86-433: For lower taxa, see text . The peony or paeony ( / ˈ p iː ə n i / ) is any flowering plant in the genus Paeonia , the only genus in the family Paeoniaceae . Peonies are native to Asia , Europe , and Western North America . Scientists differ on the number of species that can be distinguished, ranging from 25 to 40, although the current consensus describes 33 known species. The relationships between
172-1831: A molecular phylogeny of plants placed the flowering plants in their evolutionary context: Bryophytes [REDACTED] Lycophytes [REDACTED] Ferns [REDACTED] [REDACTED] [REDACTED] The main groups of living angiosperms are: Amborellales [REDACTED] 1 sp. New Caledonia shrub Nymphaeales [REDACTED] c. 80 spp. water lilies & allies Austrobaileyales [REDACTED] c. 100 spp. woody plants Magnoliids [REDACTED] c. 10,000 spp. 3-part flowers, 1-pore pollen, usu. branch-veined leaves Chloranthales [REDACTED] 77 spp. Woody, apetalous Monocots [REDACTED] c. 70,000 spp. 3-part flowers, 1 cotyledon , 1-pore pollen, usu. parallel-veined leaves Ceratophyllales [REDACTED] c. 6 spp. aquatic plants Eudicots [REDACTED] c. 175,000 spp. 4- or 5-part flowers, 3-pore pollen, usu. branch-veined leaves Amborellales Melikyan, Bobrov & Zaytzeva 1999 Nymphaeales Salisbury ex von Berchtold & Presl 1820 Austrobaileyales Takhtajan ex Reveal 1992 Chloranthales Mart. 1835 Canellales Cronquist 1957 Piperales von Berchtold & Presl 1820 Magnoliales de Jussieu ex von Berchtold & Presl 1820 Laurales de Jussieu ex von Berchtold & Presl 1820 Acorales Link 1835 Alismatales Brown ex von Berchtold & Presl 1820 Petrosaviales Takhtajan 1997 Dioscoreales Brown 1835 Pandanales Brown ex von Berchtold & Presl 1820 Liliales Perleb 1826 Asparagales Link 1829 Arecales Bromhead 1840 Poales Small 1903 Zingiberales Grisebach 1854 Commelinales de Mirbel ex von Berchtold & Presl 1820 Ethereal oil An essential oil
258-442: A woody stem ), grasses and grass-like plants, a vast majority of broad-leaved trees , shrubs and vines , and most aquatic plants . Angiosperms are distinguished from the other major seed plant clade, the gymnosperms , by having flowers , xylem consisting of vessel elements instead of tracheids , endosperm within their seeds, and fruits that completely envelop the seeds. The ancestors of flowering plants diverged from
344-623: A coil, where they condense back to liquid, which is then collected in the receiving vessel. Most oils are distilled in a single process. One exception is ylang-ylang ( Cananga odorata ) which is purified through a fractional distillation . The recondensed water is referred to as a hydrosol, hydrolat, herbal distillate , or plant water essence, which may be sold as another fragrant product. Hydrosols include rose water , lavender water, lemon balm , clary sage , and orange blossom water . Most citrus peel oils are expressed mechanically or cold-pressed (similar to olive oil extraction ). Due to
430-744: A danger when misused because of their thin skin and immature livers. This might cause them to be more susceptible to toxic effects than adults. The flash point of each essential oil is different. Many of the common essential oils, such as tea tree, lavender, and citrus oils, are classed as Class 3 Flammable Liquids , as they have a flash point of 50–60 °C. Estrogenic and antiandrogenic activity have been reported by in vitro study of tea tree oil and lavender essential oils. Two published sets of case reports suggest that lavender oil may be implicated in some cases of gynecomastia , an abnormal breast tissue growth in prepubescent boys. The European Commission's Scientific Committee on Consumer Safety dismissed
516-552: A facial at an all-natural salon, a person experienced severe skin irritation, which highlighted the potential dangers of using "clean" beauty products marketed as being made from natural ingredients. This incident underscores the misconception that natural compounds are always safe, revealing a growing awareness within the beauty industry about the risks associated with essential oils, which can lead to allergic reactions and skin damage; there has been at least one case of death. Research has shown that some essential oils have potential as
602-539: A feeling of cold followed by a sense of burning. In Australia essential oils (mainly eucalyptus) have been increasingly causing cases of poisoning, mostly of children. In the period 2014–2018, there were 4,412 poisoning incidents reported in New South Wales . Aromatherapy is a form of alternative medicine in which healing effects are ascribed to the aromatic compounds in essential oils and other plant extracts. Aromatherapy may be useful to induce relaxation, but there
688-525: A few years earlier. The composition of the family has varied, but it has always consisted of Paeonia and one or more genera that are now placed in Ranunculales . It has been widely believed that Paeonia is closest to Glaucidium , and this idea has been followed in some recent works. Molecular phylogenetic studies, however, have demonstrated conclusively that Glaucidium belongs in the family Ranunculaceae, order Ranunculales, but that Paeonia belongs in
774-481: A form of alternative medicine in which healing effects are ascribed to aromatic compounds. Aromatherapy may be useful to induce relaxation, but there is not sufficient evidence that it can effectively treat any condition. Improper use of essential oils may cause harm including allergic reactions, inflammation and skin irritation. Children may be particularly susceptible to the toxic effects of improper use. Essential oils can be poisonous if ingested or absorbed through
