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106-477: The papaya ( / p ə ˈ p aɪ ə / , US : / p ə ˈ p ɑː j ə / ), papaw , ( / p ə ˈ p ɔː / ) or pawpaw ( / ˈ p ɔː p ɔː / ) is the plant species Carica papaya , one of the 21 accepted species in the genus Carica of the family Caricaceae , and also the name of its fruit. It was first domesticated in Mesoamerica , within modern-day southern Mexico and Central America . It

212-698: A cot–caught merger , which is rapidly spreading throughout the whole country. However, the South, Inland North, and a Northeastern coastal corridor passing through Rhode Island, New York City, Philadelphia, and Baltimore typically preserve an older cot–caught distinction. For that Northeastern corridor, the realization of the THOUGHT vowel is particularly marked , as depicted in humorous spellings, like in tawk and cawfee ( talk and coffee ), which intend to represent it being tense and diphthongal : [oə] . A split of TRAP into two separate phonemes , using different

318-520: A pronunciations for example in gap [æ] versus gas [eə] , further defines New York City as well as Philadelphia–Baltimore accents. Most Americans preserve all historical /r/ sounds, using what is known as a rhotic accent . The only traditional r -dropping (or non-rhoticity) in regional U.S. accents variably appears today in eastern New England , New York City , and some of the former plantation South primarily among older speakers (and, relatedly, some African-American Vernacular English across

424-527: A 100-g amount, papaya fruit provides 43 kilocalories and is a significant source of vitamin C (75% of the Daily Value , DV) and a moderate source of folate (10% DV), but otherwise has a low content of nutrients (see table). Green papaya is used in Southeast Asian cooking, both raw and cooked. In some parts of Asia, the young leaves of the papaya are steamed and eaten like spinach . In Myanmar ,

530-616: A complex phenomenon of "both convergence and divergence": some accents are homogenizing and leveling , while others are diversifying and deviating further away from one another. Having been settled longer than the American West Coast, the East Coast has had more time to develop unique accents, and it currently comprises three or four linguistically significant regions, each of which possesses English varieties both different from each other as well as quite internally diverse: New England ,

636-447: A consonant, such as in pearl , car and fort . Non-rhotic American accents, those that do not pronounce ⟨r⟩ except before a vowel, such as some accents of Eastern New England , New York City , and African-Americans , and a specific few (often older ones) spoken by Southerners , are often quickly noticed by General American listeners and perceived as sounding especially ethnic, regional, or antiquated. Rhoticity

742-629: A cysteine protease used for tenderizing meat and other proteins, as practiced currently by indigenous Americans , people of the Caribbean region, Pacific Islands, and the Philippines . It is included as a component in some powdered meat tenderizers. Papaya is not suitable for foods which set due to gelatin (such as jelly or aspic ) because the enzymatic properties of papain prevent gelatin from setting. Raw papaya pulp contains 88% water, 11% carbohydrates , and negligible fat and protein (table). In

848-480: A long line of attempts to transfer resistance from Vasconcellea species into papaya. Carica papaya was the first transgenic fruit tree to have its genome sequenced. In response to the papaya ringspot virus outbreak in Hawaii in 1998, genetically altered papaya were approved and brought to market (including 'SunUp' and 'Rainbow' varieties.) Varieties resistant to PRV have some DNA of this virus incorporated into

954-586: A merger with the THOUGHT ( caught ) set. Having taken place prior to the unrounding of the cot vowel, it results in lengthening and perhaps raising, merging the more recently separated vowel into the THOUGHT vowel in the following environments: before many instances of /f/ , /θ/ , and particularly /s/ (as in Austria, cloth, cost, loss, off, often, etc.), a few instances before /ŋ/ (as in strong, long, wrong ), and variably by region or speaker in gone , on , and certain other words. Unlike American accents,

1060-401: A more dangerous strain. Conventional varieties of transgenic papaya has reduced resistance against heterologous (not closely related to the coat gene source) strains, forcing different localities to develop their own transgenic varieties. As of 2016, one transgenic line appears able to deal with three different heterologous strains in addition to its source. In 2022, global production of papayas

1166-636: A nice day , for sure); many are now distinctly old-fashioned (swell, groovy). Some English words now in general use, such as hijacking, disc jockey , boost, bulldoze and jazz , originated as American slang. American English has always shown a marked tendency to use words in different parts of speech and nouns are often used as verbs . Examples of nouns that are now also verbs are interview, advocate, vacuum, lobby, pressure, rear-end, transition, feature, profile, hashtag, head, divorce, loan, estimate, X-ray, spearhead, skyrocket, showcase, bad-mouth, vacation , major, and many others. Compounds coined in

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1272-475: A process of extensive dialect mixture and leveling in which English varieties across the colonies became more homogeneous compared with the varieties in Britain. English thus predominated in the colonies even by the end of the 17th century's first immigration of non-English speakers from Western Europe and Africa. Additionally, firsthand descriptions of a fairly uniform American English (particularly in contrast to

1378-657: A series of other vowel shifts in the same region, known by linguists as the " Inland North ". The Inland North shares with the Eastern New England dialect (including Boston accents ) a backer tongue positioning of the GOOSE /u/ vowel (to [u] ) and the MOUTH /aʊ/ vowel (to [ɑʊ~äʊ] ) in comparison to the rest of the country. Ranging from northern New England across the Great Lakes to Minnesota, another Northern regional marker

