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120-459: The Parthian War may refer to: The Seleucid–Parthian Wars (238–129 BC) The Armenian–Parthian War (87–85 BC) The Roman–Parthian Wars , including: Antony's Atropatene campaign or the Roman–Parthian War (40–33 BC) The Roman–Parthian War of 58–63 Trajan's Parthian campaign (114–117) The Roman–Parthian War of 161–166 or

240-699: A stringed instrument —in Kyrgyzstan, a three-stringed komuz , and in Kazakhstan, a similar two-stringed instrument, the dombra . Photography in Central Asia began to develop after 1882, when a Russian Mennonite photographer named Wilhelm Penner moved to the Khanate of Khiva during the Mennonite migration to Central Asia led by Claas Epp, Jr. Upon his arrival to Khanate of Khiva , Penner shared his photography skills with

360-561: A calculated strategic withdrawal in the face of the Seleucid army. Arsaces' withdrawal was not a retreat or disorganized rout but rather part of a predetermined strategy to inspire overconfidence and complacency in Seleucus. Arsaces remained the master of the situation. Shortly after their withdrawal, the Parthians inflicted a major defeat on the Seleucid army, possibly even capturing Seleucus. Whatever

480-638: A decline from which it could never recover. The Seleucid Empire became a rump state which consisted of little more than Antioch and the surrounding lands. The only reason the Seleucid Empire continued to exist is because the Parthians saw it as a useful buffer against the Roman Empire. When Pompey led a Roman expedition into Syria , he annexed the Seleucid Empire, and the stage was set for the Roman–Parthian Wars . The westward expansion of Parthia during

600-421: A desert in western Parthia adjacent to the regions of Choarene and Komisene , which is where Arsaces had stationed his army and wrongly assumed the Seleucid army would attack from. As Arsaces realized this mistake, he attempted to rectify it by sending detachments of his army to destroy water wells in the area to slow the massive Seleucid army. Antiochus, in response, sent a general by the name of Nicomedes with

720-690: A few years and capture their capital, Susa . Mithridates returned east the same year. Despite the Mithridates' victory, the Elymaens continued resisting the Parthians until the year 132 BCE. Despite being embroiled in a civil war with Diodotus Tryphon , Demetrius II felt confident enough to pursue a war against the Parthians . Tryphon had lost nearly his entire army to bad weather near Ptolemais , making his position much weaker. Additionally, Tryphon executed Antiochus VI and declared himself king, which proved to be

840-474: A force of 1,000 cavalry to secure the wells. The Parthian units lacked the necessary strength to adequately fight the Seleucid force under Nicomedes and therefore implemented a feigned retreat to lure Nicomedes into giving chase towards the main Parthian army were it could be dealt with. Nicomedes refused to fall for the trap and did not pursue the Parthian detachments, and successfully secured the wells and drove away

960-473: A group are also colloquially referred to as the "-stans" as all have names ending with the Persian suffix " -stan " (meaning 'land') in both respective native languages and most other languages. In the pre-Islamic and early Islamic eras ( c.  1000 and earlier) Central Asia was inhabited predominantly by Iranian peoples , populated by Eastern Iranian -speaking Bactrians , Sogdians , Chorasmians , and

1080-433: A large body of water, temperature fluctuations are often severe, excluding the hot, sunny summer months. In most areas, the climate is dry and continental, with hot summers and cool to cold winters, with occasional snowfall. Outside high-elevation areas, the climate is mostly semi-arid to arid. In lower elevations, summers are hot with blazing sunshine. Winters feature occasional rain or snow from low-pressure systems that cross

1200-553: A local student Khudaybergen Divanov, who later became the founder of Uzbek photography . Some also learn to sing the Manas , Kyrgyzstan's epic poem (those who learn the Manas exclusively but do not improvise are called manaschis ). During Soviet rule, akyn performance was co-opted by the authorities and subsequently declined in popularity. With the fall of the Soviet Union , it has enjoyed

1320-510: A major mistake. Despite Tryphon's setbacks, Demetrius was not in a position to remove him from power completely. In 140 BCE, Demetrius II decided to pursue war with the Parthians in order to advance his standing and retake Mesopotamia , which was an important source of revenue for him. The unstable rule of the Parthians in Babylonia combined with the invasion of the region by the Elymaens had lowered

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1440-534: A more heterogeneous region with increasing East Asian ancestry through Turkic and Mongolian groups in the past thousands years, including extensive Turkic and later Mongol migrations out of Mongolia and slow assimilation of local populations. In the 8th century AD, the Islamic expansion reached the region but had no significant demographic impact. In the 13th century AD, the Mongolian invasion of Central Asia brought most of

1560-515: A resurgence, although akyns still do use their art to campaign for political candidates. A 2005 The Washington Post article proposed a similarity between the improvisational art of akyns and modern freestyle rap performed in the West. As a consequence of Russian colonisation, European fine arts – painting, sculpture and graphics – have developed in Central Asia. The first years of the Soviet regime saw

1680-458: A scarcity of research on climate impacts in Central Asia, even though it experiences faster warming than the global average and is generally considered to be one of the more climate-vulnerable regions in the world. Along with West Asia , it has already had greater increases in hot temperature extremes than the other parts of Asia, Rainfall in Central Asia had decreased, unlike elsewhere in Asia, and

1800-408: A stalemate. The night after the battle, contingents of the Seleucid army flanked the Parthian army, causing the Parthians to retreat further. After this victory, Antiochus resumed his march and captured the unprotected city of Tambrax , which contained a royal palace. Arsaces II had so far failed to halt the Seleucid march, so he decided to drastically change his strategy to a siege defense. Sirynx

1920-568: A subordinate ally to Antiochus III. Antiochus annexed all of Parthia south of the Kopet Dag mountain range and left Arsaces with a small kingdom. Arsaces was also restricted from minting coins and likely had to supply the Seleucid army with Parthian soldiers. Antiochus had neutralized the Parthians for the time being and achieved all the goals of his campaign in Parthia. The campaign of Antiochus III had devastated Parthia and lowered Arsaces II to

