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106-479: "Pat O'Leary" was the pseudonym of Albert Guérisse , one of the early leaders of the line, which helped more than 600 Allied soldiers and airmen escape from France to Spain. More than 100 volunteers or "helpers" as they were often called, mostly French , working for the Pat Line were arrested and imprisoned by Vichy French or German authorities. Most were imprisoned for the remainder of the war but many were executed or died in concentration camps. The Pat O'Leary Line

212-463: A balanced budget, some tax reforms , a labor-market reform, scheduled nuclear phase-out and instigated legislation allowing more stringent war crime and more lenient soft drug usage prosecution. Restrictions on euthanasia were reduced, and in 2003, Belgium became one of the first countries in the world to legalise same-sex marriage . The government promoted active diplomacy in Africa and opposed

318-828: A decade after the other regions) is included in both the Flemish and French Communities, and the territory of the German-speaking Community lies wholly within the Walloon Region. Conflicts about jurisdiction between the bodies are resolved by the Constitutional Court of Belgium . The structure is intended as a compromise to allow different cultures to live together peacefully. The Federal State's authority includes justice, defense, federal police, social security, nuclear energy, monetary policy and public debt, and other aspects of public finances. State-owned companies include

424-594: A few from other countries. The military personnel were passed down from safe house to safe house and escort-to-escort to Marseille. As exfiltration by felucca down the French and Spanish coasts to Gibraltar became more dangerous, the Line used land routes through the easternmost Pyrenees, and, as that also became more hazardous, shifted its main routes to the high Pyrenees further west which were not patrolled extensively by German soldiers, French police, and Spanish border guards. With

530-668: A large semi-independent enclave. The Eighty Years' War (1568–1648) was triggered by the Spanish government's policy towards Protestantism , which was becoming popular in the Low Countries. The rebellious northern United Provinces ( Belgica Foederata in Latin , the "Federated Netherlands") eventually separated from the Southern Netherlands ( Belgica Regia , the "Royal Netherlands"). The southern part continued to be ruled successively by

636-743: A member of the War Crime Commission at Nuremberg. In November 1946 he was demobilized from the Royal Navy and resumed his real name and rejoined the Belgian Army, returning to his former regiment. In 1951, he volunteered as a medical officer for the Belgian United Nations Corps in Korea during the Korean War where he was wounded while going to rescue a wounded soldier under enemy fire. He became

742-526: A mission to place Special Operations Executive (SOE) agents in Collioure , on Roussillon coast in southern France, "O'Leary" and three crewmen from HMS Fidelity were arrested by the Vichy French coast guard and taken to a camp for British military prisoners at Saint-Hippolyte-du-Fort near Nîmes . Helped by 'fellow British' officers, "O'Leary" escaped in early June 1941. He went to Marseilles where there

848-539: A new government . By 30 March 2011, this set a new world record for the elapsed time without an official government, previously held by war-torn Iraq . Finally, in December 2011 the Di Rupo Government led by Walloon socialist Prime Minister Elio Di Rupo was sworn in. The 2014 federal election (coinciding with the regional elections ) resulted in a further electoral gain for the Flemish nationalist N-VA, although

954-945: A policy of mediation. The Belgians have been strong advocates of European integration . The headquarters of NATO and of several of the institutions of the European Union are located in Belgium. The Belgian Armed Forces had 23,200 active personnel in 2023, including 8,500 in the Land Component , 1,400 in the Naval Component , 4,900 in the Air Component , 1,450 in the Medical Component , and 6,950 in joint service, in addition to 5,900 reserve personnel. In 2019, Belgium's defense budget totaled €4.303 billion ($ 4.921 billion) representing .93% of its GDP. The operational commands of

1060-642: A series of concentration camps, including Mauthausen . No one, neither in the network, nor the French police nor the Gestapo, ever knew "O'Leary's" true identity. In the summer of 1944, he was at the Natzweiler-Struthof concentration camp in Alsace with another SOE agent, Brian Stonehouse . At the camp he witnessed the arrival of four other female SOE agents, Andrée Borrel , Vera Leigh , Diana Rowden , and Sonya Olschanezky , who were all executed and disposed of in

1166-676: A variety of nations. In 1946, the British recognised his war service with the award of the George Cross . This was the highest possible award of the British Commonwealth nations for actions not in combat and only the Victoria Cross (the equivalent award for bravery in actual combat) takes precedence. In the UK it is the convention for the post-nominal letters for both these awards to be appended to

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1272-581: Is a sovereign state and a federal constitutional monarchy with a parliamentary system . Its institutional organization is complex and is structured on both regional and linguistic grounds. It is divided into three highly autonomous regions : the Flemish Region (Flanders) in the north, the Walloon Region (Wallonia) in the south, and the Brussels-Capital Region in the middle. Brussels

1378-440: Is around 23% of the total land area, equivalent to 689,300 hectares (ha) of forest in 2020, up from 677,400 hectares (ha) in 1990. In 2020, naturally regenerating forest covered 251,200 hectares (ha) and planted forest covered 438,200 hectares (ha). For the year 2015, 47% of the forest area was reported to be under public ownership , 53% private ownership and 0% with ownership listed as other or unknown. The territory of Belgium

