List of forms of government
95-526: Dang Guo ( Chinese : 黨國 ; pinyin : Dǎngguó ; lit. 'party-state'), also known as Tang Kuo , was the one-party system adopted by the Republic of China (ROC) under the Kuomintang , lasting from 1924 to 1987. It was adopted after Sun Yat-sen acknowledged the efficacy of the nascent Soviet Union 's political system , including its system of dictatorship . Chiang Kai-shek later used
190-545: A state within a state , as observed in countries like Pakistan. One author, paraphrasing Samuel P. Huntington 's writings in The Soldier and the State , has summarised the civil control ideal as "the proper subordination of a competent, professional military to the ends of policy as determined by civilian authority". Advocates of civil control generally take a Clausewitzian view of war , emphasizing its political character. In
285-457: A "posse" consisting of federal soldiers or airmen. There are, however, practical political concerns in the United States that make the use of federal military forces less desirable for use in domestic law enforcement. Under the U.S. Constitution, law and order is primarily a matter of state concern. As a practical matter, when military forces are necessary to maintain domestic order and enforce
380-503: A certain extent in South Korea , remain virtually identical to traditional characters, with variations between the two forms largely stylistic. There has historically been a debate on traditional and simplified Chinese characters . Because the simplifications are fairly systematic, it is possible to convert computer-encoded characters between the two sets, with the main issue being ambiguities in simplified representations resulting from
475-404: A distinct civilian police force, militia , or other paramilitary group may mitigate to an extent the disproportionate strength that a country's military possesses; civilian gun ownership has also been justified on the grounds that it prevents potential abuses of power by authorities (military or otherwise). Opponents of gun control have cited the need for a balance of power in order to enforce
570-433: A key part of the democratic process. This poses the paradox that "because we fear others we create an institution of violence to protect us, but then we fear the very institution we created for protection". Also, military personnel, because of the nature of their job, are much more willing to use force to settle disputes than civilians because they are trained military personnel that specialise strictly in warfare. The military
665-699: A means to assert policy and strategic control. Three examples include Abraham Lincoln 's dismissal of George McClellan in the American Civil War when McClellan failed to pursue the Confederate Army of Northern Virginia following the Battle of Antietam , Harry S. Truman relieving Douglas MacArthur of command in the Korean War after MacArthur repeatedly contradicted the Truman administration's stated policies on
760-406: A military strike on China and that its federal government would remain stable. Some commentators, former military officials, and Republican members of Congress criticised Milley's actions as an undermining of civil control of the military, while Milley and others defended his actions and claimed he did not overstep his authority. Differing opinions exist as to the desirability of distinguishing
855-466: A mixed civilian-military approach, for example, "typical for the British model of armed forces administration is the balanced ratio of civilian and military personnel in key ministerial positions". Under the civil control model, a state's government and military are confined to the rule of law and submit to civil oversight to make an effective security apparatus possible. Transparency has taken hold throughout
950-541: A nations ability to prevent conflict and provide security. This can lead to the military abusing the very population it is supposed to be protecting with no real controlling mechanism. Most countries have developed similar systems of a ministry of defence to provide civilian oversight and coordination between military and government. Many of the Founding Fathers of the United States were suspicious of standing militaries . As Samuel Adams wrote in 1768, "Even when there
1045-438: A positive one, he presented the idea of a strong nation protected by a navy with no need of a standing army. The implication was that control of a large military force is, at best, difficult and expensive, and at worst invites war and division. He foresaw the necessity of creating a civil government that kept the military at a distance. James Madison , another writer of many of The Federalist Papers , expressed his concern about
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#17328483845591140-542: A share of the national budget. Nuclear weapons of the United States are controlled by the civilian Department of Energy , not by the Department of Defense . During the 1990s and 2000s, public controversy over LGBT policy in the U.S. military led to many military leaders and personnel being asked for their opinions on the matter and being given deference although the decision was ultimately not theirs to make. During his tenure, Secretary of Defense Donald Rumsfeld raised
1235-620: A standing military in comments before the Constitutional Convention in June 1787: In time of actual war, great discretionary powers are constantly given to the Executive Magistrate. Constant apprehension of War, has the same tendency to render the head too large for the body. A standing military force, with an overgrown Executive, will not long be safe companions to liberty. The means of defense against foreign danger, have been always