860-456: A large scale, although they generally are only available in late spring and early summer. All Paeoniaceae are herbaceous perennials or deciduous shrubs, with thick storage roots and thin roots for gathering water and minerals. Some species are caespitose (tufted), because the crown produces adventitious buds, while others have stolons . They have rather large compound leaves without glands and stipules , and with anomocytic stomata . In
946-895: A lengthwise suture and each of which contains one or a few large fleshy seeds. The annual growth is predetermined: if the growing tip of a shoot is removed, no new buds will develop that season. Over 262 compounds have been obtained so far from the plants of Paeoniaceae. These include monoterpenoid glucosides , flavonoids , tannins , stilbenoids , triterpenoids , steroids , paeonols , and phenols . In vitro biological activities include antioxidant, antitumor, antipathogenic, immunomodulative, cardiovascular-system-protective activities and central-nervous-system activities. Paeoniaceae are dependent on C3 carbon fixation . They contain ellagic acid , myricetin , ethereal oils and flavones , as well as crystals of calcium oxalate . The wax tubules that are formed primarily consist of palmitone (the ketone of palmitic acid ). The basic chromosome number
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#17328527851731032-645: A member of the peony family. In the Middle Ages , peonies were often painted with their ripe seed-capsules, since it was the seeds, not the flowers, which were medically significant. Ancient superstition dictated that great care be taken not to be seen by a woodpecker while picking the plant's fruit, or the bird might peck out one's eyes. The red flowers of the species Paeonia peregrina are important in Serbian folklore. Known as Kosovo peonies ( Serbian : косовски божур , kosovski božur ), they are said to represent
1118-438: A natural pesticide . In case studies, certain oils have been shown to have a variety of deterring effects on pests, specifically insects and select arthropods. These effects may include repelling, inhibiting digestion, stunting growth, decreasing rate of reproduction, or death of pests that consume the oil. However, the molecules within the oils that cause these effects are normally non-toxic for mammals. These specific actions of
1204-828: A seal and piston arrangement which slides inside the pipette, wiping the essential oil off the pipette wall. Some essential oils qualify as GRAS flavoring agents for use in foods, beverages, and confectioneries according to strict good manufacturing practice and flavorist standards. Pharmacopoeia standards for medicinal oils should be heeded. Some oils can be toxic to some domestic animals, cats in particular. The internal use of essential oils can pose hazards to pregnant women, as some can be abortifacients in dose 0.5–10 mL, and thus should not be used during pregnancy. Concern about pesticide residues in essential oils, particularly those used therapeutically, means many practitioners of aromatherapy buy organically produced oils. Not only are pesticides present in trace quantities, but also
1290-426: A solvent in supercritical fluid extraction. This method can avoid petrochemical residues in the product and the loss of some "top notes" when steam distillation is used. It does not yield an absolute directly. The supercritical carbon dioxide will extract both the waxes and the essential oils that make up the concrete. Subsequent processing with liquid carbon dioxide, achieved in the same extractor by merely lowering
1376-610: A total of 64 angiosperm orders and 416 families. The diversity of flowering plants is not evenly distributed. Nearly all species belong to the eudicot (75%), monocot (23%), and magnoliid (2%) clades. The remaining five clades contain a little over 250 species in total; i.e. less than 0.1% of flowering plant diversity, divided among nine families. The 25 most species-rich of 443 families, containing over 166,000 species between them in their APG circumscriptions, are: The botanical term "angiosperm", from Greek words angeíon ( ἀγγεῖον 'bottle, vessel') and spérma ( σπέρμα 'seed'),
1462-858: Is starting to impact plants and is likely to cause many species to become extinct by 2100. Angiosperms are terrestrial vascular plants; like the gymnosperms, they have roots , stems , leaves , and seeds . They differ from other seed plants in several ways. The largest angiosperms are Eucalyptus gum trees of Australia, and Shorea faguetiana , dipterocarp rainforest trees of Southeast Asia, both of which can reach almost 100 metres (330 ft) in height. The smallest are Wolffia duckweeds which float on freshwater, each plant less than 2 millimetres (0.08 in) across. Considering their method of obtaining energy, some 99% of flowering plants are photosynthetic autotrophs , deriving their energy from sunlight and using it to create molecules such as sugars . The remainder are parasitic , whether on fungi like
1548-502: Is "botan." In kampo , the Japanese adaptation of Chinese medicine , its root was used as a treatment for convulsions. It is also cultivated as a garden plant . In Japan Paeonia suffruticosa is called the "King of Flowers" and Paeonia lactiflora is called the "Prime Minister of Flowers." In China, the fallen petals of Paeonia lactiflora are parboiled and sweetened as a tea-time delicacy. Peony water, an infusion of peony petals,
1634-444: Is a concentrated hydrophobic liquid containing volatile (easily evaporated at normal temperatures) chemical compounds from plants . Essential oils are also known as volatile oils , ethereal oils , aetheroleum , or simply as the oil of the plant from which they were extracted, such as oil of clove . An essential oil is essential in the sense that it contains the essence of the plant's fragrance —the characteristic fragrance of