1484-477: Is based on civil law and originates from the Napoleonic code . The Court of Cassation is the court of last resort, with the courts of appeal one level below. Belgium's political institutions are complex; most political power rests on representation of the main cultural communities . Since about 1970, the significant national Belgian political parties have split into distinct components that mainly represent

1590-495: Is divided into three Regions, two of which, the Flemish Region and Walloon Region , are in turn subdivided into provinces ; the third Region, the Brussels Capital Region , is neither a province nor a part of a province. Belgium is a constitutional , popular monarchy and a federal parliamentary democracy . The bicameral federal parliament is composed of a Senate and a Chamber of Representatives . The former

1696-658: Is lowest in January at 3 °C (37.4 °F) and highest in July at 18 °C (64.4 °F). The average precipitation per month varies between 54 mm (2.1 in) for February and April, to 78 mm (3.1 in) for July. Averages for the years 2000 to 2006 show daily temperature minimums of 7 °C (44.6 °F) and maximums of 14 °C (57.2 °F) and monthly rainfall of 74 mm (2.9 in); these are about 1 °C and nearly 10 millimeters above last century's normal values, respectively. Phytogeographically , Belgium

1802-493: Is made up of 50 senators appointed by the parliaments of the communities and regions and 10 co-opted senators . Prior to 2014, most of the Senate's members were directly elected. The Chamber 's 150 representatives are elected under a proportional voting system from 11 electoral districts . Belgium has compulsory voting and thus maintains one of the highest rates of voter turnout in the world. The King (currently Philippe )

1908-639: Is more than double that of Flanders, which boomed after the Second World War. Belgium is a developed country , with an advanced high-income economy . The country is one of the six founding members of the European Union , and its capital, Brussels, is the de facto capital of the European Union itself, hosting the official seats of the European Commission , the Council of the European Union , and

2014-608: Is now the Benelux, the so-called Burgundian Netherlands . "Burgundy" and "Flanders" were the first two common names used for the Burgundian Netherlands which was the predecessor of the Austrian Netherlands, the predecessor of modern Belgium. The union, technically stretching between two kingdoms, gave the area economic and political stability which led to an even greater prosperity and artistic creation. Born in Belgium,

2120-698: Is shared between the Atlantic European and Central European provinces of the Circumboreal Region within the Boreal Kingdom . According to the World Wide Fund for Nature , the territory of Belgium belongs to the terrestrial ecoregions of Atlantic mixed forests and Western European broadleaf forests . Belgium had a 2018 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 1.36/10, ranking it 163rd globally out of 172 countries. In Belgium forest cover

2226-614: Is the head of state , though with limited prerogatives . He appoints ministers, including a Prime Minister, that have the confidence of the Chamber of Representatives to form the federal government . The Council of Ministers is composed of no more than fifteen members. With the possible exception of the Prime Minister, the Council of Ministers is composed of an equal number of Dutch-speaking members and French-speaking members. The judicial system

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2332-554: Is the smallest and most densely populated region, as well as the richest region in terms of GDP per capita . Belgium is also home to two main linguistic communities: the Flemish Community ( Dutch -speaking), which constitutes about 60 percent of the population, and the French Community ( French -speaking), which constitutes about 40 percent of the population. A small German-speaking Community , making up around one percent of

2438-654: The 22nd most densely populated country in the world and the 6th most densely populated country in Europe, with a density of 383/km (990/sq mi). Belgium is part of an area known as the Low Countries , historically a somewhat larger region than the Benelux group of states, as it also included parts of northern France. The capital and largest metropolitan region is Brussels ; other major cities are Antwerp , Ghent , Charleroi , Liège , Bruges , Namur , and Leuven . Belgium

2544-492: The Belgian Post Group and Belgian Railways . The Federal Government is responsible for the obligations of Belgium and its federalized institutions towards the European Union and NATO. It controls substantial parts of public health, home affairs and foreign affairs. The budget—without the debt—controlled by the federal government amounts to about 50% of the national fiscal income. The federal government employs around 12% of

2650-587: The Buchenwald concentration camp . Fanny Rodocanachi survived the war in Marseille and Renée Nouveau escaped to Great Britain. Nancy Wake was a courier for the Pat Line and, along with her husband, Henri Fiocca, sheltered many airmen in their luxurious Marseille apartment. Wake escaped to Spain in 1943; the Gestapo arrested and executed Fiocca. Andrée Borrel evaded arrest as a member of the Pat Line and became an agent of

2756-682: The European Council , as well as one of two seats of the European Parliament (the other being Strasbourg ). Belgium is also a founding member of the Eurozone , NATO , OECD , and WTO , and a part of the trilateral Benelux Union and the Schengen Area . Brussels also hosts the headquarters of many major international organizations, such as NATO . According to Julius Caesar , the Belgae were

