convenio de Girón between Peru and Gran Colombia recognizes the borders as the "same ones of the corresponding Viceroyalties before independence." On July 10, the Piura Armistice recognised the annexation of Guayaquil to Gran Colombia, and on September 22,

3225-754: The Brígido Iriarte Stadium , home to Atlético Venezuela, with a capacity of 12,000 spectators. In basketball, the Cocodrilos de Caracas play their games in the Gimnasio José Beracasa in the El Paraíso neighborhood. Caracas is the seat of the National Institute of Sports and of the Venezuelan Olympic Committee . The city hosted the 1983 Pan American Games . The Central University of Venezuela ( Universidad Central de Venezuela , UCV)

3354-589: The Caracas Museum of Contemporary Art ; and the Teresa Carreño Cultural Complex were built, as well as the Caracas Metro and a developed downtown area. Urban development was rapid, leading to the growth of slums on the hillsides surrounding the new city. Much of the city development also fell into disrepair come the end of the 20th century, with the 1980s oil glut and political instability like

3483-592: The Caracazo , meaning maintenance can not be sustained. The economic and social problems persist throughout the capital and country, characterized as the Crisis in Venezuela . By 2017, Caracas was the most violent city in the world. The coat of arms was adopted in 1591. Simón de Bolívar, an ancestor of Venezuelan liberator Simón Bolívar, had been named the first procurator general of the Venezuelan province in 1589. He served as

3612-607: The Dutch Empire , which Caraqueños later proved sympathetic to; by the 1670s, Caracas had a trading route through Curaçao . In 1728, the Guipuzcoan Company of Caracas was founded by the king, and the cacao business grew in importance. Caracas was made one of the three provinces of Nueva Granada , corresponding to Venezuela, in 1739. Over the next three decades the Viceroyalty was variously split, with Caracas province becoming

3741-556: The Iraq War , and in 2012 there were 13,080 murders in Venezuela, according to the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime . By 2019, Caracas was the city with the sixth highest homicide rate in the world outside of a warzone , with a rate of around 76 murders per 100,000 people. In 2023 it was the nineteenth , with a rate of around 52 murders per 100,000 people. Most murders and other violent crimes go unsolved, with estimates of

3870-603: The Loreto region , that from there goes down to the Zarumilla River through Tiwinza to the north of Peru. Caracas Caracas ( / k ə ˈ r æ k ə s , - ˈ r ɑː k -/ kə- RA(H)K -əs , Spanish: [kaˈɾakas] ), officially Santiago de León de Caracas ( CCS ), is the capital and largest city of Venezuela , and the center of the Metropolitan Region of Caracas (or Greater Caracas). Caracas

3999-618: The Recopilación de las Leyes de los Reynos de Indias (Compilation of the Laws of the Kingdoms of the Indies), set a template by which the laws were organized. Under Title XV of Book II of the Recopilación , the limits of the audiences of Lima and Quito were defined as follows: The two original Spanish viceroyalties of New Spain and Peru had existed intact up until 1717, when King Philip V of Spain issued

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4128-625: The Rio de Janeiro Protocol on January 29, 1942. However, this treaty was also questioned, and the two countries went to war on two more occasions: the Paquisha War in 1981, and the Cenepa War in 1995. Tensions subsided but persisted over the next three years. On October 26, 1998, Ecuador and Peru signed a comprehensive peace accord that established a framework for ending a border dispute. Formal demarcation of border regions started on May 13, 1999. The agreement

4257-523: The Treaty of Mapasingue , signed between Ecuador and Peru at the end of the war of 1857–1860 , it was stated that the Real Cédula of 1802 and the documents proving its execution were found in the archives of the ancient government of Maynas. The lack of clarity within the document as to whether the transfer of administrative power was purely military and ecclesiasticcal in nature, or territorial as well, formed

4386-677: The Viceroyalty of New Granada would become the Republic of Colombia (Greater Colombia, which included modern Colombia, Venezuela, Ecuador, and Panama). Border disputes arose when Peru began basing its borders on the Cedula Real of 1802 which gave them rights to claim territory in the Amazon region and the Cédula of 1803 which gave Peru the right to claim Guayaquil and the coast of Ecuador. Colombia claimed that both Cedulas do not change political borders because

4515-448: The Viceroyalty of New Spain (in modern-day Mexico ) and the Viceroyalty of Peru (a.k.a. the Viceroyalty of New Castile). In 1542, King Charles named Blasco Núñez Vela Peru's first viceroy, but the viceroyalty was not organized until the arrival of Viceroy Francisco de Toledo in 1572. Toledo promptly declared war on Vilcabamba , the last refuge of the Inca; soon afterwards, Tupac Amaru ,

4644-414: The corregimientos and alcaldias ordinarias . These civil divisions were not uniform, with numerous exceptions being made based on the specific circumstances. The Viceroys were presidents of the audiences at the capitals of their Viceroyalties, with other audiences being presided over by captain-generals, or by persons known as gowned presidents. Power was devolved to the captain-general of an audience by