1720-594: Is an essential oil derived from garlic . Most eucalyptus oil on the market is produced from the leaves of Eucalyptus globulus . Steam-distilled eucalyptus oil is used throughout Asia, Africa, Latin America and South America as a primary cleaning/disinfecting agent added to soaped mop and countertop cleaning solutions; it also possesses insect and limited vermin control properties. Note, however, there are hundreds of species of eucalyptus, and perhaps some dozens are used to various extents as sources of essential oils. Not only do
1806-646: Is currently marketed as the most effective mosquito repellent. Although essential oils are effective as pesticides when first applied in uses such as mosquito repellent applied to the skin, it is only effective in the vapor stage. Since this stage is relatively short-lived, creams and polymer mixtures are used in order to elongate the vapor period of effective repellency. In any form, using essential oils as green pesticides rather than synthetic pesticides has ecological benefits such as decreased residual actions. In addition, increased use of essential oils as pest control could have not only ecological, but economical benefits as
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#17328527851731892-499: Is five. About half of the species of the section Paeonia however is tetraploid (4n=20), particularly many of those in the Mediterranean region. Both allotetraploids and autotetraploids are known, and some diploid species are also of hybrid origin. The family name "Paeoniaceae" was first used by Friedrich K.L. Rudolphi in 1830, following a suggestion by Friedrich Gottlieb Bartling that same year. The family had been given other names
1978-612: Is limited to the coastal mountains of Southern and Central California. The section Paeonia , which comprises all other herbaceous species, occurs in a band stretching roughly from Morocco and Spain to Japan. One species of the section Paeonia , P. anomala , has by far the largest distribution, which is also north of the distribution of the other species: from the Kola peninsula in North-West Russia, to Lake Baikal in Siberia and South to
2064-424: Is most common commercially. Herbaceous peonies such as Paeonia lactiflora , will die back to ground level each autumn. Their stems will reappear the following spring. However tree peonies, such as Paeonia suffruticosa , are shrubbier. They produce permanent woody stems that will lose their leaves in winter but the stem itself remains intact above ground level. The numerous peony hybrids and cultivars have gained
2150-630: Is not sufficient evidence that essential oils can effectively treat any condition. Scientific research indicates that essential oils cannot treat or cure any chronic disease or other illnesses. Much of the research on the use of essential oils for health purposes has serious methodological errors. In a systemic review of 201 published studies on essential oils as alternative medicines, only 10 were found to be of acceptable methodological quality, and even these 10 were still weak in reference to scientific standards. Use of essential oils may cause harm including allergic reactions and skin irritation; After receiving
2236-490: Is produced from the petals of Rosa damascena and Rosa centifolia . Steam-distilled rose oil is known as "rose otto", while the solvent extracted product is known as "rose absolute". The potential toxicity of essential oil is related to its level or grade of purity, and to the toxicity of specific chemical components of the oil. Many essential oils are designed exclusively for their aroma-therapeutic quality; these essential oils generally should not be applied directly to
2322-546: Is rare because much higher concentrations are required in real foods. Some or all of this lower effectiveness is due to large differences between culture medium and foods in chemistry (especially lipid content), viscosity, and duration of inoculation/storage. Essential oils are usually lipophilic (literally: "oil-loving" ) compounds that are immiscible (not miscible ) with water. They can be diluted in solvents like pure ethanol and polyethylene glycol . Essential oils are derived from sections of plants. Some plants, like
2408-439: Is subtended by a number of bracts, that may form a sort of involucre , has 3-7 tough free sepals and mostly 5–8, but occasionally up to 13 free petals. These categories however are intergrading, making it difficult to assign some of them, and the number of these parts may vary. Within are numerous (50–160) free stamens , with anthers fixed at their base to the filaments, and are sagittate in shape, open with longitudinal slits at
2494-577: Is the largest peony cut flower producing country with about 50 million stems each year, with "Sarah Bernhardt" dominating the sales with over 20 million stems. An emerging source of peonies in mid to late summer is the Alaskan market. Unique growing conditions due to long hours of sunlight create availability from Alaska when other sources have completed harvest. While the peony takes several years to re-establish itself when moved, it blooms annually for decades once it has done so. Peonies tend to attract ants to
2580-561: Is the tetraploid hybrid of P. anomala and either P. arietina , P. humilis , P. officinalis , P. parnassica or less likely P. tenuifolia , or one of their (now extinct) common ancestors. P. banatica is the tetraploid hybrid of P. mairei and one of this same group. P. broteri , P. coriacea , P. clusii , P. rhodia , P. daurica subsp. mlokosewitschi , P. mascula subsp. hellenica and ssp. mascula , and P. daurica subsp. wittmanniana are all descendants of hybrids of P. lactiflora and P. obovata . Recent genetic analyses relate