1484-542: A superior ovary and five contorted petals loosely connected at the base. Male and female flowers are borne in the leaf axils; the male flowers are in multiflowered dichasia , and the female ones are in few-flowered dichasia. The pollen grains are elongated and approximately 35 microns in length. The flowers are sweet-scented, open at night, and are wind- or insect-pollinated. The fruit is a large berry about 15–45 cm (6– 17 + 3 ⁄ 4  in) long and 10–30 cm (4– 11 + 3 ⁄ 4  in) in diameter. It

1590-514: A survey, completed in 2003, polling English speakers across the United States about their specific everyday word choices, hoping to identify regionalisms. The study found that most Americans prefer the term sub for a long sandwich, soda (but pop in the Great Lakes region and generic coke in the South) for a sweet and bubbly soft drink , you or you guys for the plural of you (but y'all in

1696-453: A variation of American English in these islands. In 2021, about 245 million Americans, aged 5 or above, spoke English at home: a majority of the United States total population of roughly 330 million people. The United States has never had an official language at the federal level, but English is commonly used at the federal level and in states without an official language. 32 of the 50 states, in some cases as part of what has been called

1802-492: Is ripe when it feels soft (as soft as a ripe avocado or softer) and its skin has attained an amber to orange hue. Along the walls of the large central cavity are attached numerous black seeds. Papaya skin, pulp, and seeds contain a variety of phytochemicals , including carotenoids and polyphenols , as well as benzyl isothiocyanates and benzyl glucosinates, with skin and pulp levels that increase during ripening. The carotenoids, lutein and beta-carotene , are prominent in

1908-642: Is also associated with the United States, perhaps mostly in the Midwest and the South. American accents that have not undergone the cot–caught merger (the lexical sets LOT and THOUGHT ) have instead retained a LOT – CLOTH split : a 17th-century distinction in which certain words (labeled as the CLOTH lexical set ) separated away from the LOT set. The split, which has now reversed in most British English, simultaneously shifts this relatively recent CLOTH set into

2014-637: Is also home to a creole language known commonly as Hawaiian Pidgin , and some Hawaii residents speak English with a Pidgin-influenced accent. American English also gave rise to some dialects outside the country, for example, Philippine English , beginning during the American occupation of the Philippines and subsequently the Insular Government of the Philippine Islands ; Thomasites first established

2120-464: Is an F1 hybrid, which is a cross between the yellow-fleshed Kapoho and the red-fleshed SunUp. Rainbow is produced on 76% of Hawaiian papaya acreage, while SunUp is hardly grown commercially. SunUp is thought to be more resistant to exotic strains of PRSV, while Rainbow has shown susceptibility to such exotic strains of the virus. Transgenic varieties have been shown to be extremely effective against Hawaiian strains of PRSV, showing complete resistance to

2226-526: Is common in most American accents despite being now rare in England because, during the 17th-century British colonization, nearly all dialects of English were rhotic, and most North American English simply remained that way. The preservation of rhoticity in North America was also supported by continuing waves of rhotic-accented Scotch-Irish immigrants, most intensely during the 18th century (and moderately during

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2332-488: Is grown in several countries in regions with a tropical climate. In 2022, India produced 38% of the world's supply of papayas. The word papaya derives from Arawak via Spanish , and is also the name for the plant. The name papaw or pawpaw is used alternatively for the fruit only in some regions. The papaya is a small, sparsely branched tree , usually with a single stem growing from 5 to 10 m (16 to 33 ft) tall, with spirally arranged leaves confined to

2438-640: Is marginal compared to transmission through aphid vectors. However, if infected seed survives, it could then function as a source on inoculum, which then could be spread by insect vectors. Disease transmission can also occur by planting infected seedlings in fields where the virus is not present. Using "clean", virus-free seedlings for planting is of very high importance. There is a known resistance to PRSV, although certain varieties are more symptomatic than others. There are four main methods of control for PRSV: quarantine and geographic displacement, roguing and netting, cross-protection, and genetic modification of

2544-514: Is not as severe as other diseases. The fungus-like oomycete Phytophthora causes damping-off, root rot , stem rot, stem girdling, and fruit rot. Damping-off happens in young plants by wilting and death. The spots on established plants start as white, water-soaked lesions at the fruit and branch scars. These spots enlarge and eventually cause death. The disease's most dangerous feature is the fruit's infection, which may be toxic to consumers. The roots can also be severely and rapidly infected, causing

2650-949: Is often given to Francisco de Paula Marín , a Spanish explorer and horticulturist, who brought it from the Marquesas Islands in the early 1800s. Since then, papaya cultivation has expanded to all tropical countries and many subtropical regions worldwide. Today, papaya is grown extensively across the globe, owing to its adaptability to various climates and its popularity as a tropical fruit. Papaya plants grow in three sexes: male, female, and hermaphrodite . The male produces only pollen , never fruit. The female produces small, inedible fruits unless pollinated. The hermaphrodite can self-pollinate since its flowers contain both male stamens and female ovaries . Almost all commercial papaya orchards contain only hermaphrodites. Originally from southern Mexico (particularly Chiapas and Veracruz ), Central America , northern South America , and southern Florida

2756-420: Is often identified by Americans as a "country" accent, and is defined by the /aɪ/ vowel losing its gliding quality : [aː] , the initiation event for a complicated Southern vowel shift, including a " Southern drawl " that makes short front vowels into distinct-sounding gliding vowels . The fronting of the vowels of GOOSE , GOAT , MOUTH , and STRUT tends to also define Southern accents as well as