4773-407: The gobernaciones , alcaldias mayores , corregimientos , and alcaldias ordinarias . The territory was also divided ecclesiastically , into archbishoprics, religious provinces, suffragan bishopries, parishes and curateships. The archbishoprics and religious provinces corresponded with the audiences, the bishoprics with the gobernaciones and alcaldias mayores , and the parishes and curateships with

4902-411: The "Montecristi" and the "Cayambe", each one consisting of around 250 troops, armed with 7.92 mm Mauser rifles and a couple of Czech 7,92 mm ZB-26 light machine-guns, plus two Vickers-Maxim machine-guns. There was also a "Córdova" battalion, made up of around 100 troops, and a so-called "Mariscal Sucre" artillery battery, with 71 troops and no artillery pieces. In fact, the only artillery in

5031-465: The 1540s, the colony had been de facto controlled by Spaniards. Moving eastward from Coro, groups of Spanish settlers founded inland towns including Barquisimeto and Valencia before reaching the Caracas valley. On 25 July 1567, Captain Diego de Losada laid the foundations of the city of Santiago de León de Caracas . De Losada had been commissioned to capture the valley, and was successful by splitting

5160-568: The 1941 Ecuadorian–Peruvian War , both countries, with the mediation of the United States, Argentina, Chile and Brazil, signed in Rio de Janeiro the Rio Protocol , that settled the boundary line between Peru and Ecuador. During the process of placing the respective milestones, the countries disagreed due to a geographical error in the Cordillera del Cóndor. They decided to go to the arbitration of

5289-516: The 1960s, President Rómulo Betancourt followed the same policy as the Marcos Pérez Jiménez government: promoting immigration, especially from Latin America and from other parts of the world. These policies were maintained until the late 1980s, with a notable influx of Argentines, Uruguayans, Chileans, Cubans, Peruvians, Ecuadorians, Chinese, and Arabs. Towards the beginning of the 1980s, immigration

Ecuadorian–Peruvian territorial dispute - Misplaced Pages Continue

5418-465: The 2011 census of 2,923,959 inhabitants. The Metropolitan District represents less than 1% of the national territory and is home to one-fifteenth of the total population of the country. In percentage numbers, 9.2% of the nation's total population lives in the five capital municipalities, out of the 335 municipalities that comprise the country. The region is called Greater Caracas or Metropolitan Region of Caracas (RMC) satellite cities or adjacent bedrooms:

5547-565: The Altos Mirandinos, the Central Coast of La Guaira, Guarenas, Guatire and the Valles del Tuy. This agglomeration had an estimated population of 4.3 million inhabitants in 2011. In the 20th century, an exodus of the peasantry to the capital and other cities intensified, motivated by a search for improvements in their quality of life. This led to depopulation of the rural areas of the country and

5676-711: The Atlantic Ocean by making the Macará river and the Tumbes river the new boundary. However, it left the status of a small area in the Andes Mountains named Jaén de Bracamoros in dispute. It was decided by Pedemonte and Mosquera that on a later date, either the Chinchipe River or the Huancabamba River would be chosen as the new boundary. Ecuador has used this protocol as primary legal support of its core claims throughout

5805-515: The Brazilian Braz Dias de Aguiar, with which the works continued. However, due to the limited knowledge of the region, ambiguous terms such as " divortium aquarum " or " nascent river X " were used, discrepancies reappeared and in 1948, when only 78 kilometers were missing by demarcation, Ecuador suspended the placement of the landmarks and declared the Protocol unenforceable and void in 1960. With

5934-778: The Capital District is a government system constituted by an executive body exercised by a Head of Government, and the legislative function will be in charge of the National Assembly. Before the creation of the Metropolitan District, the Federal District (current Capital District) had a governor appointed by the President of the Republic, while the Caracas municipalities of the State of Miranda governed with their respective mayors in isolation, without any coordinating entity. In April 2009,

6063-548: The Cedula of 1802 refers only to Ecclesiastical borders and the 1803 cedula deals with mercantile and military jurisdictions. Gran Colombia based its borders on the unmodified Cédula of 1740 to define its borders with Peru. Bolívar had aspirations to maintain the unity of Gran Colombia , a republic that would unite most of the former Spanish colonies of the Viceroyalty of New Granada (Colombia, Venezuela, Ecuador, and Panama) under his rule. Peruvian President José de la Mar , who had been

6192-614: The Colombian embassy in Lima sent to Bogotá . The copy in question was obtained from someone's personal collection. However, it was not certified by Peru and remains disputed. The Piedemonte-Mosquera protocol is mentioned in a Colombian document titled Legislative Act No. 3 published October 31, 1910. [4] The document explains how the borders between Colombia and its neighbors have been established; as to its border with Peru, it indicates they are those adopted by Mosquera-Piedemonte, in development of

6321-561: The Commander General, that you serve them not only for the advancement and conservation of the peoples in the custody of the missionaries, but also for the security of my dominions, by preventing them from being brought forward by the vassals of the Portuguese Crown, by naming the junior sergeants or Lieutenant Governor that you see fit, for the defense of these frontiers and the administration of justice... I have also resolved to erect