1330-413: A statement of broad policy goals that military commanders are expected to translate into operational plans, to the direct selection of specific targets for attack on the part of governing politicians . National leaders with limited experience in military matters often have little choice but to rely on the advice of professional military commanders trained in the art and science of warfare to inform
1425-430: A study of South Korea , the military is responsible for enacting the policy and decisions handed down from the government. This is dependent on the civil government maintaining a strong grip on the power to enact binding decision and the military following these decisions in the agreed approach. Civil control is the authority of a nations political structure to make policy and implementation decisions that can be directed to
1520-469: A way to maintain the control by political rulers. Historically they are associated most strongly with the Soviet Union and China rather than liberal democracies. While civil control forms the normative standard in almost every society outside of military dictatorships, its practice has often been the subject of pointed criticism from both uniformed and non-uniformed observers, who object to what they view as
1615-850: Is 産 (also the accepted form in Japan and Korea), while in Hong Kong, Macau and Taiwan the accepted form is 產 (also the accepted form in Vietnamese chữ Nôm ). The PRC tends to print material intended for people in Hong Kong, Macau and Taiwan, and overseas Chinese in traditional characters. For example, versions of the People's Daily are printed in traditional characters, and both People's Daily and Xinhua have traditional character versions of their website available, using Big5 encoding. Mainland companies selling products in Hong Kong, Macau and Taiwan use traditional characters in order to communicate with consumers;
1710-610: Is a necessity of the military power, within a land, a wise and prudent people will always have a watchful and jealous eye over it". Even more forceful are the words of Elbridge Gerry , a delegate to the Constitutional Convention , who wrote that "[s]tanding armies in time of peace are inconsistent with the principles of republican Governments, dangerous to the liberties of a free people, and generally converted into destructive engines for establishing despotism." In Federalist No. 8 , one of The Federalist Papers documenting
1805-460: Is authoritative and hierarchical, rarely allowing discussion and prohibiting dissension. For instance, in the Empire of Japan , prime ministers and almost everyone in high positions were military personnel like Hideki Tojo , and advocated and basically pressured the leaders to start military conflicts against China and others because they believed that they would ultimately be victorious. According to
1900-541: Is regulated by the Ministry of Education and standardized in the Standard Form of National Characters . These forms were predominant in written Chinese until the middle of the 20th century, when various countries that use Chinese characters began standardizing simplified sets of characters, often with characters that existed before as well-known variants of the predominant forms. Simplified characters as codified by
1995-436: Is that they may ignore or supplant the democratic decision-making process, and use physical force, or the threat of physical force, to achieve their preferred outcomes; in the worst cases, this may lead to a coup or military dictatorship . A related danger is the use of the military to crush domestic political opposition through intimidation or sheer physical force, interfering with the ability to have free and fair elections,
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#17328483845592090-595: Is to enforce U.S. laws, even though it is an armed service. The act is often misunderstood to prohibit any use of federal military forces in law enforcement, but this is not the case. For example, the President has explicit authority under the Constitution and federal law to use federal forces or federalised militias to enforce the laws of the United States. The act's primary purpose is to prevent local law enforcement officials from utilising federal forces in this way by forming
2185-485: Is to ensure that the activities of its armed forces are subordinated to the political purposes of constitutional government; hence, the armed forces must be under civil control". The concept of civil control falls within the overarching concept of civil-military relations representing the "societal imperative that the military remain subordinate to civil authority and that it reflect, to an appropriate degree, societal values and norms". Civil oversight over militaries puts
2280-407: Is to make security subordinate to the larger purposes of a nation, rather than the other way around. The purpose of the military is to defend society, not to define it." A state's effective use of force is an issue of great concern for all national leaders, who must rely on the military to supply this aspect of their authority . The danger of granting military leaders full autonomy or sovereignty