2862-452: Is prohibitively expensive for subsistence and small-scale producers, but was used effectively in Taiwan because geographical displacement was not possible on such a small island. Cross protection is similar in practice, although not in mode of action, to viral vaccinations in humans. A mild strain of PRSV is introduced into the host plant, which then develops resistance to virulent strains of

2968-414: Is rarely done. Prevention through quarantine and geographic displacement of cropland is common and has occurred in Hawaii, the Philippines and Brazil. When fields become infected, such as the case of Oahu papaya growers, attempts to relocate growing areas to virus-free fields are made. This is usually just a temporary avoidance of the disease, which eventually spreads to the new fields. Roguing , or

3074-436: Is taste. As of 2010, the only way to protect papaya from this virus is genetic modification . The papaya mosaic virus destroys the plant until only a small tuft of leaves is left. The virus affects both the leaves of the plant and the fruit. Leaves show thin, irregular, dark-green lines around the borders and clear areas around the veins. The more severely affected leaves are irregular and linear in shape. The virus can infect

3180-518: Is the most widely spoken language in the United States ; an official language in 32 of the 50 U.S. states ; and the de facto common language used in government, education, and commerce throughout the nation. Since the late 20th century, American English has become the most influential form of English worldwide. Varieties of American English include many patterns of pronunciation, vocabulary, grammar and particularly spelling that are unified nationwide but distinct from other English dialects around

3286-551: Is the common language at home, in public, and in government. Papaya ringspot virus The virus is a non-enveloped, flexuous rod-shaped particle that is between 760–800 nm long and 12 nm in diameter. It is transmitted between plants by mechanical activities like pruning and by numerous aphid species such as Myzus persicae . No seed transmission has been detected. There are two major types of this virus, but both are serologically indistinguishable and are so closely genetically related that they are now considered

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3392-503: Is the only mobile immature life stage. The crawlers insert their mouthparts in the lower surfaces of the leaf when they find it suitable and usually do not move again in this stage. The next instars are flattened, oval, and scale-like. In the final stage, the pupal whiteflies are more convex, with large, conspicuously red eyes. Papayas are one of the most common hosts for fruit flies like A. suspensa , which lay their eggs in overripe or spoiled papayas. The larvae of these flies then consume

3498-583: Is the typical cylindrical inclusion (CI) which is considered diagnostic for the potyvirus group, and the other is called the amorphous inclusion (AI). The presence of both inclusions can be diagnostic for this virus. In squash, watermelon and other cucurbits, PRSV-W causes mottling and distortion of leaves and fruit. PRSV-W is considered to be one of the limiting factors in the growing of cucurbits in Florida. PRSV-W should not be confused with Watermelon mosaic virus 2 , another potyvirus that infects cucurbits around

3604-463: Is the variable fronting of /ɑ/ before /r/ , for example, appearing four times in the stereotypical Boston shibboleth Park the car in Harvard Yard . Several other phenomena serve to distinguish regional U.S. accents. Boston , Pittsburgh , Upper Midwestern , and Western U.S. accents have fully completed a merger of the LOT vowel with the THOUGHT vowel ( /ɑ/ and /ɔ/ , respectively):

3710-401: Is ubiquitous as a side dish to salty dishes. Nearly ripe papayas can also be eaten fresh as ensaladang papaya (papaya salad) or cubed and eaten dipped in vinegar or salt. Green papaya is also a common ingredient or filling in various savory dishes such as okoy , tinola , ginataan , lumpia , and empanada , especially in the cuisines of northern Luzon . In Indonesian cuisine ,

3816-513: The Calusa no later than AD 300. Spaniards introduced papaya to the Old World in the 16th century. Papaya cultivation is now nearly pantropical , spanning Hawaii, Central Africa, India, and Australia. Wild populations of papaya are generally confined to naturally disturbed tropical forests. Papaya is found in abundance on Everglades hammocks following major hurricanes, but is otherwise infrequent. In

3922-476: The English-only movement , have adopted legislation granting official or co-official status to English. Typically only "English" is specified, not a particular variety like American English. (From 1923 to 1969, the state of Illinois recognized its official language as "American", meaning American English.) Puerto Rico is the largest example of a United States territory in which another language – Spanish –

4028-608: The Mid-Atlantic states (including a New York accent as well as a unique Philadelphia–Baltimore accent ), and the South . As of the 20th century, the middle and eastern Great Lakes area , Chicago being the largest city with these speakers, also ushered in certain unique features, including the fronting of the LOT /ɑ/ vowel in the mouth toward [a] and tensing of the TRAP /æ/ vowel wholesale to [eə] . These sound changes have triggered

4134-544: The Native American languages . Examples of such names are opossum , raccoon , squash , moose (from Algonquian ), wigwam , and moccasin . American English speakers have integrated traditionally non-English terms and expressions into the mainstream cultural lexicon; for instance, en masse , from French ; cookie , from Dutch ; kindergarten from German , and rodeo from Spanish . Landscape features are often loanwords from French or Spanish, and

4240-714: The francophile tastes of the 19th century Victorian era Britain (for example they preferred programme for program , manoeuvre for maneuver , cheque for check , etc.). AmE almost always uses -ize in words like realize . BrE prefers -ise , but also uses -ize on occasion (see: Oxford spelling ). There are a few differences in punctuation rules. British English is more tolerant of run-on sentences , called " comma splices " in American English, and American English prefers that periods and commas be placed inside closing quotation marks even in cases in which British rules would place them outside. American English also favors