6450-417: The Hotel Alba Caracas. The cost for the general maintenance of the north and south towers of the hotel is approximately 231.5 million Venezuelan bolivars. Although the Venezuelan Ministry of Tourism has taken the initiative to recognize the importance of the tourism industry, the Venezuelan government has not placed the tourism industry as an economic priority. In 2013, the budget for the Ministry of Tourism

6579-423: The Metropolitan District of Caracas would be created and that some of the powers of the Libertador , Chacao , Baruta , Sucre , and El Hatillo municipalities would be delegated to the Alcaldía Mayor , physically located in the large Libertador municipality, in the center of the city. The Metropolitan District of Caracas was suppressed on 20 December 2017 by the Constituent National Assembly of Venezuela . In

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6708-399: The Middle East, Germany, China, and other Latin American countries. The Simón Bolívar Symphony Orchestra is based in Caracas. Originally a youth orchestra, it is connected with the Fundación Musical Simón Bolívar (FMSB), known colloquially as El Sistema , Venezuela's social action music programme. The Guardian wrote that the orchestra represented "a message of social inclusion and

6837-426: The Ministry, the actions of the Ecuadorian army were limited to repelling the invasion which was occurring across much of the border. [17] As support for its arguments, Ecuador has repeatedly cited the obvious difference in military might between the two countries, and the lack of preparedness of its forces. It has been speculated that Peru prepared to carry out an all-out invasion and could have been simply waiting for

6966-448: The National Assembly reformed the Capital District Law, legalizing the constitution of a Head of Government or Governor for the Libertador municipality designated by the National Executive. Using as an argument what is established in article 156 of the constitution: Article 156. It is the competence of the National Public Power: 10. The organization and regime of the Capital District and federal dependencies. The city of Caracas occupies

7095-419: The Pedemonte-Mosquera Protocol was signed in Lima on August 11, 1830, by Peru and Gran Colombia as a result of the Battle of Portete de Tarqui. The protocol settled the eastern section of the disputed border from the Andes Mountains to Brazil by making the Marañón River and Amazon River the new border between the two republics. The protocol settled the western section of the border from the Andes Mountains to

7224-466: The President of Peru, Manuel Prado Ugarteche , ordered the formation of the North Grouping , a military unit in charge of the Northern Operational Theater , on January 11, 1941, consisting of two light divisions with three battalions each, plus four other independent battalions and three artillery batteries (one with six 105 mm guns) ( Delgado ). In front of these forces, the Ecuadorian Border Security command had under its orders two Army battalions,

7353-403: The President of Quito objected to the execution of the Real Cédula of 1802, as it had all the makings of an apocryphal document: it was not registered in the official cedulario , and its contents could not be found in the Recopilacion de Indias , nor had it been located in the Archive of the Indies in Spain. However, during the Peruvian congressional committee hearings regarding the dismissal of

7482-411: The Real Cédula of May 27, 1717. The order split off the northwestern corner of Peru and created the Viceroyalty of New Granada . New Granada shared its capital with the Royal Audience of Santa Fé de Bogotá , and additionally had jurisdiction over the New Kingdom of Granada , as well as the audiences of Tierra Firme (now called Panama ), Quito, and the Captaincy General of Venezuela . The territories of

7611-418: The Spanish soldiers in Cartagena , who often docked in the coastal city when collecting products from the empire in South America. Wheat was growing increasingly expensive in the Iberian Peninsula , and the Spanish profited from buying it from Caracas farmers. This cemented the city in the empire's trade circuit. During the 16th and 17th centuries, the coast of Venezuela was frequently raided by pirates. With

7740-407: The Venezuela province. Luis de Unzaga created the Captaincy General of Venezuela in the summer of 1777, with Caracas as the capital. Venezuela then attempted to become independent, first with the 1797 Gual and España conspiracy , based in Caracas, and then the successful 1811 Venezuelan Declaration of Independence . Caracas then came under worse luck: in 1812, an earthquake destroyed Caracas ,

7869-408: The Viceroy, and the audience's territory was administered by the audience's president and the political, military, and religious officials underneath him. Between 1542 and 1717, the Viceroyalty controlled most of the territory of South America (save for a few non-Spanish colonies and the Commandancy General of Caracas , which was a dependency of the Captaincy General of Santo Domingo ). The territory

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7998-437: The Viceroyalties of New Granada and Peru. Having temporarily suppressed the Viceroyalty of New Granada, on November 5, 1723, Philip V emitted another Cédula, which returned control of the Royal Audience of Quito to the Viceroyalty of Peru. The Cédula of August 20, 1739 (also called the Cédula de Reerección Definitiva del Virreinato de Nueva Granada , "Definitive Decree of Re-erection of the Viceroyalty of New Granada") reinstated