2862-639: The European Union  (light green) Belgium , officially the Kingdom of Belgium , is a country in Northwestern Europe . The country is bordered by the Netherlands to the north, Germany to the east, Luxembourg to the southeast, France to the south, and the North Sea to the west. It covers an area of 30,689 km (11,849 sq mi) and has a population of more than 11.7 million, making it

2968-715: The Habsburg Emperor Charles ;V was heir of the Burgundians, but also of the royal families of Austria , Castile and Aragon . With the Pragmatic Sanction of 1549 he gave the Seventeen Provinces more legitimacy as a stable entity, rather than just a temporary personal union . He also increased the influence of these Netherlands over the Prince-Bishopric of Liège , which continued to exist as

3074-524: The Holy Roman Empire . The lordships and bishoprics along the "March" (frontier) between the two great kingdoms maintained important connections between each other. For example, the county of Flanders expanded over the Scheldt into the empire, and during several periods was ruled by the same lords as the county of Hainaut . In the 13th and 14th centuries, the cloth industry and commerce boomed especially in

3180-701: The Industrial Revolution , and during the course of the 20th century, possessed a number of colonies , notably the Belgian Congo and Ruanda-Urundi . These colonies gained independence between 1960 and 1962. The second half of the 20th century was marked by rising tensions between the Dutch-speakers and French-speakers, fueled by differences in political culture and the unequal economic development of Flanders and Wallonia. This continuing antagonism has led to several far-reaching state reforms , resulting in

3286-785: The Michel Government . It was the first time N-VA was part of the federal cabinet, while the French-speaking side was represented only by the MR, which achieved a minority of the public votes in Wallonia. In May 2019 federal elections in the Flemish-speaking northern region of Flanders far-right Vlaams Belang party made major gains. In the French-speaking southern area of Wallonia the Socialists were strong. The moderate Flemish nationalist party

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3392-412: The Netherlands ( 450 km ). Its total surface, including water area, is 30,689 km (11,849 sq mi). Before 2018, its total area was believed to be 30,528 km (11,787 sq mi). However, when the country's statistics were measured in 2018, a new calculation method was used. Unlike previous calculations, this one included the area from the coast to the low-water line, revealing

3498-722: The Spanish ( Spanish Netherlands ) and the Austrian House of Habsburgs ( Austrian Netherlands ) and comprised most of modern Belgium. This was the theatre of several more protracted conflicts during much of the 17th and 18th centuries involving France, including the Franco-Dutch War (1672–1678), the Nine Years' War (1688–1697), the War of the Spanish Succession (1701–1714), and part of

3604-656: The United Kingdom 's clandestine organization, the Special Operations Executive (SOE), and was later captured and executed. Mary Lindell , resident in Paris, collected downed airmen and sent them to the Pat Line in Marseille. She founded the "Marie-Claire Line" and was imprisoned by the Germans. In Lyon , SOE agent and American Virginia Hall assisted downed airmen and the Pat Line. SOE agent Anthony Brooks , worked with

3710-411: The United Kingdom . As the war went on most of the escapees became airmen shot down over occupied Europe. The initial leader of what became known as the Pat O'Leary Line was a Scottish soldier, Ian Garrow . Taking advantage of the limited freedom of movement initially accorded him by the Vichy government, he organized the escape system, recruited dozens, and later hundreds, of volunteer workers for

3816-429: The United Kingdom of the Netherlands occurred at the dissolution of the First French Empire in 1814, after the abdication of Napoleon. In 1830, the Belgian Revolution led to the re-separation of the Southern Provinces from the Netherlands and to the establishment of a Catholic and bourgeois, officially French-speaking and neutral, independent Belgium under a provisional government and a national congress . Since

3922-399: The War of the Austrian Succession (1740–1748). Following the campaigns of 1794 in the French Revolutionary Wars , the Low Countries – including territories that were never nominally under Habsburg rule, such as the Prince-Bishopric of Liège – were annexed by the French First Republic , ending Austrian rule in the region. A reunification of the Low Countries as

4028-425: The Western Roman Empire , the Roman provinces of Belgica and Germania were inhabited by a mix of a Romanized population and Germanic -speaking Franks who came to dominate the military and political class. During the 5th century, the area came under the rule of the Frankish Merovingian kings, who initially established a kingdom ruling over the Romanized population in what is now northern France, and then conquered

4134-450: The crematorium in an attempt to make them disappear without a trace, under the "Night and Fog" programme. After the war, Guérisse and Stonehouse were able to testify at the Nazi war crimes trials as to the women's fate. Finally, Guérisse was taken to the Dachau concentration camp , tortured again and then sentenced to death. However, when SS guards surrendered before the Allied advance, Guérisse took command and refused to leave until

4240-422: The 19th century were the Catholic Party and the Liberal Party , with the Belgian Labour Party emerging towards the end of the 19th century. French was originally the official language used by the nobility and the bourgeoisie , especially after the rejection of the Dutch monarchy. French progressively lost its dominance as Dutch began to recover its status. This recognition became official in 1898, and in 1967,