2040-503: A weak subordinate king. Parthian territory in northeastern Iran had been annexed by Antiochus, who relegated the Arsacids to the northernmost end of Parthia in what is now Turkmenistan . As well as being stripped of most of their territory, the Parthian military had been greatly weakened after the defeats it suffered at the hands of the Seleucids and was disabled for some time. However, with

2160-703: Is between the Oxus and Jaxartes, and the Karakum Desert is between the Oxus and Kopet Dagh in Turkmenistan. Khorasan meant approximately northeast Persia and northern Afghanistan. Margiana was the region around Merv. The Ustyurt Plateau is between the Aral and Caspian Seas. To the southwest, across the Kopet Dagh, lies Persia. From here Persian and Islamic civilisation penetrated Central Asia and dominated its high culture until

2280-606: Is different from Wikidata All article disambiguation pages All disambiguation pages Seleucid%E2%80%93Parthian Wars In 323 BC, the Seleucid Empire was founded by Seleucus I Nicator , a general of Alexander the Great . Stretching from Syria to the Indus River and comprising most of Alexander's realm, the Seleucid state was the most powerful of the Diadochi kingdoms that sprang up after Alexander's death. Quickly however,

2400-469: Is played throughout the Central Asian region, the countries sometimes organise Buzkashi competition amongst each other. The First regional competition among the Central Asian countries, Russia , Chinese Xinjiang and Turkey was held in 2013. The first world title competition was played in 2017 and won by Kazakhstan . Association football is popular across Central Asia. Most countries are members of

2520-694: The Alborz Mountains bordering Hyrcania in the east and Media in the southwest. The Parthians may have attacked them to secure Hyrcania and expand their holdings in Iran . Due to their location, the Mardians also posed a threat to trade routes from Parthia and Hyrcania to Rhaga and Ecbatana . After defeating the Mardians, Phraates conquered the entirety of the Caspian Gates from the Seleucids. Phraates then conquered

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2640-670: The Central Asian Football Association , a region of the Asian Football Confederation . However, Kazakhstan is a member of the UEFA . Wrestling is popular across Central Asia, with Kazakhstan having claimed 14 Olympic medals, Uzbekistan seven, and Kyrgyzstan three. As former Soviet states, Central Asian countries have been successful in gymnastics . Mixed Martial Arts is one of more common sports in Central Asia, Kyrgyz athlete Valentina Shevchenko holding

2760-666: The Greco-Bactrian kingdom as well as to subdue tribes in modern-day south-eastern Iran and south-western Pakistan . Meanwhile, in the Seleucid Empire , mass unrest in Syria left the empire vulnerable. In 145 BCE, a Seleucid general named Diodotus Tryphon revolted and made a bid to place the son of the slain Alexander Balas , Antiochus VI , on the Seleucid throne. The Seleucid Empire descended into another crippling civil war. Around

2880-521: The Greeks within the city would betray them, and so they massacred the entire Greek population of the city. The Parthians also brought anything of value from the city along with them. This indicates that the Parthians were low on funds for the campaign. The attempted breakout failed, and Antiochus took the city after a final assault, forcing the Parthians to surrender. After the disastrous fighting in Hyrcania and

3000-665: The Iron Age . Certain Turkic ethnic groups, specifically the Kazakhs , display even higher East Asian ancestry. This is explained by substantial Mongolian influence on the Kazakh genome, through significant admixture between blue eyes, blonde hair, the medieval Kipchaks of Central Asia and the invading medieval Mongolians. The data suggests that the Mongol invasion of Central Asia had lasting impacts onto

3120-559: The Kashmir Valley of India may also be included. The Tibetans and Ladakhis are also included. Most of the mentioned peoples are considered the "indigenous" peoples of the vast region. Central Asia is sometimes referred to as Turkestan . Central Asia is a region of varied geography, including high passes and mountains ( Tian Shan ), vast deserts ( Kyzyl Kum , Taklamakan ), and especially treeless, grassy steppes . The vast steppe areas of Central Asia are considered together with

3240-648: The Kopet Dagh near the Persian border. East of the Kopet Dagh is the important oasis of Merv and then a few places in Afghanistan like Herat and Balkh . Two projections of the Tian Shan create three "bays" along the eastern mountains. The largest, in the north, is eastern Kazakhstan, traditionally called Jetysu or Semirechye which contains Lake Balkhash . In the center is the small but densely-populated Ferghana valley . In

3360-564: The Parthian Empire and the succeeding Sasanian Empire . While Mithridates led the advance into Mesopotamia , Bagasis conquered Persis around the same time. Even though by this time Mithridates had conquered large portions of the Seleucid Empire, it had come at no cost of the main Seleucid army , but had been incredibly difficult and taxing for the Parthians. The position of the Parthians remained vulnerable. Despite his victory, Mithridates I

3480-454: The Parthian Empire . With the defeat of Andragoras, the Parthian aristocracy joined forces with the Parni to create a kingdom that was well situated for imperial expansion. Around the same time, Arsaces I attacked and successfully seized Hyrcania , incorporating it into his kingdom. The Parni began assimilating into Parthian society, adopting the language and name of the local people, thus becoming

3600-414: The Seleucid provinces of Persis and Elymais , which further destabilized and weakened the Seleucid Empire. Having secured his eastern frontiers, Mithridates was able to redirect his attention to the Seleucid Empire, specifically Media , which had been a target for expansion of the Parthians since the reign of Mithridates' predecessor, Phraates I . Phraates was successful in securing a staging ground for

3720-511: The Seleucid army , and captured the Seleucid King, Demetrius II , thus effectively ending Seleucid claims to any land east of the Euphrates river. In order to recover this territory, Antiochus VII Sidetes , launched a counter-offensive against the Parthians in 130 BC, initially defeating them twice in battle. The Parthians sent a delegation to negotiate a peace agreement, but ultimately rejected

