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62-466: The parsnip ( Pastinaca sativa ) is a root vegetable closely related to carrot and parsley , all belonging to the flowering plant family Apiaceae . It is a biennial plant usually grown as an annual . Its long taproot has cream-colored skin and flesh, and, left in the ground to mature, becomes sweeter in flavor after winter frosts . In its first growing season, the plant has a rosette of pinnate , mid-green leaves. If unharvested, it produces

124-468: A style and an apical structure called a stigma that receives pollen. The word "pistil" comes from Latin pistillum meaning pestle . A sterile pistil in a male flower is referred to as a pistillode . The pistils of a flower are considered to be composed of one or more carpels . A carpel is the female reproductive part of the flower—usually composed of the style , and stigma (sometimes having its individual ovary , and sometimes connecting to

186-425: A black rot that kills the plant early. Watery soft rot, caused by Sclerotinia minor and S. sclerotiorum , causes the taproot to become soft and watery. A white or buff -coloured mould grows on the surface. The pathogen is most common in temperate and subtropical regions with a cool, wet season. Violet root rot caused by the fungus Helicobasidium purpureum sometimes affects the roots, covering them with

248-409: A broad stigmatic crest along the margin allows pollen tubes access along the surface and between hairs at the margins. Two kinds of fusion have been distinguished: postgenital fusion that can be observed during the development of flowers, and congenital fusion that cannot be observed i.e., fusions that occurred during phylogeny. But it is very difficult to distinguish fusion and non-fusion processes in

310-400: A conical or dome-shaped receptacle . In later lineages, carpels tend to be in whorls . The relationship of the other flower parts to the gynoecium can be an important systematic and taxonomic character. In some flowers, the stamens, petals, and sepals are often said to be "fused" into a "floral tube" or hypanthium . However, as Leins & Erbar (2010) pointed out, "the classical view that

372-431: A flowering stem topped by an umbel of small yellow flowers in its second growing season, later producing pale brown, flat, winged seeds. By this time, the stem has become woody, and the tap root inedible. Precautions should be taken when handling the stems and foliage, as parsnip sap can cause a skin rash or even blindness if exposed to sunlight after handling. The parsnip is native to Eurasia ; it has been used as

434-421: A hypanthium is present, but is either free from the gynoecium (in which case it may appear to be a cup or tube surrounding the gynoecium) or connected partly to the gynoecium (with the stamens, petals, and sepals attached to the hypanthium part of the way up the ovary). Perigynous flowers are often referred to as having a half-inferior ovary (or, sometimes, partially inferior or half-superior ). This arrangement

496-457: A purplish mat to which soil particles adhere. The leaves become distorted and discoloured, and the mycelium can spread through the soil between plants. Some weeds can harbour this fungus, and it is more prevalent in wet, acid conditions. Erysiphe heraclei causes a powdery mildew that can cause significant crop loss. Infestation by this causes results in the yellowing of the leaf and loss of foliage. Moderate temperatures and high humidity favor

558-443: A shared basal ovary) —and usually interpreted as modified leaves that bear structures called ovules , inside which egg cells ultimately form. A pistil may consist of one carpel (with its ovary, style and stigma); or it may comprise several carpels joined together to form a single ovary, the whole unit called a pistil. The gynoecium may present as one or more uni-carpellate pistils or as one multi-carpellate pistil. (The number of carpels

620-460: A similar function to a megasporophyll , but typically includes a stigma, and is fused, with ovules enclosed in the enlarged lower portion, the ovary. In some basal angiosperm lineages, Degeneriaceae and Winteraceae , a carpel begins as a shallow cup where the ovules develop with laminar placentation, on the upper surface of the carpel. The carpel eventually forms a folded, leaf-like structure, not fully sealed at its margins. No style exists, but

682-400: A stalked, integumented megasporangium (also called the nucellus ). Typically, one cell in the megasporangium undergoes meiosis resulting in one to four megaspores. These develop into a megagametophyte (often called the embryo sac) within the ovule. The megagametophyte typically develops a small number of cells, including two special cells, an egg cell and a binucleate central cell, which are