2666-747: Is used symbolically in Chinese art. In 1903, the Qing dynasty declared the peony as the national flower. Currently, the Republic of China government in Taiwan designates the plum blossom as the national flower , while the People's Republic of China government has no legally designated national flower. In 1994, the peony was proposed as the national flower after a nationwide poll, but the National People's Congress failed to ratify
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2752-402: Is used to extract the fragrant oil from the concrete. The alcohol solution is chilled to −18 °C (0 °F) for more than 48 hours which causes the waxes and lipids to precipitate out. The precipitates are then filtered out and the ethanol is removed from the remaining solution by evaporation, vacuum purge, or both, leaving behind the absolute . Supercritical carbon dioxide is used as
2838-485: The Alismatales grow in marine environments, spreading with rhizomes that grow through the mud in sheltered coastal waters. Some specialised angiosperms are able to flourish in extremely acid or alkaline habitats. The sundews , many of which live in nutrient-poor acid bogs , are carnivorous plants , able to derive nutrients such as nitrate from the bodies of trapped insects. Other flowers such as Gentiana verna ,
2924-735: The Ionian islands and in western Greece, P. clusii subsp. clusii on Crete and Karpathos , and subsp. rhodia on Rhodes , P. kesrouanensis in the Western Taurus Mountains , P. arietina from the Middle Taurus Mountains, P. broteri in Andalucia, P. humilis from Andalucia to the Provence , P. officinalis from the South of France, through Switzerland to
3010-497: The LD 50 or median lethal dose for common oils; this is the dose required to kill half the members of a tested animal population. LD 50 is intended as a guideline only, and reported values can vary widely due to differences in tested species and testing conditions. In 2002, ISO published ISO 4720 in which the botanical names of the relevant plants are standardized. The rest of the standards with regards to this topic can be found in
3096-743: The Royal Horticultural Society 's Award of Garden Merit , including: The American Peony Society is the International Cultivar Registration Authority for the genus, and accepts over 7,000 registered cultivars. The herb known as Paeonia , in particular the root of P. lactiflora (Bai Shao, Radix Paeoniae Lactiflorae), has been used frequently in traditional medicines of Korea , China and Japan . In Japan , Paeonia lactiflora used to be called ebisugusuri ("foreign medicine"). Pronunciation of 牡丹 (peony) in Japan
3182-591: The Tien Shan Mountains of Kazakhstan. The rest of the section concentrates around the Mediterranean, and in Asia. The species around the Mediterranean include Paeonia algeriensis that is an endemic of the coastal mountains of Algeria, P. coriacea in the Rif Mountains and Andalusia , P. cambessedesii on Majorca , P. russoi on Corsica , Sardinia and Sicily , P. corsica on Corsica, Sardinia,
3268-469: The bitter orange , are sources of several types of essential oil. Balsam of Peru , an essential oil derived from Myroxylon plants, is used in food and drink for flavoring, in perfumes and toiletries for fragrance, and in animal care products. However, national and international surveys identified balsam of Peru among the "top five" allergens most commonly causing patch test allergic reactions in people referred to dermatology clinics. Garlic oil
3354-399: The citrus peel oils, are photosensitizers , increasing vulnerability of the skin to sunlight. Industrial users of essential oils should consult the safety data sheets to determine the hazards and handling requirements of particular oils. Even certain therapeutic-grade oils can pose potential threats to individuals with epilepsy or pregnant women. Essential oil use in children can pose
3440-580: The clade Angiospermae ( / ˌ æ n dʒ i ə ˈ s p ər m iː / ). The term 'angiosperm' is derived from the Greek words ἀγγεῖον / angeion ('container, vessel') and σπέρμα / sperma ('seed'), meaning that the seeds are enclosed within a fruit. The group was formerly called Magnoliophyta . Angiosperms are by far the most diverse group of land plants with 64 orders , 416 families , approximately 13,000 known genera and 300,000 known species . They include all forbs (flowering plants without
3526-808: The monogeneric family Paeoniaceae to a group of families with woody species in the order Saxifragales . This results in the following relationship tree. One dissertation suggests the section Onaepia branches off earliest, but a later publication of the same author and others suggests the Moutan -section splits off first. Within that section P. ludlowii and P. delavayi are more related to each other than to any other species. Peridiscaceae Paeonia Altingiaceae Hamamelidaceae Cercidiphyllum Daphniphyllum core Saxifragales all Eurasian herbaceous peonies all other tree peonies P. ludlowii P. delavayi P. brownii P. californica The genus Paeonia naturally occurs in
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3612-402: The nothospecies suggest that hybridisation already occurred relatively long ago. It is likely that the parent species occurred in the same region when the hybrids arose, and were later exterminated by successive Pleistocene glaciations, while the nothospecies remained in refugia to the South of Europe. During their retreat, P. lactiflora and P. mairei likely became sympatric and so produced