4346-759: The 18th century; apartment , shanty in the 19th century; project, condominium , townhouse , mobile home in the 20th century; and parts thereof ( driveway , breezeway, backyard ) . Industry and material innovations from the 19th century onwards provide distinctive new words, phrases, and idioms through railroading (see further at rail terminology ) and transportation terminology, ranging from types of roads ( dirt roads , freeways ) to infrastructure ( parking lot , overpass , rest area ), to automotive terminology often now standard in English internationally. Already existing English words—such as store , shop , lumber —underwent shifts in meaning; others remained in

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4452-534: The 20th century. The use of English in the United States is a result of British colonization of the Americas . The first wave of English-speaking settlers arrived in North America during the early 17th century, followed by further migrations in the 18th and 19th centuries. During the 17th and 18th centuries, dialects from many different regions of England and the British Isles existed in every American colony, allowing

4558-399: The Americas within the last 300 years. Papayas were introduced to India only 500 years ago, at which point the virus made the jump from cucurbits . However, the virus has switched back and forth between pathotypes many times in its evolution. Symptoms are typical of viral diseases. Papaya exhibits yellowing, leaf distortion, and severe mosaic. Oily or water-soaked spots and streaks appear on

4664-622: The British form is a back-formation , such as AmE burglarize and BrE burgle (from burglar ). However, while individuals usually use one or the other, both forms will be widely understood and mostly used alongside each other within the two systems. While written American English is largely standardized across the country and spoken American English dialects are highly mutually intelligible, there are still several recognizable regional and ethnic accents and lexical distinctions. The regional sounds of present-day American English are reportedly engaged in

4770-413: The East Coast (perhaps in imitation of 19th-century London speech), even the East Coast has gradually begun to restore rhoticity, due to it becoming nationally prestigious in the 20th century. The pronunciation of ⟨r⟩ is a postalveolar approximant [ ɹ̠ ] or retroflex approximant [ ɻ ] , but a unique "bunched tongue" variant of the approximant r sound

4876-565: The Inland North. Rather than one particular accent, General American is best defined as an umbrella covering an American accent that does not incorporate features associated with some particular region, ethnicity, or socioeconomic group. Typical General American features include rhoticity , the father–bother merger , Mary–marry–merry merger , pre-nasal "short a " tensing , and other particular vowel sounds . General American features are embraced most by Americans who are highly educated or in

4982-923: The Puna region had been affected. This is a local industry worth $ 11 million annually. Papaya is grown for personal consumption by small subsistence farmers in parts of Southeast Asia, with small surpluses sold at market. PRSV is the biggest constraint to papaya production in the Philippines. In 1994, PRSV damage had destroyed 60 million pesos worth of papaya production in the Southern Tagalog area, and had reduced production levels by 80%. Brazil accounts for nearly half of global output, with India second and Nigeria third in worldwide production. Dramatic geographical shifts of production to avoid PRSV have been common. For example, between 1973 and 1984, papaya production moved substantially in Brazil away from Rio de Janeiro and São Paulo to

5088-560: The South), sneakers for athletic shoes (but often tennis shoes outside the Northeast), and shopping cart for a cart used for carrying supermarket goods. American English and British English (BrE) often differ at the levels of phonology, phonetics, vocabulary, and, to a much lesser extent, grammar and orthography. The first large American dictionary, An American Dictionary of the English Language , known as Webster's Dictionary ,

5194-528: The U.S. Several verbs ending in -ize are of U.S. origin; for example, fetishize, prioritize, burglarize, accessorize, weatherize , etc.; and so are some back-formations (locate, fine-tune, curate, donate, emote, upholster and enthuse). Among syntactic constructions that arose are outside of, headed for, meet up with, back of, etc. Americanisms formed by alteration of some existing words include notably pesky, phony, rambunctious, buddy, sundae , skeeter, sashay and kitty-corner. Adjectives that arose in

5300-563: The U.S. are for instance foothill , landslide (in all senses), backdrop , teenager , brainstorm , bandwagon , hitchhike , smalltime, and a huge number of others. Other compound words have been founded based on industrialization and the wave of the automobile: five-passenger car, four-door sedan, two-door sedan, and station-wagon (called an estate car in British English). Some are euphemistic ( human resources , affirmative action , correctional facility ). Many compound nouns have

5406-662: The U.S. are, for example, lengthy, bossy, cute and cutesy, punk (in all senses), sticky (of the weather), through (as in "finished"), and many colloquial forms such as peppy or wacky . A number of words and meanings that originated in Middle English or Early Modern English and that have been in everyday use in the United States have since disappeared in most varieties of British English; some of these have cognates in Lowland Scots . Terms such as fall ("autumn"), faucet ("tap"), diaper ("nappy"; itself unused in

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5512-530: The U.S. while changing in Britain. Science, urbanization, and democracy have been important factors in bringing about changes in the written and spoken language of the United States. From the world of business and finance came new terms ( merger , downsize , bottom line ), from sports and gambling terminology came, specific jargon aside, common everyday American idioms, including many idioms related to baseball . The names of some American inventions remained largely confined to North America ( elevator [except in

5618-427: The U.S.), candy ("sweets"), skillet , eyeglasses , and obligate are often regarded as Americanisms. Fall for example came to denote the season in 16th century England, a contraction of Middle English expressions like "fall of the leaf" and "fall of the year." Gotten ( past participle of get ) is often considered to be largely an Americanism. Other words and meanings were brought back to Britain from