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744-528: A syncarpous gynoecium has a single style and stigma and a single locule in the ovary, it may be necessary to examine how the ovules are attached. Each carpel will usually have a distinct line of placentation where the ovules are attached. Pistils begin as small primordia on a floral apical meristem, forming later than, and closer to the (floral) apex than sepal, petal and stamen primordia. Morphological and molecular studies of pistil ontogeny reveal that carpels are most likely homologous to leaves. A carpel has

806-425: A syncarpous gynoecium, the "fused" ovaries of the constituent carpels may be referred to collectively as a single compound ovary. It can be a challenge to determine how many carpels fused to form a syncarpous gynoecium. If the styles and stigmas are distinct, they can usually be counted to determine the number of carpels. Within the compound ovary, the carpels may have distinct locules divided by walls called septa . If

868-401: A taste which, although not strong, is peculiar and not to everyone's liking." It is high in vitamins , antioxidants , and minerals (especially potassium ); and also contains both soluble and insoluble dietary fiber . Parsnips are best cultivated in deep, stone-free soil. The plant is attacked by the carrot fly and other insect pests, as well as viruses and fungal diseases, of which canker

930-423: A unitary intercalary meristem. Evolutionary developmental biology investigates such developmental processes that arise or change during evolution. If the hypanthium is absent, the flower is hypogynous , and the stamens, petals, and sepals are all attached to the receptacle below the gynoecium. Hypogynous flowers are often referred to as having a superior ovary . This is the typical arrangement in most flowers. If

992-617: A vegetable since antiquity and was cultivated by the Romans , although some confusion exists between parsnips and carrots in the literature of the time. It was used as a sweetener before the arrival of cane sugar in Europe. Parsnips are usually cooked but can also be eaten raw. The flesh has a sweet flavor, even more so than carrots, with the author Dorothy Hartley describing them as having, "the type of sweetness that mingles with honey and spice..." The food writer Alan Davidson remarks, "parsnip has

1054-481: A wine with a taste similar to Madeira . In Roman times, parsnips were believed to be an aphrodisiac . However, parsnips do not typically feature in modern Italian cooking. Instead, they are fed to pigs, particularly those bred to make Parma ham . A typical 100 g serving of parsnip provides 314 kilojoules (75 kilocalories) of food energy . Most parsnip cultivars consist of about 80% water, 5% sugar , 1% protein , 0.3% fat , and 5% dietary fiber . The parsnip

1116-536: Is apocarpous . If a gynoecium has multiple carpels "fused" into a single structure, it is syncarpous . A syncarpous gynoecium can sometimes appear very much like a monocarpous gynoecium. The degree of connation ("fusion") in a syncarpous gynoecium can vary. The carpels may be "fused" only at their bases, but retain separate styles and stigmas. The carpels may be "fused" entirely, except for retaining separate stigmas. Sometimes (e.g., Apocynaceae ) carpels are fused by their styles or stigmas but possess distinct ovaries. In

1178-407: Is by removing affected leaflets, whole leaves, or by chemical means. The crop can be attacked by larvae of the carrot fly ( Chamaepsila rosae ). This pest feeds on the outer layers of the root, burrowing its way inside later in the season. Seedlings may be killed while larger roots are spoiled. The damage done provides a point of entry for fungal rots and canker. The smell of bruised tissue attracts

1240-546: Is called the funiculus. Stigmas can vary from long and slender to globe-shaped to feathery. The stigma is the receptive tip of the carpel(s), which receives pollen at pollination and on which the pollen grain germinates . The stigma is adapted to catch and trap pollen, either by combining pollen of visiting insects or by various hairs, flaps, or sculpturings. The style and stigma of the flower are involved in most types of self incompatibility reactions. Self-incompatibility, if present, prevents fertilization by pollen from

1302-448: Is denoted by terms such as tricarpellate (three carpels).) Carpels are thought to be phylogenetically derived from ovule-bearing leaves or leaf homologues ( megasporophylls ), which evolved to form a closed structure containing the ovules. This structure is typically rolled and fused along the margin. Although many flowers satisfy the above definition of a carpel, there are also flowers that do not have carpels because in these flowers