8127-467: The Viceroyalty comprised the territories of, respectively, the modern Republics of Colombia, Ecuador , Panama , and Venezuela , as well as the northern regions of Peru , the Brazilian northwest, and the western part of Guyana . The Royal Audience of Quito had been established by a royal decree in 1563, its territory including Pasto , Popayán , Cali , Buenaventura and Buga in what is currently Colombia , and extended as far south as Piura in what

8256-462: The Viceroyalty of Peru. In response, on July 15, 1802, the Spanish crown under the rule of Charles IV of Spain issued the Real Cédula of 1802. The decree split the Government and Commandancy General of Maynas and the Governorate of Quijos from the Audience of Quito, and added them to the Viceroyalty of Peru. The text of the decree, as reproduced in the Annals of the diplomatic and consular missions of Colombia (1901), reads: I have resolved that

8385-431: The administration and General Command of Maynas with the towns of the administration of Quijos be separated from the province of Quito and added to the Viceroyalty of Santa Fe, except for Papallacta, for reason that they are all on the shores of the Napo River or its immediacies, extending the aforementioned General Command not only downstream of the Marañón River, to the borders of the Portuguese colonies, but also down all

8514-400: The area as private property. Anyone born in the territory would be recognized as a Peruvian citizen, but the area would nevertheless remain under lease to Ecuador. As per the treaty, the area would exclusively serve a ceremonial purpose, so that both countries could commemorate the conflict. One part of this plan was to establish a Peace Park ( Spanish : Parque de la Paz ), which would include

8643-494: The basis for an imprecise territorial situation between Ecuador and Peru when the two nations obtained their independence from Spain. The Republic of Gran Colombia was founded in 1819, with Simón Bolívar as president. On August 7 of that year, the independence of what is now Colombia was won in the Battle of Boyacá . The independence of Venezuela was won on June 24, 1821, in the Battle of Carabobo . One of Bolívar's generals, Venezuelan-born General Antonio José de Sucre won

8772-412: The basis for the territorial demarcation of the new nation-states that were to be born out of the ancient colonial jurisdictions. In essence, the principle stated that the borders of the new countries should correspond to the Spanish administrative borders, as they were in 1809. By this principle, the territory of the Viceroyalty of Peru would become the Republic of Peru (modern Peru), and the territory of

8901-406: The basis of the principle of uti possidetis juris , which regarded the Spanish borders of 1810 as the borders of the new republics. However, conflicting claims and disagreements between the newly formed countries eventually escalated to the point of armed conflicts on several occasions. The dispute de jure had come to an end in the aftermath of the Ecuadorian–Peruvian War with the signing of

9030-453: The borders of the Inca Empire in 1528, and on November 16, 1532, taking advantage of the Inca Civil War , the tiny army of Francisco Pizarro began the Spanish conquest of Peru . In the following decades, Spain consolidated its power over the entire Andean region, repressing successive indigenous rebellions. To govern the new territories of Spain, in 1542 Holy Roman Emperor Charles V (King Charles I of Spain) created two Viceroyalties ,

9159-442: The boundaries with Brazil begin." This cedula greatly modified the original demarcation, but served only to fix the starting point of the line on the pacific coast at the river Tumbes. This document was the first mention of the Tumbes as the boundary between the two viceroyalties. Don Francisco de Requena requested that control of the Government and Commandancy General of Maynas pass from the Viceroyalty of Santa Fe (New Granada) to

9288-605: The case of the Libertador Municipality of Caracas, the only member of the Capital District, the executive authority rests with the Head of Government of the Capital District, a position designated by the President of the Republic. According to Article 3 of the Capital District Law, the legislative function is exercised directly by the Republic through the National Assembly of Venezuela. Article 3. The special regime of

9417-495: The city being in a closed valley and the orographic action of Cerro El Ávila. The hydrographic network of the city of Caracas is made up of the Guaire river basin which is a sub-basin of the Tuy river. This basin crosses the valley where the city is located from West to East (Las Adjuntas – Petare ). It covers about 655 square kilometers, about 45 km. long and about 15 km. wide, has

9546-406: The city has a large number of both European Venezuelans and Asian Venezuelans who descend from the massive influx of various immigrants Venezuela received from all across Eurasia during the 20th century; in particular are descendants of Spaniards, Portuguese, Italians, Serbs , Chinese, Colombians, Germans, Syrians and Lebanese people. In 2020, the poorest 55% of the Caracas population lived on about

9675-542: The city is the Cathedral , located on Bolívar Square , though some consider the center to be Plaza Venezuela , located in the Los Caobos area. Businesses in the city include service companies, banks, and malls. Caracas has a largely service-based economy, apart from some industrial activity in its metropolitan area. The Caracas Stock Exchange and Petróleos de Venezuela (PDVSA) are headquartered in Caracas. Empresas Polar

9804-428: The city of Caracas, as well as the municipal mayors in each of the municipalities comprising it. The Metropolitan District of Caracas was organized in a system of municipal government at two levels: the metropolitan or district and the municipalities. Caracas is Venezuela's cultural capital , with many restaurants, theaters, museums, and shopping centers. The city is home to many immigrants from Spain, Italy, Portugal,