2375-483: The Chinese Commercial News , World News , and United Daily News all use traditional characters, as do some Hong Kong–based magazines such as Yazhou Zhoukan . The Philippine Chinese Daily uses simplified characters. DVDs are usually subtitled using traditional characters, influenced by media from Taiwan as well as by the two countries sharing the same DVD region , 3. With most having immigrated to
2470-406: The Battle of Mogadishu ) that he was ignoring military goals out of political and media pressure—a phenomenon termed the " CNN effect ". Politicians who personally lack military training and experience but who seek to engage the nation in military action may risk resistance and being labeled " chickenhawks " by those who disagree with their political goals. In contesting these priorities, members of
2565-452: The Kensiu language . Civilian control of the military Civil control of the military is a doctrine in military and political science that places ultimate responsibility for a country's strategic decision-making in the hands of the state's civil authority , rather than completely with professional military leadership itself. As such, a "fundamental requirement of any nation
2660-530: The National Revolutionary Army , which was sometimes called "The Party's Army" ( 黨軍 ). The ROC bureaucracy had then become the means and the tools of Kuomintang, where all the major national policies were formulated, while resulted in the party holding the supreme power of the whole nation. The concept of Dang Guo was an outgrowth of Sun's concept of "political tutelage" during which the Kuomintang
2755-759: The People's Republic of China are predominantly used in mainland China , Malaysia, and Singapore. "Traditional" as such is a retronym applied to non-simplified character sets in the wake of widespread use of simplified characters. Traditional characters are commonly used in Taiwan , Hong Kong , and Macau , as well as in most overseas Chinese communities outside of Southeast Asia. As for non-Chinese languages written using Chinese characters, Japanese kanji include many simplified characters known as shinjitai standardized after World War II, sometimes distinct from their simplified Chinese counterparts . Korean hanja , still used to
2850-622: The Shanghainese -language character U+20C8E 𠲎 CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-20C8E —a composition of 伐 with the ⼝ 'MOUTH' radical—used instead of the Standard Chinese 嗎 ; 吗 . Typefaces often use the initialism TC to signify the use of traditional Chinese characters, as well as SC for simplified Chinese characters . In addition, the Noto, Italy family of typefaces, for example, also provides separate fonts for
2945-595: The Vietnam War (which had proved disastrous for the morale and fighting integrity of the U.S. military) by proposing that the nation should only go to war in matters of "vital national interest", "as a last resort", and, as updated by Weinberger 's disciple Colin Powell , with "overwhelming force". The process of setting military budgets forms another contentious intersection of military and non-military policy, and regularly draws active lobbying by rival military services for
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3040-625: The Warlord Era . However, martial law in Taiwan continued from 1949 until 1987, during which other political parties were banned. Martial law was lifted in 1987 by president Chiang Ching-kuo , a move that legalized other political parties such as the Democratic Progressive Party and ended the Dang Guo era. Dang Guo was short for Yi Dang Zhi Guo ( 以黨治國 ), which literally means "using
3135-426: The words of Georges Clemenceau , "War is too serious a matter to entrust to military men" (also frequently rendered as "War is too important to be left to the generals"), wryly reflects this view. Given that broad strategic decisions, such as the decision to declare a war, start an invasion, or end a conflict, have a major impact on the citizens of the country, they are seen by civil control advocates as best guided by
3230-513: The " Revolution in Military Affairs ") has allowed civilian leaders removed from the theatre of conflict to assert greater control over the actions of distant military forces. Precision-guided munitions and real-time videoconferencing with field commanders now allow the civilian leadership to intervene even at the tactical decision-making level, designating particular targets for destruction or preservation based on political calculations or
3325-547: The Army or the Air Force (since the U.S. Air Force evolved from the U.S. Army) from engaging in domestic law enforcement activities unless they do so pursuant to lawful authority. Similar prohibitions apply to the Navy and Marine Corps by service regulation, since the actual Posse Comitatus Act does not apply to them. The Coast Guard is exempt from Posse Comitatus as one of its primary missions
3420-625: The Kuomintang should be paramount over the Republic of China in the course of revolution ( war against the warlords ) and should issue orders to the ROC bureaucracy, all NGO groups, and indeed to all individuals. In 1924, Sun said: After Sun Yat-sen decided to follow and copy the Soviet political system, his successor Chiang Kai-shek used the Kuomintang to control and operate both the Nationalist government and
3515-475: The Kuomintang to control and operate the Nationalist government and the National Revolutionary Army . All major national policies of the government bureaucracy were formulated by the Kuomintang, giving the party supreme power over the whole nation. Following the beliefs of Sun Yat-sen, political power should have been returned to the people after the National Revolutionary Army militarily ended