5724-592: The U.S., especially in the second half of the 20th century; these include hire ("to employ"), I guess (famously criticized by H. W. Fowler ), baggage , hit (a place), and the adverbs overly and presently ("currently"). Some of these, for example, monkey wrench and wastebasket , originated in 19th century Britain. The adjectives mad meaning "angry", smart meaning "intelligent", and sick meaning "ill" are also more frequent in American (and Irish) English than British English. Linguist Bert Vaux created

5830-531: The United States and the United Kingdom suggest that, while spoken American English deviated away from period British English in many ways, it is conservative in a few other ways, preserving certain features 21st-century British English has since lost. Full rhoticity (or "R-fulness") is typical of American accents, pronouncing the phoneme /r/ (corresponding to the letter ⟨r⟩ ) in all environments, including in syllable-final position or before

5936-602: The United States. PRSV-W isolates have been found in the United States, the Caribbean , Mexico, Italy, Germany, Australia, France, India, the Middle East , and South America . Using genetic phylogeny studies, researchers suspect the virus originated in Asia, likely India, about 2,250 years ago. From there it slowly spread through the continent reaching China about 600 years ago. It was also introduced directly from India to Australia and

6042-596: The West and Midwest, and New York Latino English , spoken in the New York metropolitan area . Additionally, ethnic varieties such as Yeshiva English and " Yinglish " are spoken by some American Orthodox Jews , Cajun Vernacular English by some Cajuns in southern Louisiana , and Pennsylvania Dutch English by some Pennsylvania Dutch people. American Indian Englishes have been documented among diverse Indian tribes. The island state of Hawaii , though primarily English-speaking,

6148-547: The accents spoken in the " Midland ": a vast band of the country that constitutes an intermediate dialect region between the traditional North and South. Western U.S. accents mostly fall under the General American spectrum. Below, ten major American English accents are defined by their particular combinations of certain vowel sounds: In 2010, William Labov noted that Great Lakes, Philadelphia, Pittsburgh, and West Coast accents have undergone "vigorous new sound changes" since

6254-505: The aeronautical sense ], gasoline ) as did certain automotive terms ( truck , trunk ). New foreign loanwords came with 19th and early 20th century European immigration to the U.S.; notably, from Yiddish ( chutzpah , schmooze, bupkis, glitch ) and German ( hamburger , wiener ). A large number of English colloquialisms from various periods are American in origin; some have lost their American flavor (from OK and cool to nerd and 24/7 ), while others have not ( have

6360-609: The capsid protein of PRSV-W. Aphids are the predominant means by which PRSV is transmitted. PRSV is a non-persistent virus, meaning it does not enter beyond the feeding mouthparts of the aphid, and does not circulate or multiply within its insect host. Non-persistent viruses are transmitted quickly and easily between plants. Many species of aphid can transmit PRSV, particularly the Peach Aphid and Melon Aphid. Seed transmission has been observed at rates of 2 infected second generation plants out of 1355. This method of transmission

6466-596: The case for deregulation was adopted by University of Hawaii researchers. The university was highly motivated to help save the Hawaiian papaya industry, and consequently took a leading role in pushing for commercialization of the fruit. Japan is 20% of Hawaii's export market. Japan had been resistant to approve GMO papaya since its introduction in 1998. As of 2011, the Rainbow transgenic papaya has been approved for export to Japan. So far in Hawaii, there has been no breakdown of

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6572-587: The coat protein resistance encoded in transgenic strains of papaya. Exposure to foreign strains of the virus is a serious risk, as Rainbow papayas have been shown to be susceptible to PRSV from Guam, Taiwan and Thailand. One new transgenic line appears resistant to PRSV from multiple localities. There is a long line of attempts to transfer PRSV-resistance from Vasconcellea spp. into papaya. Fertile resistant hybrid plants have been produced but are not known to be commercialized. In Hawaii, PRSV has had dramatic effects. Between 1992 and 1997, nearly all fields in

6678-406: The country), though the vowel-consonant cluster found in "bird", "work", "hurt", "learn", etc. usually retains its r pronunciation, even in these non-rhotic American accents. Non-rhoticity among such speakers is presumed to have arisen from their upper classes' close historical contact with England, imitating London's r -dropping, a feature that has continued to gain prestige throughout England from

6784-614: The diverse regional dialects of British English) became common after the mid-18th century, while at the same time speakers' identification with this new variety increased. Since the 18th century, American English has developed into some new varieties, including regional dialects that retain minor influences from waves of immigrant speakers of diverse languages, primarily European languages. Some racial and regional variation in American English reflects these groups' geographic settlement, their de jure or de facto segregation, and patterns in their resettlement. This can be seen, for example, in

6890-742: The double quotation mark ("like this") over the single ('as here'). Vocabulary differences vary by region. For example, autumn is used more commonly in the United Kingdom, whereas fall is more common in American English. Some other differences include: aerial (United Kingdom) vs. antenna, biscuit (United Kingdom) vs. cookie/cracker, car park (United Kingdom) vs. parking lot, caravan (United Kingdom) vs. trailer, city centre (United Kingdom) vs. downtown, flat (United Kingdom) vs. apartment, fringe (United Kingdom) vs. bangs, and holiday (United Kingdom) vs. vacation. AmE sometimes favors words that are morphologically more complex, whereas BrE uses clipped forms, such as AmE transportation and BrE transport or where

6996-412: The enzyme papain acts as an allergen in sensitive individuals, meat that has been tenderized with it may induce an allergic reaction . The ripe fruit of the papaya is usually eaten raw, without skin or seeds . The black seeds are edible and have a sharp, spicy taste. The unripe green fruit is usually cooked due to its latex content. Both green papaya fruit and its latex are rich in papain,