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3840-1001: The UFC Flyweight Champion title. Cricket is the most popular sport in Afghanistan . The Afghanistan national cricket team , first formed in 2001, has claimed wins over Bangladesh, West Indies and Zimbabwe. Notable Kazakh competitors include cyclists Alexander Vinokourov and Andrey Kashechkin , boxer Vassiliy Jirov and Gennady Golovkin , runner Olga Shishigina , decathlete Dmitriy Karpov , gymnast Aliya Yussupova , judoka Askhat Zhitkeyev and Maxim Rakov , skier Vladimir Smirnov , weightlifter Ilya Ilyin , and figure skaters Denis Ten and Elizabet Tursynbaeva . Notable Uzbekistani competitors include cyclist Djamolidine Abdoujaparov , boxer Ruslan Chagaev , canoer Michael Kolganov , gymnast Oksana Chusovitina , tennis player Denis Istomin , chess player Rustam Kasimdzhanov , and figure skater Misha Ge . Since gaining independence in

3960-572: The 18th century as a result of a long struggle with the Dzungars . The Russian Empire conquered the lands of the nomadic Kazakhs, Turkmens, Kyrgyz and Central Asian khanates in the 19th century. A major revolt known as the Dungan Revolt occurred in the 1860s and 1870s in the eastern part of Central Asia, and Qing rule almost collapsed in all of East Turkestan. After the Russian Revolution ,

4080-549: The 18th century was Tibetan Buddhist and would sometimes travel from Beijing to other cities for personal religious worship. Central Asia also has an indigenous form of improvisational oral poetry that is over 1000 years old. It is principally practiced in Kyrgyzstan and Kazakhstan by akyns , lyrical improvisationalists. They engage in lyrical battles , the aytysh or the alym sabak . The tradition arose out of early bardic oral historians . They are usually accompanied by

4200-477: The 2020 and 2019 IWB World Competitiveness rankings. In particular, they have been modernizing the industrial sector and fostering the development of service industries through business-friendly fiscal policies and other measures, to reduce the share of agriculture in GDP. Between 2005 and 2013, the share of agriculture dropped in all but Tajikistan, where it increased while industry decreased. The fastest growth in industry

4320-695: The Caspian Sea in the west, the Altai mountains in the north and the Hindu Kush and Pamir mountains in the South. He did not give an eastern border for the region. His legacy is still seen: Humboldt University of Berlin , named after him, offers a course in Central Asian studies . The Russian geographer Nikolaĭ Khanykov questioned the latitudinal definition of Central Asia and preferred a physical one of all countries located in

4440-518: The Iranian Plateau had been destabilized and Seleucid Media was threatened by the resurgent Parthians, Antiochus decided to take half of the Seleucid army and leave his western provinces to pursue a campaign against the Parthians. Before the Antiochus reached Parthia, Phraates died in 165 BCE and was succeeded by his younger brother, Mithridates I . Antiochus began by attacking Armenia and reducing it

4560-411: The Parni. The Parni had been militarily disabled for several decades as a result of Demodamas' successful campaign. Arsaces I became the king of the Parni in 248 BCE and led them on a second campaign against Seleucid Margiana in 246 BCE. Once again, a Seleucid satrap, this time Diodotus , was sent to repel the invasion. Diodotus was able to repel Arsaces I and secure Margiana. Despite the victory,

4680-637: The Parthian War of Lucius Verus The Parthian war of Caracalla (216–217) See also [ edit ] Roman–Persian Wars Topics referred to by the same term [REDACTED] This disambiguation page lists articles associated with the title Parthian War . If an internal link led you here, you may wish to change the link to point directly to the intended article. Retrieved from " https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Parthian_War&oldid=1216345467 " Category : Disambiguation pages Hidden categories: Short description

4800-402: The Parthian army began harassing the slow Seleucid army. Antiochus decided to cover his army with bands of lightly armed and mobile units to protect it from Parthian attacks. Despite being dug into ambush positions, the isolated Parthian units were flushed out by the lightly armed Seleucid detachments. This represents another failure on Arsaces' behalf. Seeing the ineffectiveness of his soldiers in

4920-462: The Parthian army by crossing the Alborz into Hyrcania. The Seleucid army was slowed down by obstacles created by the Parthians. Antiochus was forced to divide his army into several large bodies to pass the rough terrain, making his phalanx and baggage train particularly vulnerable. Arsaces saw an opportunity to recover from his previous mistakes by striking the Seleucid army while it was vulnerable, and so

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5040-618: The Parthians and Bactrians, restore Seleucid hegemony in the east, and avenge his father, Seleucus II. Antiochus spent a year in Babylonia organizing his army and logistics. Antiochus had raised a ginormous army of 70,000, then set out and began marching in the spring of 209 BCE. By 210 BCE, the Seleucids had entered Media and looted 4000 talents of gold and silver from the Temple of Aene in Ecbatana in order to fund their campaign. Before invading Parthia proper, Antiochus settled affairs in other parts of

5160-463: The Parthians had secured their eastern frontier and could focus on the conquest of Media . At this point, the Parthians controlled Parthia , Hyrcania , Ariana , Margiana , and a sizeable portion of Bactria . With more resources available to him, Mithridates could focus his attention west, on the Seleucid Empire. Mithridates ' campaign against the Greco-Bactrians coincided with the revolts of

5280-401: The Parthians, even being married to one of Mithridates' daughters. Although the Parthians had defeated the Seleucids and protected their newly won territory of Babylonia, their grasp on the region remained fragile. Shortly after Mithridates defeated the Seleucids, he promptly returned east, where he fell seriously ill and, after six years of suffering from the illness, died in 132 BCE. Mithridates

5400-452: The Parthians. Arsaces I had been successful in establishing a kingdom in Parthia ; however, the Parthians still had limited resources and could expect an imminent Seleucid retaliation. Knowing this, Arsaces began levying soldiers and expanding his territory. With the Seleucid east disintegrating, a campaign to reconquer the region, secure the eastern frontier, and restore Seleucid prestige