9933-532: The city. The city is occasionally subject to earthquakes – notably in 1641 and 1967. Geologically, Caracas was formed in the Late Cretaceous period, with much of the rest of the Caribbean, and sits on what is mostly metamorphic rock . Deformation of the land in this period formed the region. Under the Köppen climate classification , Caracas has a tropical savanna climate ( Aw ), but also exhibits traits of

10062-553: The coastal mountains of the Central Range as a barrier, Caracas was relatively immune to such attacks, compared to other Caribbean coastal settlements, but in 1595 the Preston–Somers expedition landed and around 200 English Privateers , including George Somers and Amyas Preston , crossed the mountains through a little-used pass while the town's defenders were guarding the more frequently used one. Encountering little resistance,

10191-432: The communities of Charallave and Cúa de los Valles del Tuy with the subway transportation of the capital city. Some areas of the city have a grid layout, either inherited from the colony or developed during the urban projects of the 20th century. Other areas, built on the mountain slopes, do not follow this pattern, but adapt to the irregularities of the terrain. These elevated areas enjoy a temperate temperature throughout

10320-697: The country in question no longer existed, and was replaced with three new states, the Republic of New Granada (which subsequently changed its name to Republic of Colombia), the Republic of Venezuela and the Republic of Ecuador. An alternative view is that Ecuador and Venezuela separated from the Gran Colombia Federation (from Colombia in actuality) and inherited any treaties that Gran Colombia had signed with Peru as they applied to their corresponding territories. There are indications that Colombia itself maintained this position. Ecuador and Colombia maintain that

10449-552: The country, such as Valencia, which in the same period of time multiplied its population almost 25 times. Between the 1940s and 1950s, after the Second World War, a growing wave of European immigrants began, mostly Spanish, Portuguese and Italians and in other magnitudes, communities of Germans (Colonia Tovar), French, English, Serbs and Jews were established. New developments in Caracas were populated mainly by these European immigrants, such as La Florida and Altamira . During

10578-467: The delimitation of boundaries, other border integration projects were reviewed, such as the final demining of the old undelimited areas, and the Puyango-Tumbes binational irrigation project. In May 1999, the last milestone out of 30 was placed, which finally ended a conflict of more than a century and a half, which brought together the integration between the two countries through the 0°0' parallel in

10707-501: The demographic saturation of the centers. This saturation caused the expansion of marginal areas on the outskirts of the city; however, the lowest unemployment rates in the entire country correspond precisely to the metropolitan area of Caracas. In 1936, the total population of Venezuela had been equal to the estimated population of Greater Caracas for the year 2000: almost 4 million inhabitants. From 1936 to 1990, Caracas multiplied its population, although far less than any other major city in

10836-406: The dispute still unsolved, both countries went to war again in the 1981 Paquisha War , with the Cenepa War occurring in 1995. After the end of the conflict, negotiations began between representatives Fernando de Trazegnies for Peru and Édgar Terán  [ es ] for Ecuador. After a year and a half of intense talks, and after a pronouncement of international experts on the border line,

10965-455: The early 20th century. In the 1950s, the metropolitan area of Gran Caracas was developed, and the city began an intensive modernization program, funding public buildings, which continued throughout the 1960s and early 1970s. Cultural landmarks, like the University City of Caracas , designed by modernist architect Carlos Raúl Villanueva and declared a World Heritage Site by UNESCO in 2000;

11094-606: The entirety of the Libertador municipality of the Capital District and part of the state of Miranda, specifically the municipalities of Baruta, Chacao, El Hatillo and Sucre, which until 2011 formed the Metropolitan District of Caracas, which enjoyed legal personality and autonomy within the limits of the Constitution and the law. Until that year, the Metropolitan Mayor was the first civil, political and administrative authority of

11223-590: The first of the Spanish colonies to become part of the slave trade . The city was successful and operated on cacao and slave trade until the 1650s, when an alhorra blight, the Mexican Inquisition of many of their Portuguese traders, and increased cacao production in Guayaquil greatly affected the market. This and the destructive 1641 earthquake put the city into decline, and they likely began illegally trading with

11352-460: The government of Antonio Guzmán Blanco, until today. The level of contamination is such that it does not allow the maintenance of the life of the species that once populated the basin, and it has become extinct or has been restricted to the highest areas of the basin, mainly within the boundaries of the national park. Avila. Awareness for the recovery of the basin has recently begun, however, much remains to be done before results can be observed. Among

11481-499: The group and local police and military units headed by José Villanueva Ruesta  [ es ] , that left 5 people dead and several vehicles and buildings burnt by protesters. The event is annually commemorated by members of the group, where it is known as the Day of Dignity ( Spanish : Día de la Dignidad ). The event is of a political nature, being characterized by anti-Fujimorism . In 2018, after several years of postponing

11610-462: The history of the conflict. Peru has disputed the credibility and the existence of the Piedemonte-Mosquera protocol on several points: Even though it seems unlikely that Ecuador would have concocted a historical treaty of this nature, the fact that the existence of the original document cannot be demonstrated conclusively is significant. Ecuador has managed to produce a copy made in 1870 that

