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70-599: The regulation contains six sections. Section 1 provides for the citation of the PFCR, and section 2 some definitions. Section 3 prohibits the use of "any facial covering that is likely to prevent identification" at unlawful and unauthorised assemblies, and public meetings and processions as defined by the Public Order Ordinance (POO). In the POO, the terms “public meeting” and “public procession” have their plain meaning; an assembly

140-434: A general strike in the colony. Unable to progress by peaceful means, the demonstrators resorted to more extreme measures, planting bombs, as well as decoys, throughout the city. Normal life was severely disrupted and casualties began to rise. An eight-year-old girl, Wong Yee-man, and her two-year-old brother, Wong Siu-fan, were killed by a bomb wrapped like a gift placed outside their residence. Bomb disposal experts from

210-521: A dead letter in the statute book and contrary to the rule of law principle if the law is not faithfully put into practice without discrimination. Hong Kong 1967 Leftist riots [REDACTED]   British Hong Kong Supported by: Pro-CCP demonstrators Supported by: David Trench Yeung Kwong The 1967 Hong Kong riots were large-scale anti-government riots that occurred in Hong Kong during British colonial rule . Beginning as

280-583: A minor labour dispute, the demonstrations eventually escalated into protests against the colonial government. The protests were partially inspired by successful anti-colonial demonstrations in Portuguese Macau which had occurred a few months prior. The use of roadside bombs and petrol bombs by demonstrators prompted the Hong Kong Police Force (HKPF) to raid the demonstrators' strongholds and arrest their leaders. Fifty-one people were killed in

350-470: A number of emergency laws to suppress the prolonged unrest. The bill was published on 6 October 1967 and was passed into law on 15 November 1967 by the Legislative Council . The 1967 version of the law was a consolidation of various pieces of preexisting legislation with some substantive amendments. Before the enactment of the 1967 POO, the law dealing with public order was to be found in a previous POO,

420-518: A place is a "public place" is "whether the persons who are entitled or permitted to have access to the particular location or area are so entitled or permitted qua their being members of the public or members of a section of the public" ( HKSAR v Chau Fung [1998] 4 HKC 652). In Kwok Cheuk Kin v Commissioner of Police , the Court stated that "private premises to which access is restricted to the lawful occupiers’ invitees or licensees (in addition to, of course,

490-494: A popular anti-communist radio commentator, was murdered by a death squad posing as road maintenance workers as he drove to work with his cousin. Lam's assailants prevented him from getting out of his car, and he was burned alive. Other prominent figures of the media who had voiced opposition against the riots were also threatened, including Louis Cha , then chairman of the Ming Pao newspaper, who consequently left Hong Kong for almost

560-417: A potential criminal and made innocent persons who were charged with offences against it would 'be in grave danger of conviction, if they could not afford a lawyer and were undefended. The system of letter of no objection has been criticised as a license system in disguise. If the police were to enforce the system strictly, there would large numbers of people would have to be prosecuted. However it would become

630-413: A statutory legitimate purpose at that time, was too vague at statutory level and hence could not be said to be prescribed by law. "Ordre public" was as a result severed, but the term "public order" was sufficiently precise to survive. They also remarked in dicta that the norm of "protection of the rights and freedoms of others" was too wide and did not satisfy the legal certainty requirement. They affirmed

700-652: A year before returning. The waves of bombings did not subside until October 1967. In December, Chinese Premier Zhou Enlai ordered the leftist groups in Hong Kong to stop all bombings, and the riots in Hong Kong finally came to an end after 18 months. It became known much later that, during the riots, the commander of the People's Liberation Army 's Guangzhou Military Region Huang Yongsheng (one of Lin Biao 's top allies) secretly suggested invading and occupying Hong Kong, but his plan

770-485: Is a piece of primary legislation in Hong Kong . It codifies a number of old common law public order offences . It imposes notification requirements for public processions and meetings which resemble a licensing regime. It also provides for the designation of restricted areas along the Hong Kong-China border and in the military installations. The 1967 Ordinance was enacted in the aftermath of the 1967 Leftist riots . For

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840-466: Is allowed to enter into the reception area of the Law Society located on 3/F Wing On House, the area constitutes a "public place" within the meaning of s.2 of the POO. Cinemas and racecourses are public places despite the fact that the public might be required to purchase tickets for entry ( HKSAR v Pearce [2005] 4 HKC 105 and HKSAR v Chau Fung [1998] 4 HKC 652). Areas within a university campus where

910-520: Is committed punishable with a fine at level 3 ($ 10,000) and imprisonment of 6 months; the police officer may forcibly remove it. Section 6 requires that any prosecution for any offence created by the PFCR shall not commence more than 12 months after its occurrence. The Court of First Instance (CFI) ruled that the granting of powers to the Chief Executive in Council on an occasion of public danger by

980-548: Is unauthorised under the POO where it is a public meeting or procession not granted permission by the Commissioner of Police , or any other public gathering in contravention of a direction made by the Commissioner in that connection or an order to disperse. Persons who contravene this prohibition are liable on conviction to a fine at level four (HK$ 25,000) and imprisonment of one year. Section 4 allows for two defences: first, in