3698-460: The orchids for part or all of their life-cycle, or on other plants , either wholly like the broomrapes, Orobanche , or partially like the witchweeds, Striga . In terms of their environment, flowering plants are cosmopolitan, occupying a wide range of habitats on land, in fresh water and in the sea. On land, they are the dominant plant group in every habitat except for frigid moss-lichen tundra and coniferous forest . The seagrasses in
3784-883: The "Big Five" extinction events in Earth's history, only the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event had occurred while angiosperms dominated plant life on the planet. Today, the Holocene extinction affects all kingdoms of complex life on Earth, and conservation measures are necessary to protect plants in their habitats in the wild ( in situ ), or failing that, ex situ in seed banks or artificial habitats like botanic gardens . Otherwise, around 40% of plant species may become extinct due to human actions such as habitat destruction , introduction of invasive species , unsustainable logging , land clearing and overharvesting of medicinal or ornamental plants . Further, climate change
3870-601: The Balkans and Crimea, while the other subspecies coriifolia , macrophylla , mlokosewitschii , tomentosa and wittmanniana are known from the Caucasus , Kaçkar and Alborz Mountains. Paeonia emodi occurs in the western Himalayas between Pakistan and western Nepal, P. sterniana is an endemic of southeastern Tibet, P. veitchii grows in Central China ( Qinghai , Ningxia , Gansu , Shaanxi , Shanxi , Sichuan and
3956-545: The Himalayan nothospecies P. emodi and P. sterniana . Ancient Chinese texts mention the peony was used for flavoring food. Peonies have been used and cultivated in China since early history. Ornamental cultivars were created from plants cultivated for medicine in China as of the sixth and seventh century. Peonies became particularly popular during the Tang dynasty , when they were grown in
4042-622: The Middle of Italy, P. banatica in western Romania, northern Serbia and Slovenia and in southern Hungary, P. peregrina in Albania, western Bulgaria, northern Greece, western Romania, Serbia, Montenegro and Bosnia, while P. mascula has a large distribution from Catalonia and southern France to Israel and Turkey. Between the two concentrations, the subspecies of Paeonia daurica occur, with subspecies velebitensis in Croatia, and daurica in
4128-537: The blood of Serbian warriors who died in the Battle of Kosovo . In 1957, the Indiana General Assembly passed a law to make the peony the state flower of Indiana , a title which it holds to this day. It replaced the zinnia , which had been the state flower since 1931. Flowering plant Basal angiosperms Core angiosperms Flowering plants are plants that bear flowers and fruits , and form
4214-595: The claims against tea tree oil as implausible, but did not comment on lavender oil. In 2018, a BBC report on a study stated that tea tree and lavender oils contain eight substances that when tested in tissue culture experiments, increasing the level of estrogen and decreasing the level of testosterone . Some of the substances are found in "at least 65 other essential oils". The study did not include animal or human testing. Exposure to essential oils may cause contact dermatitis . Essential oils can be aggressive toward rubbers and plastics, so care must be taken in choosing
4300-547: The common ancestor of all living gymnosperms before the end of the Carboniferous , over 300 million years ago. In the Cretaceous , angiosperms diversified explosively , becoming the dominant group of plants across the planet. Agriculture is almost entirely dependent on angiosperms, and a small number of flowering plant families supply nearly all plant-based food and livestock feed. Rice , maize and wheat provide half of
4386-411: The correct handling equipment. Glass syringes are often used, but have coarse volumetric graduations. Chemistry syringes are ideal, as they resist essential oils, are long enough to enter deep vessels, and have fine graduations, facilitating quality control. Unlike traditional pipettes, which have difficulty handling viscous fluids, the chemistry syringe, also known as a positive displacement pipette, has
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#17328527851734472-461: The eastern rim of Tibet), like P. mairei (Gansu, Guizhou, Hubei, Shaanxi, Sichuan, and Yunnan), while P. obovata grows in warm-temperate to cold China, including Manchuria , Korea, Japan, Far Eastern Russia ( Primorsky Krai ) and on Sakhalin , and P. lactiflora occurs in Northern China, including Manchuria, Japan, Korea, Mongolia, Russia (Far East and Siberia). The species of
4558-862: The essential oil market diversifies and popularity increases among organic farmers and environmentally conscious consumers. As of 2012 some EOs are authorized, and in use, in the European Union : Melaleuca oil as a fungicide , citronella oil as a herbicide , Syzygium aromaticum oil as a fungicide and bactericide, Mentha spicata oil as a plant growth regulator ; Citrus sinensis oil (only in France) for Bemisia tabaci on Cucurbita pepo and Trialeurodes vaporariorum on Solanum lycopersicum ; and approvals for oils of Thymus , C. sinensis , and Tagetes as insecticides are pending. In relation with their food applications, although these oils have been used throughout history as food preservatives, it