7102-510: The following two centuries) when this ethnic group eventually made up one-seventh of the colonial population. Scotch-Irish settlers spread from Delaware and Pennsylvania throughout the larger Mid-Atlantic region, the inland regions of both the South and North, and throughout the West: American dialect areas that were all uninfluenced by upper-class non-rhoticity and that consequently have remained consistently rhotic. While non-rhoticity spread on

7208-431: The fruit at any stage of its maturity. Fruits as young as two weeks old have been spotted with dark-green ringspots about 1 inch (25 mm) in diameter. Rings on the fruit are most likely seen on either the stem end or the blossom end. In the early stages of the ringspots, the rings tend to be many closed circles, but as the disease develops, the rings increase in diameter consisting of one large ring. The difference between

7314-568: The fruit to gain nutrients until they can proceed into the pupal stage. This parasitism has led to extensive economic costs for nations in Central America. Historical accounts from 18th-century travelers and botanists suggested that papaya seeds were transported from the Caribbean to Malacca and then to India. From Malacca or the Philippines, papaya spread throughout Asia and into the South Pacific region. Credit for introducing papaya to Hawaii

7420-418: The fungus grows into the fruit. The fungus powdery mildew occurs as a superficial white presence on the leaf's surface, which is easily recognized. Tiny, light yellow spots begin on the lower surfaces of the leaf as the disease starts to make its way. The spots enlarge, and white powdery growth appears on the leaves. The infection usually appears at the upper leaf surface as white fungal growth. Powdery mildew

7526-410: The ground after the papaya fruit fly infestation. The two-spotted spider mite is a 0.5-mm-long brown or orange-red or a green, greenish-yellow translucent oval pest. They all have needle-like piercing-sucking mouthparts and feed by piercing the plant tissue with their mouthparts, usually on the underside of the plant. The spider mites spin fine threads of webbing on the host plant, and when they remove

7632-939: The hospital , BrE to hospital ; contrast, however, AmE actress Elizabeth Taylor , BrE the actress Elizabeth Taylor ). Often, these differences are a matter of relative preferences rather than absolute rules; and most are not stable since the two varieties are constantly influencing each other, and American English is not a standardized set of dialects. Differences in orthography are also minor. The main differences are that American English usually uses spellings such as flavor for British flavour , fiber for fibre , defense for defence , analyze for analyse , license for licence , catalog for catalogue and traveling for travelling . Noah Webster popularized such spellings in America, but he did not invent most of them. Rather, "he chose already existing options on such grounds as simplicity, analogy or etymology." Other differences are due to

7738-456: The host plant. Because PRSV is a non-persistent virus and is consequently transmitted to healthy plants by aphids within a very short time period, insecticidal control is difficult and impractical. Once symptoms have been observed, it is already too late to spray for aphids – the disease has most likely already been transmitted to nearby healthy plants. In order to implement successful vector control, frequent preventative sprays are required, which

7844-656: The influence of 18th-century Protestant Ulster Scots immigrants (known in the U.S. as the Scotch-Irish ) in Appalachia developing Appalachian English and the 20th-century Great Migration bringing African-American Vernacular English to the Great Lakes urban centers. Any phonologically unmarked North American accent falls under an umbrella known as General American. This section mostly refers to such General American features. Studies on historical usage of English in both

7950-438: The late 18th century onwards, but which has conversely lost prestige in the U.S. since at least the early 20th century. Non-rhoticity makes a word like car sound like cah or source like sauce . New York City and Southern accents are the most prominent regional accents of the country, as well as the most stigmatized and socially disfavored. Southern speech, strongest in southern Appalachia and certain areas of Texas,

8056-427: The mid-nineteenth century onwards, so they "are now more different from each other than they were 50 or 100 years ago", while other accents, like of New York City and Boston, have remained stable in that same time-frame. However, a General American sound system also has some debated degree of influence nationwide, for example, gradually beginning to oust the regional accent in urban areas of the South and at least some in

8162-404: The middle of the leaves. The petioles and stems may develop dark green greasy streaks and, in time, become shorter. The ringspots are circular, C-shaped markings that are a darker green than the fruit. In the later stages of the virus, the markings may become gray and crusty. Viral infections impact growth and reduce the fruit's quality. One of the biggest effects that viral infections have on papaya

8268-617: The most formal contexts, and regional accents with the most General American native features include North Midland, Western New England, and Western accents. Although no longer region-specific, African-American Vernacular English , which remains the native variety of most working- and middle-class African Americans , has a close relationship to Southern dialects and has greatly influenced everyday speech of many Americans, including hip hop culture . Hispanic and Latino Americans have also developed native-speaker varieties of English. The best-studied Latino Englishes are Chicano English , spoken in

8374-569: The newly invented gene gun , which led to the development of the transgenic line 55–1, which was proven to be effective at controlling Hawaiian strains of PRSV. PDR possibly works by RNA interference . The evaluation of whether or not to release transgenic papaya in the United States was undertaken by APHIS, the EPA and the FDA. This incident was unique in that transgenic crops are usually developed and promoted by commercial operations, while transgenic papaya and

8480-451: The papaya is now cultivated in most tropical countries. In cultivation, it grows rapidly, fruiting within three years. It is, however, highly frost-sensitive, limiting its production to tropical climates . Temperatures below −2 °C (29 °F) are greatly harmful, if not fatal. In Florida, California, and Texas, growth is generally limited to the southern parts of those states. It prefers sandy, well-drained soil, as standing water can kill