3610-588: The National Guard) being the least politically palatable option. Strong democratic control of the military is a prerequisite for membership in NATO . Strong democracy and rule of law, implying democratic control of the military, are prerequisites for membership in the European Union . Maoist military-political theories of people's war and democratic centralism also support the subordination of military forces to
3705-533: The Party ," reflecting the primacy of the Chinese Communist Party over the People's Liberation Army . As noted by University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill professor Richard H. Kohn, "civilian control is not a fact but a process". Affirmations of respect for the values of civil control notwithstanding, the actual level of control sought or achieved by the civil leadership may vary greatly in practice, from
3800-495: The People's Liberation Army by the CCP and greater political training of officers and enlistees as a means of reducing military autonomy. In Mao's theory, the military—which serves both as a symbol of the revolution and an instrument of the dictatorship of the proletariat —is not merely expected to defer to the direction of the ruling non-uniformed Party members (who today exercise control in
3895-569: The People's Republic of China through the Central Military Commission ), but also to actively participate in the revolutionary political campaigns of the Maoist era. Civilian leaders cannot usually hope to challenge their militaries by means of force, and thus must guard against any potential usurpation of powers through a combination of policies, laws, and the inculcation of the values of civil control in their armed services. The presence of
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3990-498: The People's Republic of China, traditional Chinese characters are standardised according to the Table of Comparison between Standard, Traditional and Variant Chinese Characters . Dictionaries published in mainland China generally show both simplified and their traditional counterparts. There are differences between the accepted traditional forms in mainland China and elsewhere, for example the accepted traditional form of 产 in mainland China
4085-417: The Republic of China has been democratically elected by the people of Taiwan . In 2000, Chen Shui-bian of the Democratic Progressive Party was elected as the first non-KMT president under the Constitution. Traditional Chinese characters Traditional Chinese characters are a standard set of Chinese character forms used to write Chinese languages . In Taiwan , the set of traditional characters
4180-515: The United States during the second half of the 19th century, Chinese Americans have long used traditional characters. When not providing both, US public notices and signs in Chinese are generally written in traditional characters, more often than in simplified characters. In the past, traditional Chinese was most often encoded on computers using the Big5 standard, which favored traditional characters. However,
4275-601: The United States, Article I of the Constitution gives Congress the power to declare war (in the War Powers Clause ), while Article II of the Constitution establishes the President as the commander-in-chief. Ambiguity over when the President could take military action without declaring war resulted in the War Powers Resolution of 1973. American presidents have used the power to dismiss high-ranking officers as
4370-529: The city was close to being defeated, ordering him to return East to assist with the defense of the empire against Khosrow 's invasion of the Roman Empire and instructed him to agree to a peace deal with the Goths under conditions considerably favourable to the Goths, but Belisarius objected to the order and delayed his return. It was a common issue in the Roman Empire that rebellious generals would be able to overthrow
4465-418: The civil component of the government over what the military can do and how much money it can spend protects the democratic process from abuse. Nations that can achieve legitimate relationship between the two structures serve to be more effective and provide accountability between government and military. Civil control can be accomplished in a number of ways, for example through complete civilian control or for
4560-468: The civil control of the military. The establishment of a civilian head of state, head of government, or other government figure as the military's commander-in-chief within the chain of command is one legal construct for the propagation of civilian control. However, in many constitutional monarchies, the monarch is both commander-in-chief and a member of the country's military, thus civil control does not necessitate complete control of only civilians. In
4655-461: The civil government, requiring some degree of deference on the part of officers seeking advancement through the ranks. Historically, direct control over military forces deployed for war was hampered by the technological limits of command, control, and communications ; national leaders, whether democratically elected or not, had to rely on local commanders to execute the details of a military campaign , or risk centrally-directed orders' obsolescence by
