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28-536: Pattin (also known as Pattina , Patina , Unqu and Unqi ), was an ancient Luwian Syro-Hittite state at the beginning of the 1st millennium BC. It was known to the Assyrians as Unqi and Aramaeans as Unqu . It was located at the north-western coast of ancient Syria , associated with the modern-day Hatay . The capital of the state was Kinalua (Kunalua, Kalneh, or Kinaluwa), which has been tentatively associated with Tell Tayinat in modern-day Turkey . The state

56-494: A dispersal of settlements and ruralization, with the appearance of large numbers of hamlets, villages, and farmsteads. Syro-Hittite states emerged in the process of such major landscape transformation, in the form of regional states with new political structures and cultural affiliations. David Hawkins was able to trace a dynastic link between the Hittite imperial dynasty and the "Great Kings" and "Country-lords" of Melid and Karkamish of

84-1872: A gradual spread of alphabetic writing in Aramaic and Phoenician . During the cultural interactions on the Levantine coast of Syro-Palestine and North Syria in the tenth through 8th centuries BCE, Greeks and Phrygians adopted the alphabetic writing from the Phoenicians. ( Shamshi-Adad dynasty 1808–1736 BCE) (Amorites) Shamshi-Adad I Ishme-Dagan I Mut-Ashkur Rimush Asinum Ashur-dugul Ashur-apla-idi Nasir-Sin Sin-namir Ipqi-Ishtar Adad-salulu Adasi (Non-dynastic usurpers 1735–1701 BCE) Puzur-Sin Ashur-dugul Ashur-apla-idi Nasir-Sin Sin-namir Ipqi-Ishtar Adad-salulu Adasi ( Adaside dynasty 1700–722 BCE) Bel-bani Libaya Sharma-Adad I Iptar-Sin Bazaya Lullaya Shu-Ninua Sharma-Adad II Erishum III Shamshi-Adad II Ishme-Dagan II Shamshi-Adad III Ashur-nirari I Puzur-Ashur III Enlil-nasir I Nur-ili Ashur-shaduni Ashur-rabi I Ashur-nadin-ahhe I Enlil-Nasir II Ashur-nirari II Ashur-bel-nisheshu Ashur-rim-nisheshu Ashur-nadin-ahhe II Second Intermediate Period Sixteenth Dynasty Abydos Dynasty Seventeenth Dynasty (1500–1100 BCE) Kidinuid dynasty Igehalkid dynasty Untash-Napirisha Twenty-first Dynasty of Egypt Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon

112-575: A leader named Piyapili , but Piyapili was no match for Suppiluliuma. Eventually, Tudhaliya and Suppiluliuma returned Hattusa to the Hittites. But the Kaska continued to be a menace both inside and out and a constant military threat. They are said to have fielded as many as 9,000 warriors and 800 chariots. In the time of ailing Arnuwanda II (around 1323 BC), the Hittites worried that the Kaskas from Ishupitta within

140-494: A loosely affiliated Bronze Age non-Indo-European tribal people, who spoke the unclassified Kaskian language and lived in mountainous East Pontic Anatolia , known from Hittite sources. They lived in the mountainous region between the core Hittite region in eastern Anatolia and the Black Sea , and are cited as the reason that the later Hittite Empire never extended northward to that area. They are sometimes identified with

168-512: A prisoner to Hattusas. Mursili then switched to a defensive strategy, with a chain of border fortresses north to the Devrez . Even so, in the early 13th century, when Mursili's son Muwatalli II was king in Hatti, the Kaskas sacked Hattusa. Muwatalli stopped enlisting Kaska as troops; he moved his capital to Tarhuntassa to the south; and he appointed his brother, the future Hattusili III , as governor over

196-529: A specific designation for western regions (ancient Aram ). For ancient Luwians, Syria was designation for Assyria proper, thus revealing the later Greek use of the term Syria as very different from its original meaning, and also anachronistic if used in modern scientific descriptions of historical realities, related to Luwian and Aramean states of the Iron Age. The collapse of the Hittite New Kingdom

224-459: Is also used, as a broad designation for the entire period of Anatolian history spanning from the 12th to the 6th century BCE. Anachronistic uses of Syrian labels in modern scholarly literature were additionally challenged after the recent discovery of the bilingual Çineköy inscription from the 8th century BCE, written in Luwian and Phoenician languages. The inscription contained references to