5520-525: The Parthians. This was another major blunder on Arsaces' behalf. Arsaces had sent too few men to destroy the wells and moved too far away to support his units in need. Arsaces decided to abandon his capital, Hecatompylus , and retreat into the mountains of Hyrcania because he recognized that his army was not able to match the enormous Seleucid army. Antiochus had expected to face Arsaces in a conventional battle at Hecatompylus and wondered why Arsaces had abandoned it. Asraces' unexpected withdrawal had complicated

5640-471: The Russian conquest. In the southeast is the route to India. In early times Buddhism spread north and throughout much of history warrior kings and tribes would move southeast to establish their rule in northern India. Most nomadic conquerors entered from the northeast. After 1800 western civilisation in its Russian and Soviet form penetrated from the northwest. Because Central Asia is landlocked and not buffered by

5760-508: The Russian-Ukrainian steppe and eastward into the steppes and deserts of Dzungaria and Mongolia. Southward the land becomes increasingly dry and the nomadic population increasingly thin. The south supports areas of dense population and cities wherever irrigation is possible. The main irrigated areas are along the eastern mountains, along the Oxus and Jaxartes Rivers and along the north flank of

5880-527: The Seleucid satraps of Bactria and Parthia respectively, declared their remote provinces independent states. However, in around 238 BCE, the Parni , an Iranian tribe from the central Asian steppes under Arsaces , invaded Andragoras' domain , defeated and killed him, and took over the land. Sometime in the 280s BCE, the Parni attempted to invade Seleucid Margiana in order to expand their regional power and security. The Seleucids quickly dispatched Demodamas ,

6000-422: The Seleucid Empire. In 148 BC, the Parthian king Mithridates I invaded Media which was already in revolt against the Seleucid empire, and in 141 BC the Parthians captured the major Seleucid city of Seleucia (which was the eastern capital of the Seleucid empire). These victories gave Mithridates control over Mesopotamia and Babylonia . In 139 BC the Parthians defeated a major Seleucid counterattack, breaking

6120-414: The Seleucid army in detail. However, Antiochus III prevented his men from pursuing the Parthians, who employed offensive hit-and-run tactics throughout the battle in hopes of inspiring the phalanx to give chase. Ultimately, the Parthian cavalry was unable to break the Seleucid phalanx, and the phalanx was unable to advance, putting itself in a vulnerable situation that the Parthians could exploit, creating

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6240-458: The Seleucids once again failed to completely neutralize the Parni threat. In 247 BCE, the Seleucid satrap of Parthia , Andragoras revolted and declared independence in Parthia. By the early 230s BCE, Arsaces had recovered from his setback in Margiana , and in 238 BCE, he invaded the now independent Parthia. Arsaces I was able to defeat and kill Andragoras and establish a kingdom that would become

6360-471: The Seleucids ran into trouble trying to maintain such an extended realm, facing constant warfare against the other Hellenistic states in the west and with unrest amongst their Iranian peoples in the east. Taking advantage of the Seleucids' preoccupation with the wars against a Celtic invasion of Asia Minor in the west, and the chaos of the Third Syrian War around 245 BC, Diodotus and Andragoras ,

6480-581: The Siege of Sirynx, the Parthian army was exhausted. During the Siege of Sirynx, Arsaces remained active in the field but withdrew to the important city of Nisa in modern-day Turkmenistan to prepare for another siege. The prolonged campaign and hard fighting had encouraged Antiochus III to end the war against Parthia. Instead of engaging in another siege and removing Arsaces II from power, Antiochus decided to come to terms with him diplomatically. In 208 BCE, Arsaces II formally accepted Seleucid suzerainty and became

6600-489: The Soviet Central Asian Republics". An alternative method is to define the region based on ethnicity, and in particular, areas populated by Eastern Turkic , Eastern Iranian , or Mongolian peoples. These areas include Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region, the Turkic regions of southern Siberia , the five republics, and Afghan Turkestan . Afghanistan as a whole, the northern and western areas of Pakistan and

6720-599: The Soviet Union in 1991, the leaders of the four former Soviet Central Asian Republics met in Tashkent and declared that the definition of Central Asia should include Kazakhstan as well as the original four included by the Soviets. Since then, this has become the most common definition of Central Asia. In 1978, UNESCO defined the region as "Afghanistan, north-eastern Iran , Pakistan , northern India , western China, Mongolia and

6840-495: The Soviet Union to Central Asia and Siberia . According to Touraj Atabaki and Sanjyot Mehendale, "From 1959 to 1970, about two million people from various parts of the Soviet Union migrated to Central Asia, of which about one million moved to Kazakhstan." With the collapse of the Soviet Union , five countries gained independence, that is, Kazakhstan , Kyrgyzstan , Tajikistan , Turkmenistan , and Uzbekistan . The historian and Turkologist Peter B. Golden explains that without

6960-527: The Soviet Union. Afghanistan remained relatively independent of major influence by the Soviet Union until the Saur Revolution of 1978. The Soviet areas of Central Asia saw much industrialisation and construction of infrastructure , but also the suppression of local cultures, hundreds of thousands of deaths from failed collectivisation programmes, and a lasting legacy of ethnic tensions and environmental problems. Soviet authorities deported millions of people, including entire nationalities, from western areas of

7080-424: The Turkification of Central Asia, while extending its cultural influence. The Tang Chinese were defeated by the Abbasid Caliphate at the Battle of Talas in 751, marking the end of the Tang dynasty's western expansion and the 150 years of Chinese influence. The Tibetan Empire would take the chance to rule portions of Central Asia and South Asia. During the 13th and 14th centuries, the Mongols conquered and ruled

7200-411: The Turkmens have a large percentage from populations to the east, their main components are Central Asian. The study further suggests that both migration and linguistic assimilation helped to spread the Turkic languages in Eurasia. The Tang dynasty of China expanded westwards and controlled large parts of Central Asia, directly and indirectly through their Turkic vassals. Tang China actively supported

7320-492: The appearance of modernism, which took inspiration from the Russian avant-garde movement. Until the 1980s, Central Asian arts had developed along with general tendencies of Soviet arts. In the 90s, arts of the region underwent some significant changes. Institutionally speaking, some fields of arts were regulated by the birth of the art market, some stayed as representatives of official views, while many were sponsored by international organisations. The years of 1990–2000 were times for