4644-453: The extraction temperature, will separate the waxes from the essential oils. This lower temperature process prevents the decomposition and denaturing of compounds. When the extraction is complete, the pressure is reduced to ambient and the carbon dioxide reverts to a gas, leaving no residue. Estimates of total production of essential oils are difficult to obtain. One estimate, compiled from data in 1989, 1990, and 1994 from various sources, gives
4730-710: The fifteenth century on, originally also for medicinal purposes, intensive breeding started only in the nineteenth century when P. lactiflora was introduced from its native China to Europe. The tree peony was introduced in Europe and planted in Kew Gardens in 1789. The main centre of peony breeding in Europe has been in the United Kingdom, and particularly France. Here, breeders like Victor Lemoine and François Félix Crousse selected many new varieties, mainly with P. lactiflora , such as "Avant Garde" and "Le Printemps". The Netherlands
4816-758: The flower buds. This is due to the nectar that forms on the outside of the flower buds, and is not required for the plants' own pollination or other growth. The presence of ants is thought to provide some deterrence to other harmful insects though, so the production of ant-attracting nectar is plausibly a functional adaptation . Ants do not harm the plants. Peony species come in two distinct growth habits, while hybrid cultivars in addition may occupy an intermediate habit. Seven types of flower are generally distinguished in cultivars of herbaceous peonies. Herbaceous and Itoh peonies are propagated by root division, and sometimes by seed. Tree peonies can be propagated by grafting, division, seed, and from cuttings, although root grafting
4902-635: The flowering plants as an unranked clade without a formal Latin name (angiosperms). A formal classification was published alongside the 2009 revision in which the flowering plants rank as the subclass Magnoliidae. From 1998, the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group (APG) has reclassified the angiosperms, with updates in the APG II system in 2003, the APG III system in 2009, and the APG IV system in 2016. In 2019,
4988-562: The following total production, in tonnes, of essential oils for which more than 1,000 tonnes were produced. Taken by mouth, many essential oils can be dangerous in high concentrations. Typical effects begin with a burning feeling, followed by salivation. Different essential oils may have drastically different pharmacology. Some act as local anesthetic counterirritants and, thereby, exert an antitussive (cough suppressing) effect. Many essential oils, particularly tea tree oil , may cause contact dermatitis . Menthol and some others produce
5074-479: The high heat used in steam distillation. Instead, a solvent such as hexane or supercritical carbon dioxide is used to extract the oils. Extracts from hexane and other hydrophobic solvents are called concretes , which are a mixture of essential oil, waxes , resins , and other lipophilic (oil-soluble) plant material. Although highly fragrant, concretes contain large quantities of non-fragrant waxes and resins. Often, another solvent, such as ethyl alcohol ,
5160-513: The imperial gardens. In the tenth century the cultivation of peonies spread through China, and the seat of the Song dynasty , Luoyang , was the centre for its cultivation, a position it still holds today. A second centre for peony cultivation developed during the Qing dynasty in Cáozhōu, now known as He Ze . Both cities still host annual peony exhibitions and state-funded peony research facilities. Before
5246-518: The manner of vines or lianas . The number of species of flowering plants is estimated to be in the range of 250,000 to 400,000. This compares to around 12,000 species of moss and 11,000 species of pteridophytes . The APG system seeks to determine the number of families , mostly by molecular phylogenetics . In the 2009 APG III there were 415 families. The 2016 APG IV added five new orders (Boraginales, Dilleniales, Icacinales, Metteniusales and Vahliales), along with some new families, for
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#17328527851735332-600: The molecules allow for widespread use of these "green" pesticides without harmful effects to anything else other than pests. Essential oils that have been investigated include rose, lemon grass, lavender, thyme, peppermint, basil, cedarwood, and eucalyptus. Although they may not be the perfect replacement for all synthetic pesticides, essential oils have prospects for crop or indoor plant protection, urban pest control, and marketed insect repellents, such as bug spray. Certain essential oils have been shown in studies to be comparable, if not exceeding, in effectiveness to DEET , which
5418-894: The oils themselves are used in tiny quantities and usually in high dilutions. Where there is a concern about pesticide residues in food essential oils, such as mint or orange oils, the proper criterion is not solely whether the material is organically produced, but whether it meets the government standards based on actual analysis of its pesticide content. Some essential oils may contain impurities and additives that may be harmful to pregnant women. Certain essential oils are safe to use during pregnancy , but care must be taken when selecting quality and brand. Sensitivity to certain smells may cause pregnant women to have adverse side effects with essential oil use, such as headache, vertigo , and nausea. Pregnant women often report an abnormal sensitivity to smells and taste, and essential oils can cause irritation and nausea when ingested. The following table lists