4750-407: The context of a democracy governed by elected officials , though the subordination of the military to political control is not unique to these societies. For example, there is often civilian control of the military in communist states , such as the People's Republic of China . Mao Zedong stated that " Our principle is that the Party commands the gun, and the gun must never be allowed to command
4845-511: The counsel of non-uniformed advisors. In the United States the Hatch Act of 1939 does not directly apply to the military, however, Department of Defense Directive 1344.10 (DoDD 1344.10) essentially applies the same rules to the military. This helps to ensure a non-partisan military and ensure smooth and peaceful transitions of power. Political officers screened for appropriate ideology have been integrated into supervisory roles within militaries as
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#17328483845594940-657: The dictates of military strategy are subsumed to the political, with the effect of unduly restricting the fighting capabilities of the nation's armed forces for what should be immaterial or otherwise lower priority concerns. In the wars between the Roman Empire and the Goths in Italy during the 500s CE , the incentives of the military and military necessity clashed with the incentives of the civilian leadership in Constantinople led by Emperor Justinian I . Supreme command in principle
5035-484: The directives of the communist party (although the guerrilla experience of many early leading Chinese Communist Party figures may make their status as civilians somewhat ambiguous). In a 1929 essay On Correcting Mistaken Ideas in the Party , Mao Zedong explicitly refuted "comrades [who] regard military affairs and politics as opposed to each other and [who] refuse to recognize that military affairs are only one means of accomplishing political tasks", prescribing control of
5130-423: The emblem of the Kuomintang was used as the emblem of the state , and the flag of the Kuomintang has been used as the naval jack to this day. The Kuomintang unified China in 1927 and started to prepare the state for democracy, as according to Sun's teaching. The Constitution of the Republic of China , enacted in 1947, stipulates that different parties shall enjoy equal status, and the National Revolutionary Army
5225-458: The emperor, and emperors commonly clipped the wings of generals who were too successful and too popular, one such assassination of a popular general named Vitelian occurred under the recent reign of Emperor Justin I , the uncle of Justinian. It was a particular issue in the case of Justinian as he had no biological children nor had ever legally adopted a son. During the Plague of Justinian , Belisarius
5320-436: The good nature of the incumbent to ensure proper government was folly. Institutions must be in place to check incompetent or malevolent leaders. Most importantly, no single branch of government ought to have control over any single aspect of governing. Thus, all three branches of government must have some control over the military, and the system of checks and balances maintained among the other branches would serve to help control
5415-504: The idea that every qualified citizen was responsible for the defense of the nation and the defense of liberty, and would go to war, if necessary. Combined with the idea that the military was to embody democratic principles and encourage citizen participation, the only military force suitable to the Founders was a citizen militia, which minimized divisions between officers and the enlisted. In a less egalitarian practice, societies may also blur
5510-531: The ideas of some of the Founding Fathers, Alexander Hamilton expressed concern that maintaining a large standing army would be a dangerous and expensive undertaking. In his principal argument for the ratification of the proposed constitution, he argued that only by maintaining a strong union could the new country avoid such a pitfall. Using the European experience as a negative example and the British experience as
5605-463: The instruments of tyranny at home. Among the Romans it was a standing maxim to excite a war, whenever a revolt was apprehended. Throughout all Europe, the armies kept up under the pretext of defending, have enslaved the people. The United States Constitution placed considerable limitations on the legislature . Coming from a tradition of legislative superiority in government , many were concerned that
5700-442: The international system to improve bureaucracy and the democratisation of both democratic countries and resistant authoritarian holdovers. This has grown to involve the armed forces/security forces themselves to work towards the international norm of fully liberalising these organisations. Civil control is often seen as a prerequisite feature of a stable liberal democracy . Use of the term in scholarly analyses tends to take place in
5795-493: The inverse is equally true as well. In digital media, many cultural phenomena imported from Hong Kong and Taiwan into mainland China, such as music videos, karaoke videos, subtitled movies, and subtitled dramas, use traditional Chinese characters. In Hong Kong and Macau , traditional characters were retained during the colonial period, while the mainland adopted simplified characters. Simplified characters are contemporaneously used to accommodate immigrants and tourists, often from