4346-403: The Allies agreed to take care of the inmates. On 30 April 1945, he was chosen as the first president of the International Prisoners' Committee that administered the camp after liberation. From its founding in 1956 until his death he served many terms as president of the Comité International de Dachau, and regularly gave the keynote speech at the May memorial ceremonies. In 1946, he was appointed

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4452-474: The Ardennes are more rugged and rocky with caves and small gorges . Extending westward into France, this area is eastwardly connected to the Eifel in Germany by the High Fens plateau, on which the Signal de Botrange forms the country's highest point at 694 m (2,277 ft). The climate is maritime temperate with significant precipitation in all seasons ( Köppen climate classification : Cfb ), like most of northwest Europe. The average temperature

4558-428: The Belgian state to assume responsibility for the government of the colony, henceforth called the Belgian Congo . A Belgian commission in 1919 estimated that Congo's population was half what it was in 1879. Germany invaded Belgium in August 1914 as part of the Schlieffen Plan to attack France , and much of the Western Front fighting of World War I occurred in western parts of the country. The opening months of

4664-404: The British Consulate in Barcelona , and then flown back to the United Kingdom, usually from Gibraltar where the MI9 office was headed by Donald Darling. Garrow gathered funds for the expenses of the escape line from residents of Marseille, but MI9 later financed the costs. Garrow was arrested and imprisoned by the Vichy police in October 1941. Young, careless and exuberant escapees, usually in

4770-428: The Communities and Regions were created in 1980, Flemish politicians decided to merge both. Thus the Flemings just have one single institutional body of parliament and government is empowered for all except federal and specific municipal matters. The overlapping boundaries of the Regions and Communities have created two notable peculiarities: the territory of the Brussels-Capital Region (which came into existence nearly

4876-490: The County of Flanders and it became one of the richest areas in Europe. This prosperity played a role in conflicts between Flanders and the king of France . Famously, Flemish militias scored a surprise victory at the Battle of the Golden Spurs against a strong force of mounted knights in 1302, but France soon regained control of the rebellious province. In the 15th century, the Duke of Burgundy in France took control of Flanders, and from there proceeded to unite much of what

4982-548: The European Union, for which Belgium hosts major administrations and institutions, including the European Commission , the Council of the European Union and the extraordinary and committee sessions of the European Parliament . In the early 1990s, Belgium saw several large corruption scandals notably surrounding Marc Dutroux , Andre Cools , the Dioxin Affair , Agusta Scandal and the murder of Karel van Noppen . Belgium shares borders with France ( 620 km ), Germany ( 162/167 km ), Luxembourg ( 148 km ), and

5088-491: The Flemings refused to do so and succeeded progressively in making Dutch an equal language in the education system. Following World War II, Belgian politics became increasingly dominated by the autonomy of its two main linguistic communities. Intercommunal tensions rose and the constitution was amended to minimize the potential for conflict. Based on the four language areas defined in 1962–63 (the Dutch, bilingual, French and German language areas), consecutive revisions of

5194-402: The French-crewed ship, Le Rhin, which had been accepted for special operations and renamed HMS Fidelity . He gained a commission in the Royal Naval Volunteer Reserve under the name of "Pat O'Leary." He was of French-Canadian origin and became a British intelligence operative. On 25 April 1941, during a mission to place SOE agents on the French Mediterranean coast near Collioure, he was arrested by

5300-400: The Latin name of a large Roman province covering most of Northern Gaul, including the Belgae and Treveri. However, areas closer to the lower Rhine frontier, including the eastern part of modern Belgium, subsequently became part of the frontier province of Germania Inferior , which continued to interact with their neighbours outside the empire. At the time when central government collapsed in

5406-492: The MI9 agent who supported the Pat O'Leary line, said that the eccentric Dissard and her cat were "almost the sole survivors" of the Pat Line. Under the leadership of Dissard, the remnants of the O'Leary Line are often called the "Françoise Line." According to Neave, the Pat Line helped more than 600 allied soldiers and downed airmen escape from France to Spain and return to England. The O'Leary Line collected allied soldiers and, after 1940, mostly airmen from northern France, plus

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5512-458: The N-VA remained the largest party in parliament. In July 2019 prime minister Charles Michel was selected to hold the post of President of the European Council . His successor Sophie Wilmès was Belgium's first female prime minister. She led the caretaker government since October 2019. The Flemish Liberal party politician Alexander De Croo became new prime minister in October 2020. The parties had agreed on federal government 16 months after

5618-418: The Pat Line helping allied soldiers and airmen escape occupied Europe. Many others gave occasional assistance to the Pat Line. Prominent helpers of the Pat O'Leary Line were George Rodocanachi , a medical doctor, and his wife, Fanny; the afore-mentioned Donald Caskie; and Louis Nouveau , a businessman, and his wife, Renée. All three men were arrested and spent the rest of the war in prison. Rodocanachi died in

5724-419: The Pat Line in 1941. Alfonsina Bueno ran a house on the line in Banyuls-sur-Mer until her arrest in February 1943. Albert Gu%C3%A9risse Major General Count Albert-Marie Edmond Guérisse GC , KBE , DSO (5 April 1911 – 26 March 1989) was a Belgian Resistance member who organized French and Belgian escape routes for downed Allied pilots during World War II under