252-563: Is usually associated with the gradual decline of Eastern Mediterranean trade networks and the resulting collapse of major Late Bronze Age cities in the Levant, Anatolia and the Aegean. At the beginning of the 12th century BCE, Wilusa ( Troy ) was destroyed and the Hittite New Kingdom suffered a sudden devastating attack from the Kaskas , who occupied the coasts around the Black Sea , and who joined with

280-602: The Caucones known from Greek records. The Kaska, probably originating from the eastern shore of the Propontis , may have displaced the speakers of the Palaic language from their home in Pala . The Kaska first appear in the Hittite prayer inscriptions that date from the reign of Hantili II , c. 1450 BC, and make references to their movement into the ruins of the holy city of Nerik . During

308-678: The Mysians . They proceeded to destroy almost all Hittite sites but were finally defeated by the Assyrians beyond the southern borders near the Tigris . Hatti , Arzawa ( Lydia ), Alashiya ( Cyprus ), Ugarit and Alalakh were destroyed. Hattusa , the Hittite capital, was completely destroyed. Following this collapse of large cities and the Hittite state, the Early Iron Age in northern Mesopotamia saw

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336-717: The Proto-Colchian or Zan autochthons, forming a polity which was known as the Kolkha to the Urartians and later as the Colchis to the Greeks . Another branch might have established themselves in Cappadocia , which in the 8th century BC became a vassal of Assyria and ruled some Anatolian areas. According to I. Singer , Kaskians and Hattians are different branches of the same people. However, if

364-450: The 12th century BC that the Kaska (whom he referred to as "Apishlu") and their Mushki and Urumu ( Urumeans ) allies were active in what had been the Hatti heartland. Tiglath-Pileser defeated them, and the Kaska then disappear from all historical records. Repulsed by the Assyrians, a subdivision of the Kaska might have passed north-eastwards to the Caucasus , where they probably blended with

392-597: The 13th-century Hittite imperial monuments to the Early Iron Age Syro-Hittite inscriptions of Karkemish, Melid, Aleppo and elsewhere. Luwian hieroglyphs were chosen by many of the Syro-Hittite regional kingdoms for their monumental inscriptions, which often appear in bi- or tri-lingual inscriptions with Aramaic , Phoenician or Akkadian versions. The Early Iron Age in Northern Mesopotamia also saw

420-513: The Early Iron Age, proving an uninterrupted continuity between the Late Bronze Age and the Early Iron Age at those sites. Aside from literary evidence from inscriptions, the uninterrupted cultural continuity of Post-Hittite states in the region, during the transitional period between the Late Bronze Age and the Early Iron Age, is now further confirmed by recent archaeological work at the Temple of

448-758: The Elder Siamun Psusennes II Twenty-third Dynasty of Egypt Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Menkheperre Ini Twenty-fourth Dynasty of Egypt Tefnakht Bakenranef ( Sargonid dynasty ) Tiglath-Pileser Shalmaneser Marduk-apla-iddina II Sargon Sennacherib Marduk-zakir-shumi II Marduk-apla-iddina II Bel-ibni Ashur-nadin-shumi Nergal-ushezib Mushezib-Marduk Esarhaddon Ashurbanipal Ashur-etil-ilani Sinsharishkun Sin-shumu-lishir Ashur-uballit II Kaskians The Kaska (also Kaška , later Tabalian Kasku and Gasga ) were

476-601: The Kaska were not raiding or serving as mercenaries, they raised pigs and wove linen, leaving scarcely any imprint on the permanent landscape. Tudhaliya III and Suppiluliuma I (c. 1375–1350 BC) set up their court in Samuha and invaded Azzi-Hayasa from there. The Kaska intervened, but Suppiluliuma defeated them; after Suppiluliuma had fully pacified the region, Tudhaliya and Suppiluliuma were able to move on Hayasa and defeat it too, despite some devastating guerrilla tactics at their rear. Some twelve tribes of Kaska then united under

504-833: The Storm God on the citadel of Aleppo , and Ain Dara temple , where the Late Bronze Age temple buildings continue into the Iron Age without hiatus, with repeated periods of construction in the Early Iron Age. The Syro–Hittite states may be divided into two groups: a northern group where Hittite rulers remained in power, and a southern group where Aramaeans came to rule from about 1000 BCE. These states were highly decentralised structures; some appear to have been only loose confederations of sub-kingdoms. The northern group includes: The southern group includes: Luwian monumental inscriptions in Anatolian hieroglyphs continue almost uninterrupted from