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#17328483845595890-467: The ire of the military by attempting to reform its structure away from traditional infantry and toward a lighter, faster, more technologically driven force. In April 2006, Rumsfeld was severely criticised by some retired military officers for his handling of the Iraq War , while other retired military officers came out in support of Rumsfeld. Although no active military officers have spoken out against Rumsfeld,
5985-467: The kind of relationship to avoid civil-military conflict, needs like-minded officials in both organisations to agree and work together. “Democratically accountable civilian control is also associated with more prudent internal uses of armed force.” The main focus of civil control in developing countries remains on ensuring a democratic restraint on militaries acting in their own self-interest. Militaries given too much power or too ethnically focused undermines
6080-470: The laws, state militia forces under state control i.e., that state's Army National Guard and/or Air National Guard are usually the force of first resort, followed by federalized state militia forces i.e., the Army National Guard and/or Air National Guard "federalized" as part of the U.S. Army and/or U.S. Air Force, with active federal forces (to include "federal" reserve component forces other than
6175-420: The limits of policy; in such cases, the military establishment may enter the bureaucratic arena to advocate for or against a particular course of action, shaping the policy-making process and blurring any clear cut lines of civil control. The reverse situation, where professional military officers control national politics, is called a military dictatorship . A lack of control over the military may result in
6270-476: The line between "civilian" and "military" leadership by making direct appointments of non- professionals (frequently social elites benefitting from patronage or nepotism ) to an officer rank. A more invasive method, most famously practiced in the Soviet Union and the People's Republic of China, involves active monitoring of the officer corps through the appointment of political commissars , posted parallel to
6365-725: The mainland. The increasing use of simplified characters has led to concern among residents regarding protecting what they see as their local heritage. Taiwan has never adopted simplified characters. The use of simplified characters in government documents and educational settings is discouraged by the government of Taiwan. Nevertheless, with sufficient context simplified characters are likely to be successfully read by those used to traditional characters, especially given some previous exposure. Many simplified characters were previously variants that had long been in some use, with systematic stroke simplifications used in folk handwriting since antiquity. Traditional characters were recognized as
6460-682: The majority of Chinese text in mainland China are simplified characters , there is no legislation prohibiting the use of traditional Chinese characters, and often traditional Chinese characters remain in use for stylistic and commercial purposes, such as in shopfront displays and advertising. Traditional Chinese characters remain ubiquitous on buildings that predate the promulgation of the current simplification scheme, such as former government buildings, religious buildings, educational institutions, and historical monuments. Traditional Chinese characters continue to be used for ceremonial, cultural, scholarly/academic research, and artistic/decorative purposes. In
6555-975: The merging of previously distinct character forms. Many Chinese online newspapers allow users to switch between these character sets. Traditional characters are known by different names throughout the Chinese-speaking world. The government of Taiwan officially refers to traditional Chinese characters as 正體字 ; 正体字 ; zhèngtǐzì ; 'orthodox characters'. This term is also used outside Taiwan to distinguish standard characters, including both simplified, and traditional, from other variants and idiomatic characters . Users of traditional characters elsewhere, as well as those using simplified characters, call traditional characters 繁體字 ; 繁体字 ; fántǐzì ; 'complex characters', 老字 ; lǎozì ; 'old characters', or 全體字 ; 全体字 ; quántǐzì ; 'full characters' to distinguish them from simplified characters. Some argue that since traditional characters are often
6650-449: The military as a body separate from the larger society. In The Soldier and the State , Samuel Huntington argued for what he termed "objective civilian control", "focus[ing] on a politically neutral, autonomous, and professional officer corps". This autonomous professionalism, it is argued, best inculcates an esprit de corps and sense of distinct military corporateness that prevents political interference by sworn servicepersons. Conversely,
6745-442: The military to enact and then oversaw throughout. Internationally, in the developed world democratic countries have embraced a well-established civil-military relationship that has matured over time into a good working relationship. Newer democracies, depending on their political and military situations, have had to work through overcorrecting towards one side or the other on the seesaw of government control. A government establishing
6840-401: The military. Hamilton and Madison thus had two major concerns: (1) the detrimental effect on liberty and democracy of a large standing army and (2) the ability of an unchecked legislature or executive to take the country to war precipitously. These concerns drove U.S. military policy for the first century and a half of the country's existence. While the armed forces were built up during wartime,