5830-426: The Regions' and Communities' Governments is the broadest of all the Federating units of all the Federations all over the world. Because of its location at the crossroads of Western Europe , Belgium has historically been the route of invading armies from its larger neighbors. With virtually defenseless borders, Belgium has traditionally sought to avoid domination by the more powerful nations which surround it through

5936-403: The Roman province of Gallia Belgica in 22 BC. In the Middle Ages , the region was part of the Carolingian Empire , and much of it was later part of the Holy Roman Empire , and subsequently the Burgundian Netherlands . Belgium's central location has meant that the area has been relatively prosperous, connected commercially and politically to its bigger neighbours. The country as it exists today

6042-463: The Vichy police. He escaped and joined Garrow in Marseille, with the hope to make his way to Gibraltar and resume his original naval service. Garrow enlisted him as an assistant. After Garrow was arrested, Guérisse took over as chief of the escape network. Guérisse expanded the reach of the escape line's operations. Working for the escape line became more dangerous in November 1942 when the German military occupied Vichy France and took control of much of

6148-472: The alias of Patrick Albert "Pat" O'Leary , purportedly the name of a peace-time Canadian friend. His escape line was dubbed the Pat O'Leary Line . Guérisse was born in Brussels , and qualified in medicine at the Université Libre de Bruxelles before joining the Belgian Army . Guérisse was Médecin-Capitaine with a Belgian cavalry regiment during their eighteen-day campaign in May 1940. He managed to escape to England through Dunkirk . At Gibraltar , he joined

6254-480: The arrest of many O'Leary Line workers and leaders in Marseille, the primary collection point for escapees in 1943 and 1944 became Toulouse . The most famous of the routes is known as the "Freedom Line," ("Chemin de la Liberté"). From Toulouse, the airmen were taken to the town of Saint-Girons at the foot of the Pyrenees. From there the guide and escapees hiked across the border, via the slopes of Mont Valier , 2,838 metres (9,311 ft) in elevation, and onward to

6360-399: The cabinet to the king, as no progress in constitutional reforms had been made. In December 2008, Leterme once more offered his resignation after a crisis surrounding the sale of Fortis to BNP Paribas . At this juncture, his resignation was accepted and Christian Democratic and Flemish Herman Van Rompuy was sworn in as Prime Minister on 30 December 2008. After Herman Van Rompuy

6466-731: The civil servants. Communities exercise their authority only within linguistically determined geographical boundaries, originally oriented towards the individuals of a Community's language: culture (including audiovisual media), education and the use of the relevant language. Extensions to personal matters less directly connected with language comprise health policy (curative and preventive medicine) and assistance to individuals (protection of youth, social welfare, aid to families, immigrant assistance services, and so on.). Regions have authority in fields that can be broadly associated with their territory. These include economy, employment, agriculture, water policy, housing, public works, energy, transport,

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6572-450: The coastal city of Marseille where many took refuge in the British Seaman's Mission headed by a Presbyterian minister named Donald Caskie . Donald Darling , working for the British intelligence agency MI9, in Portugal (later Gibraltar) engaged businessman, Nubar Gulbenkian , to lay the groundwork for a network of people to guide stranded allied soldiers over the Pyrenees mountains to neutral Spain from where they could be repatriated to

6678-415: The country in May 1940 , and 40,690 Belgians, over half of them Jews, were killed during the subsequent occupation and the Holocaust . From September 1944 to February 1945 the Allies liberated Belgium. After World War II , a general strike forced King Leopold III to abdicate in 1951 in favour of his son, Prince Baudouin , since many Belgians thought he had collaborated with Germany during

6784-409: The country to be 160 km (62 sq mi) larger in surface area than previously thought. Its land area alone is 30,494 square kilometers. It lies between latitudes 49°30' and 51°30' N, and longitudes 2°33' and 6°24' E. Belgium has three main geographical regions; the coastal plain in the northwest and the central plateau both belong to the Anglo-Belgian Basin, and the Ardennes uplands in

6890-407: The country's constitution in 1970, 1980, 1988 and 1993 established a unique form of a federal state with segregated political power into three levels: The constitutional language areas determine the official languages in their municipalities, as well as the geographical limits of the empowered institutions for specific matters. Although this would allow for seven parliaments and governments when

6996-489: The crew of a former French merchant ship, Le Rhin , which was later renamed HMS  Fidelity and served in the Mediterranean on clandestine missions. He secured entry into the British Royal Navy and was commissioned as Lieutenant Commander Patrick Albert O'Leary RNVR of French-Canadian origin. The "Canadian" identity attempted to explain his not-quite British accent in English, and his not-quite French accent in French, in order to protect his family in occupied Belgium if he

7102-450: The crewmen were killed or captured, but some were rescued by escape lines and made it back to Great Britain. "The morale of airmen on bases rose considerably when they saw their buddies miraculously reappear after having been shot down over occupied Europe." For the allies the rescue of downed airmen by the Pat and other escape lines had a practical as well as a humanitarian objective. Training new and replacement air crews, especially pilots,