8586-402: The past forms of a few verbs (for example, AmE/BrE: learned / learnt , burned / burnt , snuck/sneaked , dove/dived ) although the purportedly "British" forms can occasionally be seen in American English writing as well; different prepositions and adverbs in certain contexts (for example, AmE in school, BrE at school ); and whether or not a definite article is used, in very few cases (AmE to

8692-502: The plant to brown and wilt away, collapsing within days. The papaya fruit fly lays its eggs inside of the fruit, possibly up to 100 or more eggs. The eggs usually hatch within 12 days when they begin to feed on seeds and interior parts of the fruit. When the larvae mature, usually 16 days after being hatched, they eat their way out of the fruit, drop to the ground, and pupate in the soil to emerge within one to two weeks later as mature flies. The infected papaya turns yellow and drops to

8798-709: The plant within 24 hours. Two kinds of papayas are commonly grown. One has sweet, red, or orange flesh, and the other has yellow flesh; in Australia , these are called "red papaya" and "yellow papaw," respectively. Either kind, picked green, is called a "green papaya." The large-fruited, red-fleshed 'Maradol,' 'Sunrise,' and 'Caribbean Red' papayas often sold in U.S. markets are commonly grown in Mexico and Belize. In 2011, Philippine researchers reported that by hybridizing papaya with Vasconcellea quercifolia , they had developed papaya resistant to papaya ringspot virus (PRV), part of

8904-479: The plant's DNA. As of 2010, 80% of Hawaiian papaya plants were genetically modified. The modifications were made by University of Hawaii scientists, who made the modified seeds available to farmers without charge. In transgenic papaya, resistance is produced by inserting the viral coat protein gene into the plant's genome. Doing so seems to cause a similar protective reaction in the plant to cross-protection , which involves using an attenuated virus to protect against

9010-414: The rain forests of southern Mexico, papaya thrives and reproduces quickly in canopy gaps while dying off in the mature closed-canopy forests. Papaya ringspot virus is a well-known virus within plants in Florida. The first signs of the virus are yellowing and vein-clearing of younger leaves and mottling yellow leaves. Infected leaves may obtain blisters, roughen, or narrow, with blades sticking upwards from

9116-413: The removal and destruction of infected plants, is a way to control the spread of PRSV. This method was employed unsuccessfully when PRSV began to invade the Puna region of Hawaii. It is difficult to suppress the spread of PRSV through roguing because it is spread very quickly and effectively by aphids. Netting can also be used to prevent insect vectors from spreading the virus. Production under netting

9222-474: The ringspot and the mosaic viruses is the ripe fruit in the ringspot has a mottling of colors, and the mosaic does not. The fungus anthracnose attacks papaya, especially mature fruits. The disease starts small with very few signs, such as water-soaked spots on ripening fruits. The spots become sunken, turn brown or black, and may get bigger. In some of the older spots, the fungus may produce pink spores. The fruit ends up being soft and having an off flavor because

9328-520: The same virus species. The type that gave the virus its name are the Type P isolates (PRSV-P). This type infects papaya and several members of the melon family ( Cucurbitaceae ). The other type, Type W isolates (PRSV-W), does not infect papaya. Isolates of PRSV-W do infect cucurbits such as watermelon, cucumber, and squash and were originally known as Watermelon mosaic virus 1 . Hawaiian papaya production has been severely affected twice by PRSV. The virus

9434-500: The sap, the mesophyll tissue collapses, and a small chlorotic spot forms at the feeding sites. The leaves of the papaya fruit turn yellow, gray, or bronze. If the spider mites are not controlled, they can cause the death of the fruit. The papaya whitefly lays yellow, oval eggs that appear dusted on the undersides of the leaves. They eat papaya leaves, therefore damaging the fruit. There, the eggs developed into flies in three stages called instars. The first instar has well-developed legs and

9540-478: The top of the trunk . The lower trunk is conspicuously scarred where leaves and fruit were borne. The leaves are large, 50–70 cm (20–28 in) in diameter, deeply palmately lobed, with seven lobes. All plant parts contain latex in articulated laticifers . Papayas are dioecious . The flowers are five-parted and highly dimorphic; the male flowers have the stamens fused to the petals. There are two different types of papaya flowers. The female flowers have

9646-570: The traditional standard accent of (southern) England, Received Pronunciation (RP), has evolved a trap–bath split . Moreover, American accents preserve /h/ at the start of syllables, while perhaps a majority of the regional dialects of England participate in /h/ dropping , particularly in informal contexts. However, General American is also innovative in a number of its own ways: The process of coining new lexical items started as soon as English-speaking British-American colonists began borrowing names for unfamiliar flora, fauna, and topography from

9752-416: The trunk and petioles. The fruit will exhibit bumps and the classic "ringspot". A severe isolate of PRSV has also been shown to cause tissue necrosis. Cucurbit symptoms tend to be similar to papaya symptoms including blisters, mosaic, yellowing, and leaf distortions. This virus produces two types of inclusion bodies visible under a light microscope with proper staining of epidermal strips. One inclusion

9858-471: The unripe fruits are used to make sweets or preserves . In traditional medicine , papaya leaves have been believed useful as a treatment for malaria , an abortifacient , a purgative , or smoked to relieve asthma . American English American English , sometimes called United States English or U.S. English , is the set of varieties of the English language native to the United States. English