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1364-430: Is especially common in abandoned yards, farmland, and along roadsides and other disturbed environments. The increasing abundance of this plant is a concern, particularly due to the plant's toxicity and increasing abundance in populated areas such as parks. Control is often carried out via chemical means, with glyphosate -containing herbicides considered effective. Zohary and Hopf note that the archaeological evidence for

1426-468: Is exposed. Polyynes can be found in Apiaceae vegetables such as parsnip, and they show cytotoxic activities. Parsnips resemble carrots and can be used in similar ways, but they have a sweeter taste, especially when cooked. They can be baked, boiled, pureed, roasted, fried, grilled, or steamed. When used in stews , soups , and casseroles , they give a rich flavour. In some cases, parsnips are boiled, and

1488-407: Is important in systematic research and identification of angiosperms , but can be the most challenging of the floral parts to interpret. Unlike (most) animals , plants grow new organs after embryogenesis , including new roots, leaves, and flowers. In the flowering plants, the gynoecium develops in the central region of the flower as a carpel or in groups of fused carpels. After fertilization,

1550-499: Is more resistant to breakage. The plant's apical meristem produces a rosette of pinnate leaves, each with several pairs of leaflets with toothed margins. The lower leaves have short stems, the upper ones are stemless , and the terminal leaves have three lobes. The leaves are once- or twice-pinnate with broad, ovate, sometimes lobed leaflets with toothed margins; they grow up to 40 centimetres (16 inches) long. The petioles are grooved and have sheathed bases. The floral stem develops in

1612-406: Is most commonly used as a collective term for the parts of a flower that produce ovules and ultimately develop into the fruit and seeds . The gynoecium is the innermost whorl of a flower; it consists of (one or more) pistils and is typically surrounded by the pollen -producing reproductive organs , the stamens , collectively called the androecium . The gynoecium is often referred to as

1674-517: Is particularly frequent in the rose family and saxifrages . Occasionally, the gynoecium is born on a stalk, called the gynophore , as in Isomeris arborea . Within the ovary, each ovule is born by a placenta or arises as a continuation of the floral apex. The placentas often occur in distinct lines called lines of placentation . In monocarpous or apocarpous gynoecia, there is typically a single line of placentation in each ovary. In syncarpous gynoecia,

1736-452: Is rich in vitamins and minerals and is particularly rich in potassium with 375 mg per 100 g. Several of the B-group vitamins are present, but levels of vitamin C are reduced in cooking. Since most of the vitamins and minerals are found close to the skin, many will be lost unless the root is finely peeled or cooked whole. During frosty weather, part of the starch is converted to sugar, and

1798-420: Is the most serious. The parsnip is a biennial plant with a rosette of roughly hairy leaves that have a pungent odor when crushed. Parsnips are grown for their fleshy, edible, cream-colored taproots . The roots are generally smooth, although lateral roots sometimes form. Most are narrowly conical, but some cultivars have a more bulbous shape, which generally tends to be favored by food processors as it

1860-741: Is traditionally a time of little to no harvesting. There are also season extension methods that can extend the harvest throughout the winter, mostly through the use of polytunnels . Starchy root vegetables are of particular economic importance as staple foods , especially in tropical regions . They overshadow cereals throughout much of Central and West Africa , as well as Oceania , in these areas being used directly or mashed to make foods such as fufu or poi . Gynoecium Gynoecium ( / ɡ aɪ ˈ n iː s i . ə m , dʒ ɪ ˈ n iː ʃ i . ə m / ; from Ancient Greek γυνή ( gunḗ )  'woman, female' and οἶκος ( oîkos )  'house'; pl. : gynoecia )

1922-409: The gametes involved in double fertilization . The central cell, once fertilized by a sperm cell from the pollen becomes the first cell of the endosperm , and the egg cell once fertilized become the zygote that develops into the embryo . The gap in the integuments through which the pollen tube enters to deliver sperm to the egg is called the micropyle . The stalk attaching the ovule to the placenta