7208-521: The elections. Following a usage which can be traced back to the Burgundian and Habsburg courts, in the 19th century it was necessary to speak French to belong to the governing upper class, and those who could only speak Dutch were effectively second-class citizens. Late that century, and continuing into the 20th century, Flemish movements evolved to counter this situation. While the people in Southern Belgium spoke French or dialects of French, and most Brusselers adopted French as their first language,

7314-621: The environment, town and country planning, nature conservation, credit and foreign trade. They supervise the provinces, municipalities and intercommunal utility companies. In several fields, the different levels each have their own say on specifics. With education, for instance, the autonomy of the Communities neither includes decisions about the compulsory aspect nor allows for setting minimum requirements for awarding qualifications, which remain federal matters. Each level of government can be involved in scientific research and international relations associated with its powers. The treaty-making power of

7420-404: The escape line was infiltrated and betrayed by a French turncoat, Roger le Neveu; Guérisse was arrested in Toulouse in March. En route to prison he managed to get one of the younger members, Fabien de Cortes, to escape and warn the British. After his arrest the line was taken over by Marie Dissard . Guérisse told nothing to the Gestapo interrogators even while being tortured. He then was sent to

7526-403: The escape line, and found funds for the expenses of housing, transporting, and documenting the Allied soldiers and airmen. At first, some of the exfiltrations to Spain were by sea, but the more common route was for local guides (often smugglers familiar with the Pyrenees), to accompany the soldiers and airmen on foot across the border to Spain. The escapees were then moved onward by train or car to

7632-446: The escape lines were relatively easy to infiltrate by German agents. The Pat O'Leary line was nearly destroyed by two betrayers: Harold Cole , code name "Paul," and Roger Le Neveu, called "Roger Le Legionnaire." Cole worked his way into the confidence of the Pat line by successfully escorting several groups of airmen from Lille in northernmost France to Marseille. The former English soldier

7738-488: The escape network. Along with others, including Nancy Wake , he smuggled a guard uniform to Garrow in his cell in Mauzac prison camp , which helped Garrow's escape on 6 December 1941. At this point the British decided it was time for Garrow to return to London, so "O'Leary" continued in command and expanded the reach of the escape line's operations. The line carried over 600 escapees to Spain and back to Britain. In January 1943,

7844-767: The four components are subordinate to the Staff Department for Operations and Training of the Ministry of Defense , which is headed by the Assistant Chief of Staff Operations and Training , and to the Chief of Defense . The Belgian military consists of volunteers (conscription was abolished in 1995), and citizens of other EU states, Iceland, Norway, Switzerland, or Lichtenstein are also able to join. Belgium has troops deployed in several African countries as part of UN or EU missions, in Iraq for

7950-535: The government, and on 26 April 2010 King Albert officially accepted the resignation. The Parliamentary elections in Belgium on 13 June 2010 saw the Flemish nationalist N-VA become the largest party in Flanders, and the Socialist Party PS the largest party in Wallonia. Until December 2011, Belgium was governed by Leterme's caretaker government awaiting the end of the deadlocked negotiations for formation of

8056-617: The government. Guérisse was arrested by the Gestapo on March 2, 1943, betrayed by Roger le Neveu who had worked with the Pat Line but had been bribed or blackmailed to work for the Germans. The arrest of Guérisse and many others nearly destroyed the O'Leary Line, but a 61-year-old woman named Marie Dissard (code named "Françoise") revived the Line in summer 1943. Dissard lived in Toulouse and sheltered many downed airmen in her apartment and escorted them or directed their escort to Spain. Airey Neave ,

8162-535: The head of the medical service of the Belgian Army and retired in 1970, in the rank of major general . In his personal life, he married Sylvia Cooper-Smith in 1947; they had a son, Patrick. Sylvia Guérisse predeceased her husband. He was the subject of This Is Your Life in November 1963 when he was surprised by Eamonn Andrews at the BBC Television Theatre. General Guérisse received 37 decorations, from

8268-554: The incumbent coalition (composed of Flemish and French-speaking Social Democrats, Liberals, and Christian Democrats) maintains a solid majority in Parliament and in all electoral constituencies. On 22 July 2014, King Philippe nominated Charles Michel (MR) and Kris Peeters (CD&V) to lead the formation of a new federal cabinet composed of the Flemish parties N-VA, CD&V, Open Vld and the French-speaking MR, which resulted in

8374-572: The inhabitants of the northernmost part of Gaul . They lived in a region stretching from Paris to the Rhine , which is much bigger than modern Belgium. However, he also specifically used the Latin word " Belgium " to refer to a politically dominant part of that region, which is now in northernmost France. In contrast, modern Belgium, together with neighbouring parts of the Netherlands and Germany, corresponds to

8480-463: The installation of Leopold I as king on 21 July 1831, now celebrated as Belgium's National Day , Belgium has been a constitutional monarchy and parliamentary democracy , with a laicist constitution based on the Napoleonic code . Although the franchise was initially restricted, universal suffrage for men was introduced after the general strike of 1893 (with plural voting until 1919) and for women in 1949. The main political parties of