6935-535: The most significant leader of the United States Army . Another exception occurred in the 2020-21 United States election crisis when Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff Mark Milley began requiring subordinates to check with him before carrying out orders from President Donald Trump ; he also called People's Liberation Army Commander-in-Chief Li Zuocheng to assure him that the United States would not launch
7030-665: The official script in Singapore until 1969, when the government officially adopted Simplified characters. Traditional characters still are widely used in contexts such as in baby and corporation names, advertisements, decorations, official documents and in newspapers. The Chinese Filipino community continues to be one of the most conservative in Southeast Asia regarding simplification. Although major public universities teach in simplified characters, many well-established Chinese schools still use traditional characters. Publications such as
7125-700: The original standard forms, they should not be called 'complex'. Conversely, there is a common objection to the description of traditional characters as 'standard', due to them not being used by a large population of Chinese speakers. Additionally, as the process of Chinese character creation often made many characters more elaborate over time, there is sometimes a hesitation to characterize them as 'traditional'. Some people refer to traditional characters as 'proper characters' ( 正字 ; zhèngzì or 正寫 ; zhèngxiě ) and to simplified characters as 簡筆字 ; 简笔字 ; jiǎnbǐzì ; 'simplified-stroke characters' or 減筆字 ; 减笔字 ; jiǎnbǐzì ; 'reduced-stroke characters', as
7220-538: The pattern after every war up to and including World War II was to demobilise quickly and return to something approaching pre-war force levels. However, with the advent of the Cold War in the 1950s, the need to create and maintain a sizable peacetime military force "engendered new concerns" of militarism and about how such a large force would affect civil–military relations in the United States. The United States' Posse Comitatus Act , passed in 1878, prohibits any part of
7315-584: The political party to run the state". In 1920, Sun Yat-sen , founding father of the Republic of China, made Dang Guo the official ROC national policy during the phase of military rule and political tutelage [ zh ] (two of the three phases of the Fundamentals of National Reconstruction). He was influenced by Leninist ideology, which led to the October Revolution in Russia . According to Sun,
7410-490: The power to take military action in the hands of a civil authority, such as through government ministers or legislative bodies, or the democratic apparatus of the Crown in constitutional monarchies . Allowing the civil component of government to retain control over the military or state security illustrates the power of the citizenry, a healthy respect for democratic values, and what can be described as good governance. Giving power to
7505-486: The professional military leadership and their non-uniformed supporters may participate in the bureaucratic bargaining process of the state's policy-making apparatus, engaging in what might be termed a form of regulatory capture as they attempt to restrict the policy options of elected officials when it comes to military matters. An example of one such set of conditions is the " Weinberger Doctrine ", which sought to forestall another U.S. intervention like that which occurred in
7600-575: The proposed Constitution would place so many limitations on the legislature that it would become impossible for such a body to prevent an executive from starting a war. Hamilton argued in Federalist No. 26 that it would be equally as bad for a legislature to be unfettered by any other agency and that restraints would actually be more likely to preserve liberty. James Madison, in Federalist No. 47 , continued Hamilton's argument that distributing powers among
7695-519: The time they reached the front lines . The remoteness of government from the action allowed professional soldiers to claim military affairs as their own particular sphere of expertise and influence; upon entering a state of war, it was often expected that the generals and field marshals would dictate strategy and tactics, and the civilian leadership would defer to their informed judgments. Improvements in information technology and its application to wartime command and control (a process sometimes labeled
7790-438: The tradition of the citizen-soldier holds that "civilianizing" the military is the best means of preserving the loyalty of the armed forces towards civil authorities, by preventing the development of an independent " caste " of warriors that might see itself as existing fundamentally apart from the rest of society. In the early history of the United States, according to Michael Cairo, [the] principle of civilian control... embodied
7885-578: The traditional character set used in Taiwan ( TC ) and the set used in Hong Kong ( HK ). Most Chinese-language webpages now use Unicode for their text. The World Wide Web Consortium (W3C) recommends the use of the language tag zh-Hant to specify webpage content written with traditional characters. In the Japanese writing system , kyujitai are traditional forms, which were simplified to create shinjitai for standardized Japanese use following World War II. Kyūjitai are mostly congruent with