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1984-465: The " female " portion of the flower, although rather than directly producing female gametes (i.e. egg cells ), the gynoecium produces megaspores , each of which develops into a female gametophyte which then produces egg cells. The term gynoecium is also used by botanists to refer to a cluster of archegonia and any associated modified leaves or stems present on a gametophyte shoot in mosses , liverworts , and hornworts . The corresponding terms for

2046-555: The ancient cultivation of the parsnip is "still rather limited" and that Greek and Roman literary sources are a major source about its early use. They warn that "there are some difficulties in distinguishing between parsnip and carrot (which, in Roman times, were white or purple) in classical writings since both vegetables seem to have been called pastinaca in Latin , yet each vegetable appears to be well under cultivation in Roman times". This plant

2108-457: The crop to be lifted during frosty weather. Low soil temperatures cause some of the starches stored in the roots to be converted into sugars, giving them a sweeter taste. Parsnip leaves are sometimes tunnelled by the larvae of the celery fly ( Euleia heraclei ). Irregular, pale brown passages can be seen between the upper and lower surfaces of the leaves. The effects are most serious on young plants, as whole leaves may shrivel and die. Treatment

2170-415: The development of the disease. Several viruses are known to infect the plant, including seed-borne strawberry latent ringspot virus , parsnip yellow fleck virus , parsnip leaf curl virus , parsnip mosaic potyvirus , and potyvirus celery mosaic virus . The latter causes clearing or yellowing of the areas of the leaf immediately beside the veins, the appearance of ochre mosaic spots, and the crinkling of

2232-476: The evolution of flowering plants. Some processes that have been considered congenital (phylogenetic) fusions appear to be non-fusion processes such as, for example, the de novo formation of intercalary growth in a ring zone at or below the base of primordia. Therefore, "it is now increasingly acknowledged that the term 'fusion,' as applied to phylogeny (as in 'congenital fusion') is ill-advised." Basal angiosperm groups tend to have carpels arranged spirally around

2294-412: The fly. Parsnip is used as a food plant by the larvae of some lepidopteran species, including the parsnip swallowtail ( Papilio polyxenes ), the common swift moth ( Korscheltellus lupulina ), the garden dart moth ( Euxoa nigricans ), and the ghost moth ( Hepialus humuli ). The larvae of the parsnip moth ( Depressaria radiella ), native to Europe and accidentally introduced to North America in

2356-418: The form of carbohydrates . They differ in the concentration and balance of starches , sugars , and other carbohydrates. The following list classifies root vegetables organized by their roots' anatomy. Many root vegetables keep well in root cellars , lasting several months. This is one way of storing food for use long after harvest , which is especially important in nontropical latitudes , where winter

2418-407: The ground for planting of the vine' or pastus , meaning 'food'. The specific epithet sativa means 'sown'. While folk etymology sometimes assumes the name is a mix of parsley and turnip , it actually comes from Middle English pasnepe , alteration (influenced by nep , 'turnip') of Old French pasnaie (now panais ) from Latin pastinum , a kind of fork. The word's ending

2480-400: The gynoecium develops into a fruit that provides protection and nutrition for the developing seeds, and often aids in their dispersal. The gynoecium has several specialized tissues. The tissues of the gynoecium develop from genetic and hormonal interactions along three-major axes. These tissue arise from meristems that produce cells that differentiate into the different tissues that produce

2542-495: The hypanthium is present up to the base of the style(s), the flower is epigynous . In an epigynous flower, the stamens, petals, and sepals are attached to the hypanthium at the top of the ovary or, occasionally, the hypanthium may extend beyond the top of the ovary. Epigynous flowers are often referred to as having an inferior ovary . Plant families with epigynous flowers include orchids , asters , and evening primroses . Between these two extremes are perigynous flowers, in which

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2604-438: The latter produces short, forked roots. Parsnip seed significantly deteriorates in viability if stored for long. Seeds are usually planted in early spring, as soon as the ground can be worked to a fine tilth , in the position where the plants are to grow. The growing plants are thinned and kept weed-free. Harvesting begins in late fall after the first frost and continues through winter. The rows can be covered with straw to enable