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7440-539: The area from the Mediterranean Sea . Average monthly precipitation is very low from July to September, rises in autumn (October and November) and is highest in March or April, followed by swift drying in May and June. Winds can be strong, producing dust storms sometimes, especially toward the end of the summer in September and October. Specific cities that exemplify Central Asian climate patterns include Tashkent and Samarkand , Uzbekistan, Ashgabat , Turkmenistan, and Dushanbe , Tajikistan. The last of these represents one of

7560-561: The area. Modern-day Central Asia is home to a large population of European settlers , who mostly live in Kazakhstan: 7 million Russians, 500,000 Ukrainians , and about 170,000 Germans . During the Stalinist period, the forced deportation of Koreans in the Soviet Union resulted in a population of over 300,000 Koreans in the region. Central Asia has a population of about 72 million, in five countries: Kazakhstan (19 million), Kyrgyzstan (7 million), Tajikistan (10 million), Turkmenistan (6 million), and Uzbekistan (35 million). One of

7680-509: The case may be, the Seleucids were decisively defeated, as recorded by Justin : "and not long after, engaging with king Seleucus, who came to take vengeance on the revolters, he obtained a victory; and the Parthians observe the day on which it was gained with great solemnity, as the date of the commencement of their liberty." Ammianus similarly explains thus: After many glorious and valiant deeds, and after he [Arsaces I] had conquered Seleucus [I] Nicator [in reality, Seleucus II], successor of

7800-409: The city of Charax, southeast of present-day Tehran , in which he settled large numbers of Mardians. By capturing the Caspian Gates and Charax, Phraates created a staging ground that his successor could use for further expansion. Around this time, the king of the Seleucid Empire , Antiochus IV was suppressing the Maccabean revolt, however the rapid expansion of Phraates had drawn his attention. Because

7920-419: The conquest of Media by capturing the Caspian Gates and the city of Charax, which Mithridates could use to his advantage. During the 160s BCE, the king of the Seleucid Empire, Demetrius I , stationed generals in the east to secure and protect the eastern provinces from Parthian aggression. These generals were able to restore Seleucid rule in Persis and Elymais, respectively. Demetrius himself could not tend to

8040-423: The dangerous situation brewing in the east because of the rebellion of the Seleucid satrap Timarchus , complications with the Romans in Cappadocia in 159 BCE, the revolt of the Seleucid capital, Antioch , and a civil war against Alexander Balas in 152 BCE. Mithridates began his invasion of Media in 155 BCE; however, despite the absence of Demetrius I, the Parthian conquest of Media was slow and arduous due to

8160-442: The death of Antiochus IV altered the balance of power on the Iranian Plateau , and with the threat of the Seleucids temporarily thwarted, Mithridates I could focus on expanding the power and territory of Parthia . After the death of Antiochus' short-lived successor, Antiochus V , the Seleucid Empire descended into a series of devastating civil wars, which gave the Parthians the opportunity to expand their territory by conquering

8280-406: The diversion of water from rivers that feed them for irrigation and industrial purposes. Water is an extremely valuable resource in arid Central Asia and can lead to rather significant international disputes. Central Asia is bounded on the north by the forests of Siberia. The northern half of Central Asia (Kazakhstan) is the middle part of the Eurasian steppe . Westward the Kazakh steppe merges into

8400-401: The early 1990s, the Central Asian republics have gradually been moving from a state-controlled economy to a market economy. However, reform has been deliberately gradual and selective, as governments strive to limit the social cost and ameliorate living standards. All five countries are implementing structural reforms to improve competitiveness. Kazakhstan is the only CIS country to be included in

8520-440: The early 2000s, the Chinese government engaged in a series of human rights abuses against Uyghurs and other ethnic and religious minorities in Xinjiang . At the crossroads of Asia, shamanistic practices live alongside Buddhism . Thus, Yama , Lord of Death, was revered in Tibet as a spiritual guardian and judge. Mongolian Buddhism , in particular, was influenced by Tibetan Buddhism . The Qianlong Emperor of Qing China in

8640-453: The eastern border of Seleucid Media . Phriapatius died in 170 BCE, and his eldest son, Phraates I , became king of Parthia . Despite his reign only lasting three years, Phraates I contributed significantly to Parthia. Phraates I began his campaign by conquering Hyrcania from the Seleucids and then subduing a powerful nomadic Iranian tribe called the Mardians , who inhabited an area of

8760-603: The empire, bringing Armenia , Media, Atropatene , Elymais , and Persia back into the Seleucid fold. By the time of the invasion of Antiochus III, Arsaces I had died, and the throne passed to his son, Arsaces II ; however, he lacked the political and military savvy of his father. Arsaces had a tremendous military disadvantage and from the beginning of the Seleucid invasion, miscalculated and misjudged their objectives. Arsaces continued to make strategic errors, which led to his ultimate defeat. The invasion of Parthia began with Antiochus III outmaneuvering Arsaces II by crossing

8880-474: The entire Iranian Plateau and beyond, into Mesopotamia . Mithridates began his reign by launching a successful campaign against the Greco-Bactrian kingdom, which was ruled by Eucratides I , in the year 165 BCE. Mithridates defeated the Greco-Bactrians, annexed Ariana , Margiana , and western Bactria up to the city of Balkh , and vassalized the kingdom. With the Greco-Bactrians defeated and vassalized,

9000-609: The establishment of contemporary arts. In the region, many important international exhibitions are taking place, Central Asian art is represented in European and American museums, and the Central Asian Pavilion at the Venice Biennale has been organised since 2005. Equestrian sports are traditional in Central Asia, with disciplines like endurance riding , buzkashi , dzhigit and kyz kuu . The traditional game of Buzkashi