532-562: The kingdom to Kammama without might take advantage of the plague in Hatti. The veteran commander Hannutti moved to Ishupitta, but he died there. Ishupitta then seceded from Hatti, and Arnuwanda died too. Arnuwanda's brother and successor Mursili II recorded in his annals that he defeated this rebellion. Over the ongoing decades, the Kaskans were also active in Durmitta and in Tipiya, by Mount Tarikarimu in

560-426: The land of Ziharriya, and by Mount Asharpaya on the route to Pala; they rebelled and/or performed egregious banditry in each place. At first, Mursili defeated each Kaska uprising piecemeal. The Kaska united for the first time under Pihhuniya of Tipiya, who "ruled like a king" the Hittites recorded. Pihhuniya conquered Istitina and advanced as far as Zazzissa. But Mursili defeated this force and brought Pihhuniya back as

588-638: The mid-13th century BC wrote of the time before Tudhaliya. He said that in those days the Kaska had "made Nenassa their frontier" and that their allies in Azzi-Hayasa had done the same to Samuha . In the Amarna letters , Amenhotep III wrote to the Arzawan king Tarhunta-Radu that the "country Hattusa" was obliterated, and further asked for Arzawa to send him some of these Kaska people of whom he had heard. The Hittites also enlisted subject Kaska for their armies. When

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616-443: The neighbouring Assyria , inscribed in a specific form that renders as Syria , thus providing additional (and in the same time the oldest) evidence for the dominant scholarly view on the origins and primary meanings of the term Syria , that originated as an apheretic form of the term Assyria, and was redefined much later, by ancient Greeks, who introduced a territorial distinction between two names, and started to use term Syria as

644-492: The northern marches . Hattusili defeated the Kaska to the point of recapturing Nerik, and when he took over the kingdom he returned the capital to Hattusa. The Kaska may have contributed to the fall of the Hittite empire in the Bronze Age collapse , c. 1200 BC. Then they penetrated eastern Anatolia, and continued their thrust southwards, where they encountered the Assyrians . The Assyrian king Tiglath-Pileser I recorded late in

672-419: The reign of Hantili's son, Tudhaliya II (c. 1430 BC), " Tudhaliya 's 3rd campaign was against the Kaskas." His successor Arnuwanda I composed a prayer for the gods to return Nerik to the empire; he also mentioned Kammama and Zalpuwa as cities which he claimed had been Hittite but which were now under the Kaskas. Arnuwanda attempted to mollify some of the Kaska tribes by means of tribute. Sometime between

700-476: The reigns of Arnuwanda and Suppiluliuma I (about 1330 BC), letters found in Maşat Höyük note that locusts ate the Kaskas' grain. The hungry Kaska were able to join with Hayasa-Azzi and Isuwa to the east, as well as other enemies of the Hittites, and burn Hattusa , the Hittite capital, to the ground. They probably also burned the Hittites' secondary capital Sapinuwa . Suppiluliuma's grandson Hattusili III in

728-473: The sense that was introduced much later, by ancient Greeks, as their designation for Arameans and their land ( Aram ). Such preference for foreign terms, advocated by some western scholars, is viewed as being culturally biased , and thus insensitive towards native (endonymic) terminology. Some scholars still use older terms, like Syro-Hittite and Neo-Hittite , but those terms have several additional meanings in scholarly literature. More precise term Post-Hittite

756-796: Was also ravaged. The name Suppiluliuma corresponds to the Assyrian Sapalalme and Halparuntiya to Qalparunda . Syro-Hittite states One of the most contested issues within the field is related to the choice of proper terms for this group of states. On that issue, scholars are divided into several categories. Some prefer terms that are derived from endonymic (native) names for Luwians and Arameans , thus using terms like Luwian-Aramean or Aramean-Luwian . Others prefer to use terms that are derived from various exonymic (foreign) names, thus proposing designations like Syrian-Anatolian or Syro-Anatolian , based on Greek term Anatolia , combined with anachronistic application of Syrian labels, in

784-450: Was formed in the 9th century BC towards the end of the Dark Age period, and shared a north-western border with the Syro-Hittite state of Quwê . Khazazu (modern-day Azaz ) was one of Pattin's dependencies which was invaded by Assyria around 870 BC. The frontier fortress of Aribua (associated with the modern-day region of Idlib ) within the land of Lukhuti to the immediate south of Pattin

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