2666-449: The latter, or even elevating it to species status as Pastinaca sylvestris . In Europe, various subspecies have been named based on characteristics such as the hairiness of the leaves, the extent to which the stems are angled or rounded, and the size and shape of the terminal umbel. The etymology of the generic name Pastinaca is not known with certainty but is probably derived from either the Latin word pastino , meaning 'to prepare

2728-602: The leaves in infected plants. The shoots and leaves of parsnip must be handled with care, as its sap contains furanocoumarins , phototoxic chemicals that cause blisters on the skin when it is exposed to sunlight, a condition known as phytophotodermatitis . It shares this property with many of its relatives in the carrot family . Symptoms include redness, burning, and blisters; afflicted areas can remain sensitive and discolored for up to two years. Reports of gardeners experiencing toxic symptoms after coming into contact with foliage have been made, but these have been small compared to

2790-436: The lines of placentation can be regularly spaced along the wall of the ovary ( parietal placentation ), or near the center of the ovary. In the latter case, separate terms are used depending on whether or not the ovary is divided into separate locules. If the ovary is divided, with the ovules born on a line of placentation at the inner angle of each locule, this is axile placentation . An ovary with free central placentation , on

2852-448: The male parts of those plants are clusters of antheridia within the androecium. Flowers that bear a gynoecium but no stamens are called pistillate or carpellate . Flowers lacking a gynoecium are called staminate. The gynoecium is often referred to as female because it gives rise to female (egg-producing) gametophytes; however, strictly speaking sporophytes do not have a sex, only gametophytes do. Gynoecium development and arrangement

2914-667: The mid-1800s, construct their webs on the umbels, feeding on flowers and partially developed seeds. Parsnip canker is a serious disease of this crop. Black or orange-brown patches occur around the root's crown and shoulders, accompanied by cracking and hardening of the flesh. It is more likely to occur when the seed is sown into cold, wet soil, the pH of the soil is too low, or the roots have already been damaged by carrot fly larvae. Several fungi are associated with canker, including Phoma complanata , Ilyonectria radicicola , Itersonilia pastinaceae , and I. perplexans . In Europe, Mycocentrospora acerina has been found to cause

2976-409: The name Pastinaca sativa . Like most plants of agricultural importance, several subspecies and varieties of P. sativa have been described, but these are mostly no longer recognized as independent taxa, but rather, morphological variations of the same taxon. In Eurasia, some authorities distinguish between cultivated and wild versions of parsnips by using subspecies P. s. sylvestris for

3038-602: The number of people who grow the crop. The problem is most likely to occur on a sunny day when gathering foliage or pulling up old plants that have gone to seed. The symptoms have mostly been mild to moderate. Risk can be reduced by wearing long pants and sleeves to avoid exposure, and avoiding sunlight after any suspected exposure. If eyes are exposed to the sap it can cause blindness. The toxic properties of parsnip extracts are resistant to heating and periods of storage lasting several months. Toxic symptoms can also affect livestock and poultry in parts of their bodies where their skin

3100-438: The other hand, consists of a single compartment without septae and the ovules are attached to a central column that arises directly from the floral apex (axis). In some cases a single ovule is attached to the bottom or top of the locule ( basal or apical placentation , respectively). In flowering plants, the ovule (from Latin ovulum meaning small egg) is a complex structure born inside ovaries. The ovule initially consists of

3162-444: The ovule(s), although enclosed, are borne directly on the floral apex. Therefore, the carpel has been redefined as an appendage that encloses ovule(s) and may or may not bear them. However, the most unobjectionable definition of the carpel is simply that of an appendage that encloses an ovule or ovules. If a gynoecium has a single carpel, it is called monocarpous . If a gynoecium has multiple, distinct (free, unfused) carpels, it

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3224-434: The parts of the gynoecium including the pistil, carpels, ovary, and ovules; the carpel margin meristem (arising from the carpel primordium ) produces the ovules , ovary septum, and the transmitting track, and plays a role in fusing the apical margins of carpels. The gynoecium may consist of one or more separate pistils. A pistil typically consists of an expanded basal portion called an ovary , an elongated section called