9120-487: The first geographers to mention Central Asia as a distinct region of the world was Alexander von Humboldt . The borders of Central Asia are subject to multiple definitions. Historically, political geography and culture have been two significant parameters widely used in scholarly definitions of Central Asia. Humboldt's definition comprised every country between 5° North and 5° South of the latitude 44.5°N. Humboldt mentions some geographic features of this region, which include

9240-458: The frequency and intensity of dust storms had grown (partly due to poor land use practices). Droughts have already become more likely, and their likelihood is expected to continue increasing with greater climate change. By 2050, people in the Amu Darya basin may be faced with severe water scarcity due to both climate and socioeconomic reasons. Although, during the golden age of Orientalism

9360-542: The full genome of Uzbeks and other Central Asian populations found that about ~27-60% of the Uzbek ancestry is derived from East Asian sources, with the remainder ancestry (~40–73%) being made up by European and Middle Eastern components. According to a recent study, the Kyrgyz, Kazakhs, Uzbeks, and Turkmens share more of their gene pool with various East Asian and Siberian populations than with West Asian or European populations, though

9480-656: The genetic makeup of Kazakhs. According to recent genetic genealogy testing, the genetic admixture of the Uzbeks clusters somewhere between the Iranian peoples and the Mongols . Another study shows that the Uzbeks are closely related to other Turkic peoples of Central Asia and rather distant from Iranian people. The study also analysed the maternal and paternal DNA haplogroups and shows that Turkic speaking groups are more homogenous than Iranian speaking groups. Genetic studies analyzing

9600-707: The great trading cities of Bokhara and Samarkand . The other great commercial city was Tashkent northwest of the mouth of the Ferghana valley. The land immediately north of the Oxus was called Transoxiana and also Sogdia , especially when referring to the Sogdian merchants who dominated the silk road trade. To the east, Dzungaria and the Tarim Basin were united into the Manchu-Chinese province of Xinjiang (Sinkiang; Hsin-kiang) about 1759. Caravans from China usually went along

9720-645: The imperial manipulations of the Russian Empire but above all the Soviet Union, the creation of said republics would have been impossible. In nearly all the new states, former Communist Party officials retained power as local strongmen. None of the new republics could be considered functional democracies in the early days of independence, although in recent years Kyrgyzstan, Kazakhstan and Mongolia have made further progress towards more open societies, unlike Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, and Turkmenistan, which have maintained many Soviet-style repressive tactics. Beginning in

9840-527: The initial years of his reign. He was met with the challenge of suppressing a revolt by the powerful satrap Molon , and had fought Ptolemy IV to a stalemate in the Fourth Syrian War . After matters in the west were settled, Antiochus began preparing for a campaign in the east of his empire to reconquer the newly independent states of Parthia and Bactria . There were several personal and geopolitical reasons for Antiochus' eastern campaign, namely to punish

9960-462: The king of the Seleucid Empire. The control of Media and the Zagros passes were essential if the Parthians were to expand further west and south. Media went on to become a center of Parthian power and wealth. After the conquest of Media , Mithridates made his brother Bagasis governor of the province. In 145 BCE, Mithridates returned east to deal with a succession crisis in the Parthian vassal state of

10080-497: The largest contiguous empire in recorded history. Most of Central Asia fell under the control of the Chagatai Khanate . The dominance of the nomads ended in the 16th century, as firearms allowed settled peoples to gain control of the region. Russia , China , and other powers expanded into the region and had captured the bulk of Central Asia by the end of the 19th century. The Qing dynasty gained control of East Turkestan in

10200-418: The mountain skirmishes, Arsaces decided to withdraw his army and regroup at the summit of a mountain pass. Arsaces II chose to make a stand at Mount Labus because the terrain allowed him to implement his cavalry. The Parthian and Seleucid armies met and fought for an entire day. Arsaces' objective was to split the Seleucid phalanx from the main body of the Seleucid army so that it could be destroyed, defeating

10320-566: The north or south side of the Tarim basin and joined at Kashgar before crossing the mountains northwest to Ferghana or southwest to Bactria. A minor branch of the silk road went north of the Tian Shan through Dzungaria and Zhetysu before turning southwest near Tashkent. Nomadic migrations usually moved from Mongolia through Dzungaria before turning southwest to conquer the settled lands or continuing west toward Europe. The Kyzyl Kum Desert or semi-desert

10440-456: The perceived strength of the Parthians enough so that Demetrius was reportedly very confident that his eastern campaign would be successful and that he would be able to reconquer Babylonia and Media swiftly. Moreover, a victorious campaign would have given him legitimacy as the king needed to recruit troops in Syria to continue the civil war and would have boosted his prestige, wealth, and resources tremendously. In 139 BCE, while Mithridates I

10560-405: The place of Central Asia in the world history was marginalised, contemporary historiography has rediscovered the "centrality" of the Central Asia. The history of Central Asia is defined by the area's climate and geography. The aridness of the region made agriculture difficult, and its distance from the sea cut it off from much trade. Thus, few major cities developed in the region; instead, the area

10680-513: The region landlocked from water, including Afghanistan , Khorasan (Northeast Iran), Kyrgyzstan , Tajikistan , Turkmenistan , Uyghuristan (Xinjiang), Mongolia , and Uzbekistan . Russian culture has two distinct terms: Средняя Азия ( Srednyaya Aziya or "Middle Asia", the narrower definition, which includes only those traditionally non-Slavic, Central Asian lands that were incorporated within those borders of historical Russia) and Центральная Азия ( Tsentralnaya Aziya or "Central Asia",

10800-712: The region under Mongolian influence, which had "enormous demographic success", but did not impact the cultural or linguistic landscape. Once populated by Iranian tribes and other Indo-European speaking people , Central Asia experienced numerous invasions emanating out of Southern Siberia and Mongolia that would drastically affect the region. Genetic data shows that the different Central Asian Turkic-speaking peoples have between ~22% and ~70% East Asian ancestry (represented by "Baikal hunter-gatherer ancestry" shared with other Northeast Asians and Eastern Siberians), in contrast to Iranian-speaking Central Asians, specifically Tajiks , which display genetic continuity to Indo-Iranians of