5504-426: The outer side and free pollen grains which have three slits or pores and consist of two cells. Within the circle of stamens is a more or less prominent, lobed disc , which is presumed not to excrete nectar . Within the disk is a varying number (1-15) of separate carpels , which have a very short style and a decurrent stigma . Each of these develops into a dry fruit (which is called a follicle ), which opens with
5590-752: The plant from which it is derived. The term "essential" used here does not mean indispensable or usable by the human body, as with the terms essential amino acid or essential fatty acid , which are so called because they are nutritionally required by a living organism. Essential oils are generally extracted by distillation , often by using steam . Other processes include expression , solvent extraction , sfumatura , absolute oil extraction, resin tapping, wax embedding, and cold pressing. They are used in perfumes , cosmetics , soaps , air fresheners and other products, for flavoring food and drink, and for adding scents to incense and household cleaning products. Essential oils are often used for aromatherapy ,
5676-427: The products of different species differ greatly in characteristics and effects, but also the products of the very same tree can vary grossly. Lavender oil has long been used in the production of perfume . However, studies have shown it can be estrogenic and antiandrogenic, causing problems for prepubescent boys and pregnant women, in particular. Lavender essential oil is also used as an insect repellent. Rose oil
5762-476: The relatively large quantities of oil in citrus peel and low cost to grow and harvest the raw materials, citrus-fruit oils are cheaper than most other essential oils. Lemon or sweet orange oils are obtained as byproducts of the citrus industry. Before the discovery of distillation, all essential oils were extracted by pressing. Most flowers contain too little volatile oil to undergo expression, but their chemical components are too delicate and easily denatured by
5848-718: The result of hybridisation, or nothospecies . Known diploid taxa in the Paeonia -section are P. anomala , P. lactiflora , P. veitchii , P. tenuifolia , P. emodi , P. broteri , P. cambedessedesii , P. clusii , P. rhodia , P. daurica subsps. coriifolia , daurica , macrophylla and mlokosewitschii . Tetraploid taxa are P. arietina , P. officinalis , P. parnassica , P. banatica , P. russi , P. peregrina , P. coriacea , P. mascula subsps. hellenica and mascula , and P. daurica subsps. tomentosa and wittmanniana . Species that have both diploid and tetraploid populations include P. clusii , P. mairei and P. obovata . P. anomala
5934-401: The section Paeonia have a disjunct distribution , with most of the species occurring in the Mediterranean, while many others occur in eastern Asia. Genetic analysis has shown that all Mediterranean species are either diploid or tetraploid hybrids that resulted from the crossbreeding of species currently limited to eastern Asia. The large distance between the ranges of the parent species and
6020-553: The section of ICS 71.100.60 The resins of aromatics and plant extracts were retained to produce traditional medicines and scented preparations, such as perfumes and incense, including frankincense , myrrh , cedarwood, juniper berry and cinnamon in ancient Egypt may have contained essential oils. In 1923, when archaeologists opened Pharaoh Tutankhamun ’s tomb, they found 50 alabaster jars of essential oils. Essential oils have been used in folk medicine over centuries. The Persian physician Ibn Sina , known as Avicenna in Europe,
6106-526: The selection. In 2003, another selection process was initiated, but no choice has been made to date. The ancient Chinese city Luoyang has a reputation as a cultivation centre for the peonies. Throughout Chinese history , peonies in Luoyang have been said to be the finest in the country. Dozens of peony exhibitions and shows are still held there annually. The Greek doctor Dioscorides named aglaophotis , an herb supposedly capable of warding off certain evils, as
6192-419: The skin in their undiluted form. Some can cause severe irritation, provoke an allergic reaction and, over time, prove toxic to the liver . If ingested or rubbed into the skin, essential oils can be highly poisonous, causing confusion, choking, loss of muscle coordination, difficulty in breathing, pneumonia , seizures , and possibly severe allergic reactions or coma . Some essential oils, including many of
6278-428: The skin. Most common essential oils such as lavender , peppermint , tea tree oil , patchouli , and eucalyptus are distilled. Raw plant material, consisting of the flowers , leaves , wood , bark , roots , seeds , or peel , is put into an alembic (distillation apparatus) over water. As the water is heated, the steam passes through the plant material, vaporizing the volatile compounds. The vapors flow through
6364-545: The species need to be further clarified. Most are herbaceous perennial plants 0.25–1 metre (1–3 ft) tall, but some are woody shrubs 0.25–3.5 metres (1–11 ft) tall. They have compound , deeply lobed leaves and large, often fragrant flowers, in colors ranging from purple and pink to red, white or yellow, in late spring and early summer. The flowers have a short blooming season, usually lasting for only 7–10 days. Peonies are popular garden plants in temperate regions. Herbaceous peonies are also sold as cut flowers on