8586-467: The invasion of Iraq . It is the only country that does not have age restrictions on euthanasia. Verhofstadt's coalition fared badly in the June 2007 elections . For more than a year, the country experienced a political crisis . This crisis was such that many observers speculated on a possible partition of Belgium . From 21 December 2007 until 20 March 2008 the temporary Verhofstadt III Government

8692-607: The lands of the most northerly Belgae – the Morini , Menapii , Nervii , Germani Cisrhenani , and Aduatuci . Caesar found these peoples particularly warlike and economically undeveloped, and described them as kinsmen of the Germanic tribes east of the Rhine. The area around Arlon in southern Belgium was a part of the country of the powerful Treveri , to whom some of them paid tribute. After Caesar's conquests, Gallia Belgica first came to be

8798-568: The late teens or early twenties, seldom appreciated the immense risks being taken on their behalf...If captured they risked imprisonment under the Geneva Conventions . Their civilian helpers faced almost certain torture and death. Garrow's successor as leader of the Pat Line was Albert-Marie Guérisse , a medical officer in the Belgian army. After Belgium's surrender to the Germans in 1940, Guérisse escaped to Britain through Dunkirk. He then joined

8904-635: The other Frankish kingdoms. During the 8th century, the empire of the Franks came to be ruled by the Carolingian dynasty , whose centre of power included the area which is now eastern Belgium. Over the centuries, it was divided up in many ways, but the Treaty of Verdun in 843 divided the Carolingian Empire into three kingdoms whose borders had a lasting impact on medieval political boundaries. Most of modern Belgium

9010-823: The parliament accepted a Dutch version of the Constitution . The Berlin Conference of 1885 ceded control of the Congo Free State to King Leopold II as his private possession. From around 1900 there was growing international concern for the extreme and savage treatment of the Congolese population under Leopold II , for whom the Congo was primarily a source of revenue from ivory and rubber production. Many Congolese were killed by Leopold's agents for failing to meet production quotas for ivory and rubber. In 1908, this outcry led

9116-504: The political and linguistic interests of these communities. The major parties in each community, though close to the political center, belong to three main groups: Christian Democrats , Liberals , and Social Democrats . Further notable parties came into being well after the middle of last century, mainly to represent linguistic , nationalist, or environmental interests, and recently smaller ones of some specific liberal nature. A string of Christian Democrat coalition governments from 1958

9222-523: The population, exists in the East Cantons . The Brussels-Capital Region is officially bilingual in French and Dutch, although French is the majority language and lingua franca . Belgium's linguistic diversity and related political conflicts are reflected in its complex system of governance, made up of six different governments . In antiquity the region around Belgium was inhabited by the Belgae , and became

9328-561: The small town of Esterri d'Aneu in Spain. The distance from Saint-Girons to Esterri d'Aneu was only 42 kilometres (26 miles) in straight line distance, but it involved several days of climbing steep slopes, often through snow and ice. The job of guiding allied airmen across the Pyrenees to Spain was usually handled by the Ponzán group , headed by the Spanish anarchist Francisco Ponzán . The Ponzán Group

9434-523: The southeast to the Hercynian orogenic belt . The Paris Basin reaches a small fourth area at Belgium's southernmost tip, Belgian Lorraine . The coastal plain consists mainly of sand dunes and polders . Further inland lies a smooth, slowly rising landscape irrigated by numerous waterways, with fertile valleys and the northeastern sandy plain of the Campine ( Kempen ). The thickly forested hills and plateaus of

9540-780: The surname even for general usage, i.e. to refer to: 'Guérisse, GC'. Recognising his military service as a whole, the British later also conferred on Albert-Marie Guérisse, GC, an honorary knighthood ( KBE ). Similarly, the King of Belgium recognised the lifetime service of General Guérisse with the grant of a peerage in 1989, in the rank of Count. His motto: Honores non-quaero, fidelis sum ( Honors I do not seek, faithful I am ). General Count Albert-Marie Guérisse died in Waterloo, Belgium on 26 March 1989, aged 77. Belgium – in Europe  (light green & dark grey) – in

9646-448: The transition from a unitary to a federal arrangement between 1970 and 1993. Despite the reforms, tensions have persisted: there is particularly significant separatist sentiment among the Flemish ; language laws such as the municipalities with language facilities have been the source of much controversy; and the government formation period following the 2010 federal election set a world record at 589 days. Unemployment in Wallonia

9752-704: The war were known as the Rape of Belgium due to German excesses. Belgium assumed control of the German colonies of Ruanda-Urundi (modern-day Rwanda and Burundi ) during the war, and in 1924 the League of Nations mandated them to Belgium. In the aftermath of the First World War, Belgium annexed the Prussian districts of Eupen and Malmedy in 1925, thereby causing the presence of a German-speaking minority. German forces again invaded