10920-663: The region's cities. Major rivers of the region include the Amu Darya , the Syr Darya , Irtysh , the Hari River and the Murghab River . Major bodies of water include the Aral Sea and Lake Balkhash , both of which are part of the huge west-central Asian endorheic basin that also includes the Caspian Sea . Both of these bodies of water have shrunk significantly in recent decades due to

11040-625: The rise of prosperous trade cities. acting as a crossroads for the movement of people, goods, and ideas between Europe and the Far East . Most countries in Central Asia are still integral to parts of the world economy. From the mid-19th century until near the end of the 20th century, Central Asia was colonised by the Russians , and incorporated into the Russian Empire , and later the Soviet Union , which led to Russians and other Slavs migrating into

11160-582: The said Alexander [the Great], on whom his many victories had conferred that surname, and [after Arsaces] had driven out the Macedonian [that is, the Seleucid] garrisons [from Parthia], he passed his life in quiet peace, and was a mild ruler and judge of his subjects." Whether Seleucus was captured or not, he eventually was able to return west and resume the civil war against Antiochus Hierax. It appears that Seleucus

11280-409: The same time, Persis and Elymais once again revolted and became independent states of their own. In the year 141 BCE, Mithridates decided to strike at a crucial Seleucid territory, Babylonia . Mithridates successfully conquered Babylonia without much resistance and triumphantly entered Babylon . Babylonia offered immense wealth and prestige to the Parthians and would serve as a center of power for

11400-551: The satrap of Bactria and Sogdiana , to neutralize the Parni threat. Demodamas launched his campaign, defeated the Parni in Margiana, and restored Seleucid rule in the region. The military capabilities of the Parni had been weakened as a result of the Seleucid retaliation and victory; however, after Demodamas restored the territorial integrity of the Seleucids in Central Asia , he ended his campaign abruptly and failed to fully neutralize

11520-461: The semi-nomadic Scythians and Dahae . As the result of Turkic migration , Central Asia also became the homeland for the Kazakhs , Kyrgyzs , Tatars , Turkmens , Uyghurs , and Uzbeks ; Turkic languages largely replaced the Iranian languages spoken in the area, with the exception of Tajikistan and areas where Tajik is spoken. The Silk Road trade routes crossed through Central Asia, leading to

11640-475: The situation for Antiochus, who had hoped to deal with Parthian affairs and march against Bactria. Arsaces had hoped to gain the initiative and overwhelm the Seleucid army in the mountainous region of Hyrcania. Unfortunately for the Parthians, the rugged terrain nullified the traditional advantages of a Parthian army, namely mobility and speed. The Parthian army was forced to begin dismounting cavalry and acting as infantry. Antiochus wasted no time and began pursuing

11760-619: The south is Bactria , later called Tocharistan, which is bounded on the south by the Hindu Kush mountains of Afghanistan. The Syr Darya (Jaxartes) rises in the Ferghana valley and the Amu Darya (Oxus) rises in Bactria. Both flow northwest into the Aral Sea . Where the Oxus meets the Aral Sea it forms a large delta called Khwarazm and later the Khanate of Khiva . North of the Oxus is the less-famous but equally important Zarafshan River which waters

11880-613: The steppes of Eastern Europe as a homogeneous geographical zone known as the Eurasian Steppe . Much of the land of Central Asia is too dry or too rugged for farming. The Gobi Desert extends from the foot of the Pamirs , 77° E, to the Great Khingan (Da Hinggan) Mountains, 116°–118° E. Central Asia has the following geographic extremes: A majority of the people earn a living by herding livestock. Industrial activity centers in

12000-494: The stiff and determined resistance of the Seleucid generals. The campaign eventually devolved into a war of attrition, with both sides making little progress. Sometime during his campaign in Media, Mithridates also conquered and subjugated the kingdom of Media Atropatene . In the year 150 BCE, Demetrius I was defeated and killed in battle by Alexander Balas, who became the next Seleucid king. Although Alexander defeated Demetrius, his reign

12120-412: The sudden death of Antiochus III in 187 BCE, Arsaces II took advantage of Seleucid weakness and reoccupied Hecatompylus and began minting coins in his name, asserting Parthia's independence once again. Arsaces II died in 181 BCE, and the throne passed to Phriapatius , the son of a brother of Arsaces II. During his fifteen-year reign, Phriapatius strengthened the Parthian army and launched attacks on

12240-474: The terms proposed by Antiochus. The Seleucid army was then dispersed into winter quarters. Seeing an opportunity to strike, the Parthians, under Phraates II , defeated and killed Antiochus at the Battle of Ecbatana in 129 BC, and proceeded to destroy and capture the rest of his massive army, thus ending the Seleucids' attempt to retake Persia. The loss of so much territory sent the already enfeebled empire into

12360-516: The vassalage, he then proceeded to Elymais to plunder the temple of the goddess Inanna to fund his campaign, but was repulsed by the local people. Antiochus then attempted to loot the region surrounding the old Achaemenid royal city of Persepolis , but again was driven back by the local people. These series of failures derailed Antiochus' campaign. Not long later, Antiochus died sometime between 20 November and 18 December, 164 BCE, near modern Isfahan . The sudden expansion of Phraates I and

12480-569: The war would eventually lead to clashes with the Roman Empire . The Roman–Parthian Wars would embroil these ancient empires until the 3rd century. Central Asia Central Asia is a region of Asia bounded by the Caspian Sea to the southwest, European Russia to the northwest, Western China and Mongolia to the east, Afghanistan and Iran to the south, and Siberia to the north. It includes Kazakhstan , Kyrgyzstan , Tajikistan , Turkmenistan , and Uzbekistan . The countries as

12600-549: The western Central Asian regions were incorporated into the Soviet Union . The eastern part of Central Asia, known as Xinjiang , was incorporated into the People's Republic of China , having been previously ruled by the Qing dynasty and the Republic of China . Mongolia gained its independence from China and has remained independent but became a Soviet satellite state until the dissolution of