6450-568: The spring gentian, are adapted to the alkaline conditions found on calcium -rich chalk and limestone , which give rise to often dry topographies such as limestone pavement . As for their growth habit , the flowering plants range from small, soft herbaceous plants , often living as annuals or biennials that set seed and die after one growing season, to large perennial woody trees that may live for many centuries and grow to many metres in height. Some species grow tall without being self-supporting like trees by climbing on other plants in
6536-450: The subsection Vaginatae . P. suffruticosa is a cultivated hybrid swarm, not a naturally occurring species. The remainder of the species belongs to the section Paeonia , which is characterised by a complicated reticulate evolution . Only about half of the (sub)species is diploid, the other half tetraploid, while some species both have diploid and tetraploid populations. In addition to the tetraploids, are some diploid species also likely
6622-658: The temperate and cold areas of the Northern Hemisphere. The section Moutan , which includes all woody species, is restricted in the wild to Central and Southern China, including Tibet. The section Onaepia consist of two herbaceous species and is present in the West of North-America, P. brownii between southern British Columbia and the Sierra Nevada in California and eastward to Wyoming and Utah, while P. californica
6708-475: The tenth century, P. lactiflora was introduced in Japan, and over time many varieties were developed both by self fertilisation and crossbreeding , particularly during the eighteenth to twentieth centuries (middle Edo to early Shōwa periods ). During the 1940s Toichi Itoh succeeded in crossing tree peonies and herbaceous peonies and so created a new class of so-called intersectional hybrids . Although P. officinalis and its cultivars were grown in Europe from
6794-451: The unrelated order Saxifragales . The genus Paeonia consists of about 35 species, assigned to three sections: Moutan , Onaepia and Paeoniae . The section Onaepia only includes P. brownii and P. californica . The section Moutan is divided into P. delavayi and P. ludlowii , together making up the subsection Delavayanae , and P. cathayana , P. decomposita , P. jishanensis , P. osti , P. qiui and P. rockii which constitute
6880-402: The woody species the new growth emerges from scaly buds on the previous flush or from the crown of the rootstock. The large bisexual flowers are mostly single at the end of the stem. In P. emodi , P. lactiflora , P. veitchii and many of the cultivars these contributed to, few additional flowers develop in the axils of the leaves. Flowers close at night or when the sky is overcast. Each flower
6966-554: The world's staple calorie intake, and all three plants are cereals from the Poaceae family (colloquially known as grasses). Other families provide important industrial plant products such as wood , paper and cotton , and supply numerous ingredients for beverages , sugar production , traditional medicine and modern pharmaceuticals . Flowering plants are also commonly grown for decorative purposes , with certain flowers playing significant cultural roles in many societies. Out of
7052-483: Was coined in the form "Angiospermae" by Paul Hermann in 1690, including only flowering plants whose seeds were enclosed in capsules. The term angiosperm fundamentally changed in meaning in 1827 with Robert Brown , when angiosperm came to mean a seed plant with enclosed ovules. In 1851, with Wilhelm Hofmeister 's work on embryo-sacs, Angiosperm came to have its modern meaning of all the flowering plants including Dicotyledons and Monocotyledons. The APG system treats
7138-553: Was first to derive the fragrance of flowers from distillation, while the earliest recorded mention of the techniques and methods used to produce essential oils may be Ibn al-Baitar (1188–1248), an Arab Al-Andalusian (Muslim Spain) physician , pharmacist and chemist . Rather than refer to essential oils themselves, modern works typically discuss specific chemical compounds of which the essential oils are composed, such as referring to methyl salicylate rather than "oil of wintergreen". Essential oils are used in aromatherapy ,
7224-913: Was in the 20th century when essential oils were considered as Generally Recognized as Safe (GRAS) by the United States’ Food and Drug Administration (FDA). GRAS substances according to the FDA The most commonly used essential oils with antimicrobial action are: β-caryophyllene , eugenol , eugenol acetate , carvacrol , linalool , thymol , geraniol , geranyl acetate , bicyclogermacrene , cinnamaldehyde , geranial , neral , 1,8-cineole , methyl chavicol , methyl cinnamate , methyl eugenol , camphor , α-thujone , viridiflorol , limonene , ( Z )-linalool oxide , α-pinene , p -cymene , ( E )-caryophyllene , γ-terpinene . Some essential oils are effective antimicrobials and have been evaluated for food incorporation in vitro . However, actual deployment
7310-455: Was proven to be a hybrid of P. lactiflora and P. veitchii , although being a diploid with 10 chromosomes. P. emodi and P. sterniana are diploid hybrids of P. lactiflora and P. veitchii too, and radically different in appearance. P. russi is the tetraploid hybrid of diploid P. lactiflora and P. mairei , while P. cambedessedesii is the diploid hybrid of P. lactiflora , likely P. mairei , but possibly also P. obovata . P. peregrina
7396-510: Was used for drinking in the Middle Ages . The petals may be added to salads or to punches and lemonades. The peony is among the longest-used flowers in Eastern culture. Along with the plum blossom , it is a traditional floral symbol of China, where the Paeonia suffruticosa is called 牡丹 (mǔdān). It is also known as 富貴花 (fùguìhuā) "flower of riches and honour" or 花王 (huawang) "king of the flowers", and
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