11739-621: The interior, leaving to Peru the jurisdiction of Piura, Cajamarca , Moyobamba and Motilones ; and by the cordillera of Jeveros , crossing the river Ucayali , at 6 degrees of South Latitude, up to the Javary River or Jauri River at its confluence with the Carpi ; and on the waters of the latter to Solimões or the Amazonas and from thence down to the most westerly mouth of the Caquetá or Yapurá , where

11868-508: The invaders sacked and set fire to the town after a failed ransom negotiation. The city managed to rebuild, using wheat profits and "a lot of sacrifice". In the 1620s, farmers in Caracas discovered that Cacao beans could be sold, first selling them to native people of Mexico and quickly growing across the Caribbean . The city became important in the Viceroyalty of New Spain , as well as moving from largely native slave labor to African slaves,

11997-480: The lack of foreign visitors has been poor transport for tourists. Venezuela has limited railway systems and airlines. High crime rates and the negative attitude of the Venezuelan population towards tourism also contributed to the poor evaluation. In an attempt to attract more foreign visitors, the Venezuelan Ministry of Tourism invested in multiple hotel infrastructures. The largest hotel investment has been in

12126-538: The last Inca emperor, was captured and executed in Cuzco . Because the territory of the Viceroyalty of Peru was so large, and far away from centers of government in Lima and Santo Domingo , Peru (as well as New Spain) was divided into a number of real audiencias (royal audiences), a type of superior judicial tribunal that combined executive and judicial authority, and can be considered "major provinces ". The audiences controlled

12255-425: The main rivers and streams that make up the basin are in its northern slope: San Pedro River, Macarao River, Quebrada Caroata, Catuche River, Anauco River, Chacaito River, Tocome River, Caurimare River; on its southern slope we find that among the main tributaries are: El Valle river, Quebrada Baruta and Quebrada La Guairita. In the upper part of the basin there are two reservoirs with the purpose of supplying water to

12384-541: The manifest power of music to bring communities together". Professional sports teams in the city include the football clubs Caracas Fútbol Club , Deportivo Petare , Atlético Venezuela , SD Centro Italo Venezolano , Estrella Roja FC and Deportivo La Guaira . Deportivo Petare has reached the semi-finals of international tournaments, such as the Copa Libertadores , while the Caracas Fútbol Club has reached

12513-485: The metropolitan area and the rest of the country. Important industries in Caracas include chemicals, textiles, leather, food , iron, and wood products. There are also rubber and cement factories. Its nominal GDP is US$ 70 billion and the GDP (PPP) per capita is US$ 24,000. A 2009 United Nations survey reported that the cost of living in Caracas was 89% of that of the survey's baseline city, New York. However, this statistic

12642-423: The natives into different groups to work with, then fighting and defeating each of them. The town was the closest to the coast of these new settlements, and the colonists retained a native workforce, which allowed a trade network to develop between Caracas, the interior, and Margarita; the towns further inland produced ample cotton products and beeswax, and Margarita was a rich source of pearls. The Caracas valley had

12771-501: The number of unresolved crimes as high as 98%. The U.S. Department of State and British Foreign and Commonwealth Office have issued travel warnings for Venezuela due to high rates of crime. Businesses that are located in Caracas include service companies, banks, and malls, among others. It has a largely service-based economy, apart from some industrial activity in its metropolitan area. The Caracas Stock Exchange and Petróleos de Venezuela (PDVSA) are headquartered here. PDVSA,

12900-610: The other rivers entering the Marañón by its northern and southern margins as do the Morona, Huallaga, Paztaza, Ucayali, Napo, Javari, Putumayo, Japurá, and other less significant, until the place in which these cease to be navigable streams: the villages of Lamas and Moyobamba must also become part of the aforementioned General Command... To which end I order that you aid, added as is the administration of Maynas and Quijos to this Viceroyalty, with whatever steps you deem necessary, and I request of you,

13029-518: The process, however. One notable protest took place on October 24, 1998, two days before the signing of the treaty. The event started as a peaceful protest organized by the Committee of Peace and Development , and attended by the Loreto Patriotic Front ( Spanish : Frente Patriótico de Loreto ) in the 28 July Plaza  [ es ] , eventually spiraling into riots between members of

13158-618: The project, an Ecuadorian inter-institutional team traveled to Pijuayal to establish the boundaries of the land where the first CECONA would work, according to authorities from the Foreign Ministry, Ministry of Defense and Military Geographic Institute of Ecuador, prior to the Cabinet Binational and Presidential Meeting between Lenín Moreno and Martín Vizcarra held in Quito on October 25 and 26 of that year, where in addition to highlighting

13287-514: The province, by sea, from the port-city of Guayaquil. The Ecuadorian Army of 1941 had not a single warplane. ( Rodríguez, 1943 ). It is claimed that on Saturday, July 5, 1941, the Huaquillas unit of the Ecuadorian army invaded Peruvian territory, an action which originated a combat that extended across the entire Zarumilla front, up to a region known as Quebrada Seca . Ecuador's version of events