3286-539: The root tastes sweeter. The consumption of parsnips has potential health benefits. They contain antioxidants such as falcarinol , falcarindiol , panaxydiol, and methyl-falcarindiol, which may potentially have anticancer, anti-inflammatory and antifungal properties. The dietary fiber in parsnips is partly of the soluble and partly the insoluble type and comprises cellulose , hemicellulose , and lignin . The high fiber content of parsnips may help prevent constipation and reduce blood cholesterol levels. The parsnip

3348-490: The second year and can grow to more than 150 cm (60 in) tall. It is hairy, grooved, hollow (except at the nodes), and sparsely branched. It has a few stalkless, single-lobed leaves measuring 5 to 10 cm (2 to 4 in) long that are arranged in opposite pairs. The yellow flowers are in a loose, compound umbel measuring 10 to 20 cm (4 to 8 in) in diameter. Six to 25 straight pedicels are present, each measuring 2 to 5 cm (1 to 2 in) that support

3410-511: The slight morphological differences between the two, wild parsnip is the same taxon as the cultivated version, and the two readily cross-pollinate . The parsnip has a chromosome number of 2 n =22. Pastinaca sativa was first officially described by Carolus Linnaeus in his 1753 work Species Plantarum . It has acquired several synonyms in its taxonomic history: Several species from other genera ( Anethum , Elaphoboscum , Peucedanum , Selinum ) are likewise synonymous with

3472-464: The solid portions are removed from the soup or stew, leaving behind a more subtle flavour than the whole root and starch to thicken the dish. Roast parsnip is considered an essential part of Christmas dinner in some parts of the English-speaking world and frequently features in the traditional Sunday roast . Parsnips can also be fried or thinly sliced and made into crisps . They can be made into

3534-537: The umbellets (secondary umbels). The umbels and umbellets usually have no upper or lower bracts . The flowers have tiny sepals or lack them entirely, and measure about 3.5 millimetres ( 1 ⁄ 8  in). They consist of five yellow petals that are curled inward, five stamens , and one pistil . The fruits, or schizocarps , are oval and flat, with narrow wings and short, spreading styles . They are colored straw to light brown, and measure 4 to 8 mm ( 3 ⁄ 16 to 5 ⁄ 16  in) long. Despite

3596-407: The wall of the inferior ovary results from the "congenital" fusion of dorsal carpel flanks and the floral axis does not correspond to the ontogenetic processes that can actually be observed. All that can be seen is an intercalary growth in a broad circular zone that changes the shape of the floral axis (receptacle)." And what happened during evolution is not a phylogenetic fusion but the formation of

3658-454: Was changed to -nip by analogy with turnip because it was mistakenly assumed to be a kind of turnip. Like carrots, parsnips are native to Eurasia. The parsnip's popularity as a cultivated plant has led to its spread beyond its native range, and wild populations have become established in other parts of the world. A scattered population can be found throughout North America. The plant can form dense stands which outcompete native species and

3720-884: Was introduced to North America simultaneously by the French colonists in Canada and the British in the Thirteen Colonies for use as a root vegetable, but in the mid-19th century, it was replaced as the main source of starch by the potato and consequently was less widely cultivated. In 1859, a new cultivar called 'Student' was developed by James Buckman at the Royal Agricultural College in England . He back-crossed cultivated plants to wild stock, aiming to demonstrate how native plants could be improved by selective breeding. This experiment

3782-616: Was much esteemed in Rome, and Emperor Tiberius accepted part of the tribute payable to Rome by Germania in the form of parsnips. In Europe, the vegetable was used as a source of sugar before cane and beet sugars were available. As pastinache comuni , the "common" pastinaca figures in the long list of comestibles enjoyed by the Milanese given by Bonvesin da la Riva in his "Marvels of Milan" (1288). Root vegetable Root vegetables are generally storage organs , enlarged to store energy in

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3844-399: Was so successful 'Student' became the major variety in cultivation in the late 19th century. The wild parsnip from which the modern cultivated varieties were derived is a plant of dry, rough grassland and waste places, particularly on chalk and limestone soils. Parsnips are biennials, but are normally grown as annuals . Sandy and loamy soils are preferable to silt, clay, and stony ground;

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