12720-499: The wettest climates in Central Asia, with an average annual precipitation of over 560 mm (22 inches). Biogeographically, Central Asia is part of the Palearctic realm . The largest biome in Central Asia is the temperate grasslands, savannas, and shrublands biome. Central Asia also contains the montane grasslands and shrublands , deserts and xeric shrublands and temperate coniferous forests biomes. As of 2022, there has been

12840-404: The wider definition, which includes Central Asian lands that have never been part of historical Russia). The latter definition includes Afghanistan and ' East Turkestan '. The most limited definition was the official one of the Soviet Union , which defined Middle Asia as consisting solely of Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan, omitting Kazakhstan . Soon after the dissolution of

12960-402: Was a heavily fortified city that had three moats, six wooden walls, and a strong citadel. Arsaces garrisoned a portion of his remaining army in the city for its defense, but he himself was not in the city. Antiochus besieged the city and mounted frontal assaults along with tunnelling efforts. The Parthians fought desperately and dug counter tunnels; however, the full force of the Seleucid engineers

13080-653: Was achieved was most probably due to the influence of the Silk Road , which traveled along Central Asia. Periodically, great leaders or changing conditions would organise several tribes into one force and create an almost unstoppable power. These included the Hun invasion of Europe, the Five Barbarians rebellions in China and most notably the Mongol conquest of much of Eurasia . During pre-Islamic and early Islamic times, Central Asia

13200-527: Was also dominated by western affairs, and he was unable to respond to the Parthians in Media. In the year 147 BCE, Media finally fell to the Parthians. In the same year, the son of Demetrius I, Demetrius II , arrived in Syria with an army and the support of the king of Ptolemaic Egypt , Ptolemy VI , to contest the rule of Alexander. In 145 BCE, Alexander Balas was defeated in battle by Demetrius and Ptolemy, and he would be assassinated shortly after, making Demetrius II

13320-452: Was captured by the Parthians. The capture of Demetrius by the Parthians was a great boon for the prestige of the Arsacid dynasty while being a devastating blow to the influence, power, and prestige of the Seleucids. Mithridates proceeded to parade Demetrius from city to city, demonstrating his victory over the Seleucids and as a symbol of his power. Demetrius was treated fairly and with honor by

13440-429: Was eventually able to overpower the Parthians. The siege likely lasted for weeks. The Parthians fought frantically and hard until the inner wall began to fall. The remaining Parthian soldiers attempted a breakout but lacked enough forces to succeed. With the defense's falling and the city being demolished, the Parthian soldiers began preparing for a final assault on the Seleucid siege lines. The Parthian soldiers feared that

13560-408: Was for millennia dominated by the nomadic horse peoples of the steppe . Relations between the steppe nomads and the settled people in and around Central Asia were long marked by conflict. The nomadic lifestyle was well suited to warfare , and the steppe horse riders became some of the most militarily potent people in the world, limited only by their lack of internal unity. Any internal unity that

13680-523: Was forced to acquiesce to Arsaces and leave Parthia to its devices. Despite their recent victory, Parthian control remained fragile. The campaign of Seleucus II had ended with the ultimate defeat of the Seleucids, but later Seleucid kings had ambitions to restore their hegemony in the east. Antiochus III the Great became king of the Seleucid Empire after his father, Seleucus II, had died in 225 BCE and his brother, Seleucus III , had been assassinated in 222 BCE. Antiochus faced several challenges during

13800-431: Was forced to leave Babylonia and rapidly return east for unknown reasons. During this time, The Elymaens perceiving Parthian weakness, took the opportunity to invade Babylonia and wreak havoc on the region, burning the city of Apamea . Mithridates was forced to return west to respond to the sudden Elymaen aggression. Mithridates defeated the Elymaens in battle significantly enough to weaken their military capabilities for

13920-579: Was increasingly necessary. After the death of his father, Antiochus II , in 246 BCE, Seleucus II succeeded him as ruler but was unable to respond to the Parthian threat because of an ongoing civil war with his brother, Antiochus Hierax , in the west. Eventually, the two brothers reached a truce in 236 BCE, and Seleucus was able to begin an expedition against the Parthians in 235 BCE. Seleucus began his campaign by settling affairs in Babylonia and Media before marching on Parthia. Once Seleucus eventually reached Parthia, Arsaces withdrew into Central Asia in

14040-596: Was inhabited predominantly by speakers of Iranian languages . Among the ancient sedentary Iranian peoples , the Sogdians and Chorasmians played an important role, while Iranian peoples such as Scythians and the later on Alans lived a nomadic or semi-nomadic lifestyle. The main migration of Turkic peoples occurred between the 6th and 11th centuries, when they spread across most of Central Asia. The Eurasian Steppe slowly transitioned from Indo European and Iranian -speaking groups with dominant West-Eurasian ancestry to

14160-563: Was losing the skirmishes in order to inspire complacency and overconfidence in Demetrius. Meanwhile, Mithridates was marching through Media with the main Parthian army as Bagasis slowly drew Demetrius deeper into Babylonia. In the summer of 138 BCE, Mithridates suddenly arrived in Babylonia, catching Demetrius by surprise. The two forces proceeded to fight a battle in which the Seleucid army was annihilated. Demetrius attempted to flee from Babylonia but

14280-501: Was still in the east, Demetrius II invaded Babylonia. Bagasis was in charge of the defense of the region while he waited for the assistance of Mithridates. Bagasis, with a much smaller force, continuously harassed the Seleucid army in an attempt to coerce Demetrius into making mistakes while advancing deeper into Babylonia. Bagasis successfully stalled the Seleucids for an entire year by skirmishing and avoiding pitched battles. During this time, Bagasis intentionally made it appear as if he

14400-512: Was succeeded by his son, Phraates II . Seleucid power began to weaken after the defeat of Antiochus III at the hands of the Romans at the Battle of Magnesia which effectively broke Seleucid power and in particular the Seleucid army. After this defeat, Antiochus began an expedition into Iran, but was killed in Elymaïs . The Arsacids then took power in Parthia and declared their full independence from

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