13416-568: The quarterfinals. Baseball team Leones del Caracas plays at the Monumental Stadium with a capacity of 40,000 spectators, while the Tiburones de La Guaira plays at University Stadium , with a capacity of nearly 26,000 spectators. The football stadiums in the city include the Olympic Stadium , home to Caracas Fútbol Club and Deportivo La Guaira, with a capacity of 30,000 spectators, and

13545-710: The rapid population growth, has profoundly influenced the urban development of the city. The most elevated point of the Capital District, wherein the city is located, is the Pico El Ávila , which rises to 2,159 meters (7,083 feet). The main body of water in Caracas is the Guaire River , which flows across the city and empties into the Tuy River , which is also fed by the El Valle and San Pedro rivers, in addition to numerous streams which descend from El Ávila. The La Mariposa and Camatagua  [ es ] reservoirs provide water to

13674-470: The region led by Terepaima and Guaicaipuro . Fajardo's 1560 settlement was known as Hato de San Francisco, and another attempt in 1561 by Juan Rodríguez de Suárez was called Villa de San Francisco, and was also destroyed by the same native people. The eventual settlers of Caracas came from Coro , the German capital of their Klein-Venedig colony around the present-day coastal Colombia–Venezuela border ; from

13803-518: The representative of Venezuela to the Spanish Crown, and vice versa. In 1591, de Bolívar introduced a petition to King Philip II for a coat of arms, which he granted by Royal Cedula on 4 September that year in San Lorenzo. The coat of arms represents the city's name with the red Santiago (St. James') cross . It originally depicted "a brown bear rampant on a field of silver, holding between its paws

13932-543: The slightest provocation. Ecuador has also cited Peru's history of conflict with its other neighbors as evidence of its belligerence. It has been pointed out, however, that these circumstances did not preclude Ecuador from attempting to lay claim to territories it still considered its own. Also, during the War of the Pacific , the Ecuadorian military occupied a portion of the disputed territories. Brasilia Presidential Act After

14061-531: The southern region of Gran Colombia; he occupied Loja and tried to capture Guayas , and intended to annex those territories to Peru. Furious upon hearing the news, Simón Bolívar resolved to declare war against Peru. Sucre was appointed Commander of the Colombian Army. In 1829, De la Mar and General Agustín Gamarra occupied Cuenca, but were defeated in what is known as the Battle of Portete de Tarqui (also known as

14190-561: The states of Miranda and La Guaira, creating a major metropolitan area known as Gran Caracas. The city's rapid population growth has resulted in increasing traffic congestion . To this end, the subway transportation system (Metro de Caracas) has been progressively expanded and is currently linked to the Los Teques Metro and, in the future, to the Guarenas-Guatire Metro system. The "Ezequiel Zamora" Central Railway System also links

14319-478: The territorial situation remained unclear and was left to be resolved at a later time. In 1941, the two countries went to war. As with all other such incidents, there are conflicting accounts to this day as to which side fired the first shot. Peru's version of events (notably well documented in Peruvian sources [15] [16] ) is that Ecuador had been making incursions into its territory since 1937 and occupied several border locations by 1940. Given these circumstances,

14448-459: The time was undergoing a civil struggle.) On February 25, 1860, Peruvian minister Manuel Morales and his Ecuadorian counterpart, Nicolás Estrada, signed the Treaty of Mapasingue in order to end the dispute. (Mapasingue is a location near Guayaquil where Peruvian troops had been stationed.) Ecuador voided the concession of territories claimed by Peru to the British, and Peru withdrew its forces. However,

14577-576: The treaty of September 22, 1829. There are conflicting versions of what exactly took place. For an Ecuadorian view point, see [5] Archived 2008-06-07 at the Wayback Machine . For Peruvian points of view, see [6] [7] . This was an expensive war fought over disputed territory bordering the Amazon. On September 21, 1857, Ecuador decided to adjudicate to Britain territories in the Canelos region as payment for international debt it had incurred during

14706-420: The two countries, with the approval of their respective Congresses, agree to submit their differences to the decision of the guarantors of the 1942 Rio Protocol. They ratified the validity of the mentioned document, the arbitration award of Dias de Aguiar and other complementary documents. The treaty was signed at Itamaraty Palace on October 26, 1998, with the signatories being as follows: The peace agreement

14835-531: The two soon became rivals. Deciding to free Peru (what is now Peru and Bolivia) from what he considered to be an authoritarian project, De la Mar promoted an anti-Bolivarian campaign which gained popular support and led to insurrections, both in Peru and in Bolivia (Upper Peru), where the Colombian Army was expelled. Finally, he decided to confront Bolívar more directly by launching an attack. On June 3, 1828, de la Mar invaded