7980-970: The traditional characters in Chinese, save for minor stylistic variation. Characters that are not included in the jōyō kanji list are generally recommended to be printed in their traditional forms, with a few exceptions. Additionally, there are kokuji , which are kanji wholly created in Japan, rather than originally being borrowed from China. In the Korean writing system , hanja —replaced almost entirely by hangul in South Korea and totally replaced in North Korea —are mostly identical with their traditional counterparts, save minor stylistic variations. As with Japanese, there are autochthonous hanja, known as gukja . Traditional Chinese characters are also used by non-Chinese ethnic groups. The Maniq people living in Thailand and Malaysia use Chinese characters to write
8075-509: The ubiquitous Unicode standard gives equal weight to simplified and traditional Chinese characters, and has become by far the most popular encoding for Chinese-language text. There are various input method editors (IMEs) available for the input of Chinese characters . Many characters, often dialectical variants, are encoded in Unicode but cannot be inputted using certain IMEs, with one example being
8170-401: The undue "politicisation" of military affairs, especially when elected officials or political appointees micromanage the military, rather than giving the military general goals and objectives (like "Defeat Country X"), and letting the military decide how best to carry those orders out. By placing responsibility for military decision-making in the hands of non-professional civilians, critics argue,
8265-431: The uniformed chain of command and tasked with ensuring that national policies are carried out by the armed forces. The regular rotation of soldiers through a variety of different postings is another effective tool for reducing military autonomy, by limiting the potential for soldiers' attachment to any one particular military unit . Some governments place responsibility for approving promotions or officer candidacies with
8360-407: The various branches of government would prevent any one group from gaining so much power as to become unassailable. In Federalist No. 48 , however, Madison warned that while the separation of powers is important, the departments must not be so far separated as to have no ability to control the others. Finally, in Federalist No. 51 , Madison argued that to create a government that relied primarily on
8455-576: The war's conduct, and Barack Obama 's acceptance of Stanley McChrystal 's resignation in the War in Afghanistan after a Rolling Stone article was published where he mocked several members of the Obama administration , including Vice President Joe Biden . A major exception occurred during World War II, when Army Chief of Staff George C. Marshall displaced the civilian Secretary of War Henry L. Stimson as
8550-416: The will of the people (as expressed by their political representatives ), rather than left solely to an elite group of tactical experts. The military serves as a special government agency , which is supposed to implement , rather than formulate , policies that require the use of certain types of physical force. Richard Kohn, Professor Emeritus of History at UNC , summarises, "The point of civilian control
8645-571: The words for simplified and reduced are homophonous in Standard Chinese , both pronounced as jiǎn . The modern shapes of traditional Chinese characters first appeared with the emergence of the clerical script during the Han dynasty c. 200 BCE , with the sets of forms and norms more or less stable since the Southern and Northern dynasties period c. the 5th century . Although
8740-561: Was returned to civilian control as the Army of the Republic of China . However, the outbreak of the Chinese Civil War caused the ROC to be under military rule of the KMT during the period of mobilization when the ROC government relocated to Taiwan in 1949. After martial law ended in 1987, all political parties became legal, and the Republic of China was democratized. Since then, the President of
8835-452: Was held by the magister militum Flavius Belisarius , but his command in Italy was dissented from on a number of instances. Other representatives of the imperial court and generals allied with those representatives disagreed with Belisarius on decisions made, resulting in only a pyrrhic victory in Italy. Justinian sent a message to Belisarius while besieging Ravenna and when the Gothic garrison in
8930-564: Was restricted to Constantinople under the influence of Empress Theodora who was concerned about the risk of a coup while Justinian was struck with a coma as a result of the epidemic. The " Revolt of the Admirals " that occurred in 1949 was an attempt by senior U.S. Navy & Marine Corps personnel, to force a change in budgets directly opposed to the directives given by the civilian leadership. U.S. President Bill Clinton faced frequent allegations throughout his time in office (particularly after
9025-504: Was to lead the state and to instruct the people on how the democratic system would work prior to the transition to full democracy. Under Dang Guo , ROC military personnel and civil servants alike were expected to owe their allegiance to Kuomintang first and the state second, a policy reflected by such phrases as "Service to the Party and the Nation" ( 功在黨國 ) and in the national anthem , which makes an explicit reference to "Our Party". Likewise,
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