9858-676: The war. The Belgian Congo gained independence in 1960 during the Congo Crisis ; Ruanda-Urundi followed with its independence two years later. Belgium joined NATO as a founding member and formed the Benelux group of nations with the Netherlands and Luxembourg. Belgium became one of the six founding members of the European Coal and Steel Community in 1951 and of the European Atomic Energy Community and European Economic Community , established in 1957. The latter has now become

9964-428: The work of the escape lines. About 500 of them were captured and executed or died in concentration camps. Many more were imprisoned by the Germans. In the words of a member of the escape lines, "it was raining aviators" over Europe at the height of World War II. For example, on one day, October 14, 1943, 82 bombers with 800 crewmen of the U.S. Eighth Air Force were shot down or crash-landed in occupied Europe. Most of

10070-401: Was an escape organisation run by a British Army officer, Ian Grant Garrow , and soon made contact. At this point his intention was make his way to Gibraltar and resume his original naval service. Events were to dictate otherwise because Garrow wanted "O'Leary" to stay and help with the organisation since he had undercover training and, unlike Garrow, spoke French fluently. Consequently, a request

10176-451: Was based in Toulouse . The Ponzán group had no affection for the British and Americans, but accepted money and arms from the allies to further their objective of overthrowing the Franco government of Spain. Ponzán was captured in 1943 and executed in 1944 by the Germans. Given the large number of helpers involved in escape lines, their isolation from each other, and their geographic dispersion,

10282-554: Was broken in 1999 after the first dioxin crisis , a major food contamination scandal. A "rainbow coalition" emerged from six parties: the Flemish and the French-speaking Liberals, Social Democrats and Greens. Later, a " purple coalition " of Liberals and Social Democrats formed after the Greens lost most of their seats in the 2003 election . The government led by Prime Minister Guy Verhofstadt from 1999 to 2007 achieved

10388-559: Was captured by the Germans in December 1941, and gave the Germans information which led to the arrest of several dozen helpers working for the Pat Line, nearly destroying the Line in northern France. Le Neveu, a Frenchman, similarly worked his way into the confidence of the Pat Line and was responsible for the arrest of Albert-Marie Guérisse and other Pat Line helpers in Marseille in March 1943. The government of France later recognized 475 men and women, 89 percent of them French, for their work with

10494-466: Was captured. He had a six-week undercover training session with Naval Intelligence. Until April 1941, he was serving mainly as a conducting officer, escorting agents ashore in small boats through the surf, whilst the large vessel lay some distance offshore. This was skilled work, exposed to physical dangers from the sea-conditions and operational dangers from the Vichy security services. On 25 April 1941, during

10600-534: Was designated the first permanent President of the European Council on 19 November 2009, he offered the resignation of his government to King Albert II on 25 November 2009. A few hours later, the new government under Prime Minister Yves Leterme was sworn in. On 22 April 2010, Leterme again offered the resignation of his cabinet to the king after one of the coalition partners, the OpenVLD , withdrew from

10706-515: Was established following the 1830 Belgian Revolution , when it seceded from the United Kingdom of the Netherlands , which had incorporated the Southern Netherlands (which comprised most of modern-day Belgium) after the Congress of Vienna in 1815. Belgium has been called "the Battlefield of Europe", a reputation reinforced in the 20th century by both world wars . Belgium was an early participant in

10812-518: Was expensive and time-consuming. Rescuing airmen downed in occupied Europe and returning them to duty became a priority of the allies. The Dunkirk evacuation of France by British forces in June 1940 left thousands of British and Allied soldiers stranded on the European mainland. Most surrendered or were captured by the Germans, but about 1,000 made their way to Vichy France , nominally independent, especially

10918-524: Was in office. This was a coalition of the Flemish and Francophone Christian Democrats , the Flemish and Francophone Liberals together with the Francophone Social Democrats . On that day a new government , led by Flemish Christian Democrat Yves Leterme , the actual winner of the federal elections of June 2007 , was sworn in by the king. On 15 July 2008 Leterme offered the resignation of

11024-531: Was in the Middle Kingdom , later known as Lotharingia , but the coastal county of Flanders , west of the Scheldt , became the northernmost part of West Francia , the predecessor of France . In 870 in the Treaty of Meerssen , modern Belgium lands all became part of the western kingdom for a period, but in 880 in the Treaty of Ribemont , Lotharingia came under the lasting control of the eastern kingdom, which became

11130-567: Was one of many escape and evasion networks in the Netherlands, Belgium, and France during World War II. Along with networks such as the Comet Line , the Shelburne Escape Line , and others, they are credited with helping 7,000 Allied airmen and soldiers, about one-half British and one-half American, escape Nazi-occupied Western Europe during World War II. Approximately 12,000 people, nearly all civilians and almost one-half women, were engaged in

11236-586: Was sent to London that he stay, which was approved and confirmed by a BBC radio message received on 2 July 1941. "O'Leary" immediately began his job : within a four-month period, he helped about fifty men escape from the prison of St Hippolyte du Fort, then moved them down the line back to England through the Pyrenees . When the Vichy France authorities captured Garrow in October 1941, Guérisse took over as chief of

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