14964-617: The viceroyalty with its 1717 territories, including the Royal Audience of Quito. The border between Quito and the Viceroyalty of Peru was defined in 1740 by another Cédula: Starting from the Tumbes on the Pacific Coast, the line follows by the ridges and other cordilleras of the Andes through the jurisdiction of Paita , and Piura to the Marañón , at 6 degrees, 30 minutes South Latitude, and on

15093-566: The volume published in Brazil; and the one in the Peruvian brief presented before the Government of Spain in the matter of the limits with Ecuador. thereby casting suspicion on the authenticity of one or more of the copies of the document, complicating the already difficult matter of interpreting its meaning. According to Pedro Moncayo y Esparza, a 19th-century Ecuadorian writer, the Viceroy of Santa Fe and

15222-400: The war between Peru and Gran Colombia formally ended. [2] The Gran Colombia federation dissolved in 1830 because of political struggles between regions which strengthened after Bolívar's resignation. Ecuador was born as a country on May 13, 1830, and began its separate existence with the adoption of a Constitution on September 23, 1830. According to this constitution, the Republic of Ecuador

15351-422: The war of independence. Peru immediately protested the Ecuadorian action citing the uti possidetis juris principle by which the Canelos region would belong to Peru, based on the territorial concession of 1802 to the Viceroyalty of Peru . Despite Peruvian complaints, Ecuador proceeded in its negotiations with the British. This led to an 1859 occupation and blockade of Guayaquil by President Castilla. (Ecuador at

15480-598: The western part of the city; These are the Macarao Dam and the La Mariposa Reservoir. Caracas shares commonalities with many Latin American cities: densely populated and with limited space because it is surrounded by mountains. Because of this, the city has grown vertically. A very striking aspect is the number of people living in substandard housing built on the mountain slopes surrounding the city. This type of housing

15609-531: The whole province of El Oro consisted of six Italian 65 mm mountain guns, sold to Ecuador as leftovers from the Great War, and almost without shells. These guns were never put into action. ( Rodríguez, 1943 ). As for anti-aircraft defenses, the Ecuadorians had only a pair of 20 mm Breda guns deployed on Puerto Bolívar, which was the only port of entry for supplies, reinforcements, and weapons to arrive to

15738-444: The year. According to the population census of 2011 the Caracas proper (Distrito Capital) is over 1.9 million inhabitants, while that of the Metropolitan District of Caracas is estimated at 2.9 million as of 2011 . The majority of the population is mixed-race , typically with varying degrees of European , Indigenous , African and occasional Asian ancestry. There is a noteworthy Afro-Venezuelan community. Additionally,

15867-524: Was composed of the provinces of Azuay , Guayas and Quito . These provinces later divided into the many provinces that exist today in Ecuador. The term Gran Colombia is used today to refer to the federation that was formed between the Republics of Ecuador, Colombia (with Panama) and Venezuela before 1830. However, Gran Colombia is an anachronistic term, as the country was simply referred to as Colombia , which

15996-536: Was divided among (noting dates of creation): The district of an audience was established in the royal decree by which it was created; the laws laid out in the myriad of Cédulas Reales issued by the Spanish Crown were compiled several times throughout the centuries-long history of Spanish presence in the region. These compilations were referred to as the Laws of the Indies ; the 1680 compilation, organized under Charles II, known as

16125-578: Was followed by the formal demarcation of the border on 13 May 1999 and the end of the multi-national Military Observer Mission for Ecuador and Peru (MOMEP) troop deployment on 17 June 1999. The mission was composed of military representatives of the mediator countries that also signed the treaty, and had been operating since April 13, 1995, with its headquarters in Patuca, Ecuador. The document recognized Peruvian sovereignty in Tiwinza, leasing Ecuador 1 km within

16254-400: Was marked by a strong exodus of Colombians. The multiethnic, cultural and racial mix has marked the city throughout history. Its ethnic composition is very diverse. Venezuela and its capital, Caracas, have been reported to both have among the highest per capita murder rates in the world. In 2010 Caracas had the highest murder rate in the world, having more deaths than Baghdad during

16383-588: Was only 173.8 million bolivars, while the Ministry of the Youth received approximately 724.6 million bolivars. The tourism industry in Venezuela contributes approximately 3.8 percent of the country GDP. The World Economic Forum predicts Venezuela's GDP to rise to 4.2 percent by 2022. On 8 March 2000, the year after a new constitution was introduced in Venezuela, it was decreed in Gaceta Official N° 36,906 that

16512-412: Was populated by indigenous peoples. Francisco Fajardo , the son of a Spanish captain and a Guaiqueri cacica , who came from Margarita , began establishing settlements in the area of La Guaira and the Caracas valley between 1555 and 1560. Fajardo attempted to establish a plantation in the valley in 1562 after these unsuccessful coastal towns, but it did not last long: it was destroyed by natives of

16641-489: Was ratified without opposition by the congresses of both nations, finally bringing a definitive end to the dispute. Beginning with the arrival of Christopher Columbus in 1492, the Spanish conquistadores expanded the range of the Spanish Crown's reach from early small settlements in the Caribbean to various continental territories, eventually including Central America and most of South America. The Spaniards arrived at

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