9964-604: The unripe green fruits and young leaves are boiled for use as part of lalab salad, while the flower buds are sautéed and stir-fried with chilies and green tomatoes as Minahasan papaya flower vegetable dish. In Lao and Thai cuisine, unripe green papayas are used to make a type of spicy salad known in Laos as tam maak hoong and in Thailand as som tam . It is also used in Thai curries , such as kaeng som . In Brazil and Paraguay,

10070-581: The unripe papaya are cut into slices and dipped into sour, fermented, or spicy seasonings and dips. In Myanmar and Thai recipes, the unripe papaya are cut into thinner slices to make papaya salad. The reason the unripe papaya is used is because of the firmer and crunchier texture. Papayas became a part of Filipino cuisine after being introduced to the islands via the Manila galleons . Unripe or nearly ripe papayas (with orange flesh but still hard and green) are julienned and are commonly pickled into atchara , which

10176-417: The verb-and-preposition combination: stopover, lineup, tryout, spin-off, shootout , holdup, hideout, comeback, makeover , and many more. Some prepositional and phrasal verbs are in fact of American origin ( win out, hold up, back up/off/down/out, face up to and many others). Noun endings such as -ee (retiree), -ery (bakery), -ster (gangster) and -cian (beautician) are also particularly productive in

10282-424: The virus compared to 100% infection of susceptible strains in some trials. Pathogen-derived resistance (PDR) is the technique of inserting a gene fragment from the pathogen into the transgenic crop, which then affords the crop plant resistance against the pathogen. This method was employed in the development of transgenic papaya. PRSV's coat protein gene was inserted into highly embryogenic plant tissue by using

10388-603: The virus. Development of cross-protection in papaya was researched in Hawaii starting in 1979. A delay in the onset of symptoms was achieved, as well as a reduction in the severity of symptoms. However, inoculation of the mild strain also caused pathogenesis on the papaya plants. Cross-protection is done in Taiwan, Thailand, and Hawaii using strains HA 5-1 and HA 6-1. There are two transgenic varieties of papaya, Rainbow and SunUp, both of which were created by Dennis Gonsalves and his team and were introduced for production on May 1, 1998. Rainbow (created by Dennis Gonsalves )

10494-772: The word corn , used in England to refer to wheat (or any cereal), came to denote the maize plant, the most important crop in the U.S. Most Mexican Spanish contributions came after the War of 1812 , with the opening of the West, like ranch (now a common house style ). Due to Mexican culinary influence, many Spanish words are incorporated in general use when talking about certain popular dishes: cilantro (instead of coriander), queso, tacos, quesadillas, enchiladas, tostadas, fajitas, burritos, and guacamole. These words usually lack an English equivalent and are found in popular restaurants. New forms of dwelling created new terms ( lot , waterfront) and types of homes like log cabin , adobe in

10600-452: The world, including Florida, and which is now known simply as Watermelon mosaic virus (WMV). PRSV has a different host range, different serological properties, and no nucleotide sequence homology with WMV. WMV also has different cytoplasmic inclusion bodies that can differentiate it from PRSV-W. Polyclonal and monoclonal antibodies have been made for both of the CI and AI proteins as well as for

10706-609: The world. Any American or Canadian accent perceived as lacking noticeably local, ethnic, or cultural markers is known in linguistics as General American ; it covers a fairly uniform accent continuum native to certain regions of the U.S. but especially associated with broadcast mass media and highly educated speech. However, historical and present linguistic evidence does not support the notion of there being one single mainstream American accent . The sound of American English continues to evolve, with some local accents disappearing, but several larger regional accents having emerged in

10812-416: The yellow skin, while lycopene is dominant in the red flesh (table). Papaya seeds also contain the cyanogenic substance prunasin . The green fruit contains papain , a cysteine protease enzyme used to tenderize meat (see below ). Native to tropical America, papaya originates from southern Mexico and Central America. Papaya is also considered native to southern Florida , introduced by predecessors of

10918-550: Was 13.8 million tonnes , led by India with 38% of the world total (table). Global papaya production grew significantly over the early 21st century, mainly as a result of increased production in India and demand by the United States. The United States is the largest importer of papayas worldwide. In South Africa, papaya orchards yield up to 100 tonnes of fruit per hectare. Papaya releases a latex fluid when not ripe, possibly causing irritation and an allergic reaction in some people. Because

11024-666: Was impossible. Commercial growers again relocated to the Hamakua coast but with only limited success. Hawaiian papaya production was halved by the end of the decade. Transgenic papaya varieties that are resistant to PRSV entered production in 1998 and resuscitated the industry. Both pathotypes are distributed worldwide. PRSV-P, for example, is known to be present in the Middle East, Africa, South and Central American. It has also been found in China, France, Germany, India, Italy, Mexico, Taiwan , and

11130-568: Was introduced to Oahu as early as 1937. The disease was mild for a number of years until it either mutated or a more aggressive strain was introduced around 1950. Within 12 years, the amount of land under papaya production dropped 94%. Production was then moved from Oahu to the Puna region of Hawaii island (the "Big Island") under strict quarantine. In 1971 PRSV was found in home gardens but efforts were taken to prevent its spread. The virus emerged in commercial farms in 1992 and by 1995 production in Puna

11236-469: Was written by Noah Webster in 1828, codifying several of these spellings. Differences in grammar are relatively minor, and do not normally affect mutual intelligibility; these include: typically a lack of differentiation between adjectives and adverbs, employing the equivalent adjectives as adverbs he ran quick / he ran quickly ; different use of some auxiliary verbs ; formal (rather than notional) agreement with collective nouns ; different preferences for

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