1050-715: The Hong Kong and Kowloon Federation of Trade Unions was appointed its chairman. The committee organised and coordinated a series of large demonstrations. Hundreds of supporters from 17 different leftist organisations demonstrated outside Government House , chanting pro-CCP slogans. At the same time, many workers went on strike, with Hong Kong's transport services being disrupted particularly badly. More violence erupted on 22 May, with another 167 people being arrested. The rioters began to adopt more sophisticated tactics, such as throwing stones at police officers or police vehicles passing by, before retreating into leftist "strongholds" such as newspaper offices, banks or department stores once

1120-636: The Hong Kong and Kowloon Federation of Trade Unions , a labour group with strong ties to Beijing. The political climate was tense in Hong Kong in the spring of 1967. Across the colony's northern border was a tumultuous People's Republic of China (PRC), with Red Guards carrying out purges and engaging in infighting amidst the Cultural Revolution . To the west of Hong Kong, in the Portuguese colony of Macau , two months of violent clashes between colonial police and pro-CCP demonstrators had just ended. Order

1190-484: The "core values of Hong Kong people". The Hong Kong Police Force was applauded for its behaviour during the riots by the British Government . In 1969, Queen Elizabeth II granted the force the privilege of the "Royal" title . This remained in use until the end of British rule in 1997. A number of participants in the 1967 riots have since gained a foothold in Hong Kong politics . For instance, Tsang Tak-sing

1260-484: The 1967 riots, with mention of communists being expunged. For example, "Bombs were made in classrooms of leftist schools and planted indiscriminately on the streets" became "Bombs were planted indiscriminately on the streets"; the fragment "waving aloft the Little Red Book and shouting slogans" disappeared, and an entire sentence criticising the hypocrisy of wealthy pro-Beijing businessmen, the so-called "red fat cats",

1330-473: The 67 Synergy Group Chan Shi-yuen. They called for Beijing to vindicate the protests, which they have continued to refer to as a "patriotic act against British colonial tyranny". In mid-September 2015, media reported that the Hong Kong Police Force had made material deletions from its website concerning "police history", in particular, the political cause and the identity of the groups responsible for

1400-583: The Basic Law of Hong Kong can only be judged and decided by the standing committee of the National People’s Congress ". A commentary in the state-run China Daily said that the Court of Appeal's partial allowing of the government's appeal "strengthens the rule of law", though criticised it for allowing those at permitted assemblies to wear masks. Public Order Ordinance The Public Order Ordinance ( Cap. 245 ; Chinese : 公安條例 ; ’POO’)

1470-568: The British colonial government. The 1948 Ordinance transplanted the Public Order Act 1936 in the United Kingdom and the binding over procedure in the criminal code of Straits Settlements . It provided for the designation of restricted areas along the Hong Kong-China border. The Public Ordinance Ordinance, 1967 was enacted in the aftermath of the 1967 Leftist riots . The government relied on

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1540-515: The CCP. After the riots, the British Hong Kong government publicly reflected on its failure to address certain social grievances and carried out major social reforms. However, another series of riots would occur in 1981. The initial demonstrations were labour disputes that began as early as May 1967 in shipping, taxi, textile, and cement companies. The unions that took up the cause were all members of

1610-544: The Commission of Police would exercise such power only if "he reasonably considers it to be necessary to prevent an imminent threat to public safety or public order". The Secretary for Security's amendment was carried and the 1996 Amendment Ordinance came into effect on 20 December 1996. The People's Republic of China government was convinced that the 1995 amendment in the late colonial days was maliciously motivated and aimed at reducing legitimate public order regulatory powers of

1680-470: The Commissioner in advance. A police officer invited him to go through the statutory notification procedure, but Leung refused and was warned of the consequences. Initially, the procession consisted of 40 people, but it eventually grew to about 96 persons. They ignored police advice for several times, but the procession was at all times peaceful. On 25 November 2002, the three were convicted for organising an unathourised public procession and for failing to notify

1750-542: The Court of Final Appeal ruled that the prohibition on the use of face coverings at public gatherings, regardless of legality, was constitutional. In response to the government's implementation of the law, a speech by Edward Leung in a televised debate during the 2016 Legco election was widely shared on the internet: “a few years ago, Ukraine passed an anti-mask law. Do you know what happened in Ukraine? A revolution started in Ukraine. You want to do it? Do it, we will fight till

1820-526: The ERO was in fact constitutional on occasions of public danger, and therefore that the PFCR was not invalid on those grounds. It additionally held that section 3(1)(b) of the PFCR, which prohibited masks at certain "unauthorised assemblies", is proportionate, and therefore valid, but upheld the decision of the CFI that the PFCR is invalid insofar as it prohibits masks at authorised assemblies and meetings. On 21 December 2020,

1890-450: The ERO was unconstitutional, and, therefore, that the entirety of the PFCR was unconstitutional because it was in exercise of those powers. On separate grounds it also declared all the substantive sections of the PFCR excepting that prohibiting the use of masks at an unlawful assembly inconsistent with the Basic Law and the Bill of Rights, and therefore of no effect. The Court of Appeal ruled that

1960-632: The Hong Kong Artificial Flower Works, a factory producing artificial flowers in San Po Kong . Of the 679 workers in the factory, only 174 were unionised and willing to strike. Picketing workers clashed with management, and riot police were called in on 6 May. In violent clashes between the police and the picketing workers, 21 workers were arrested. Representatives from the union protested at police stations but were themselves arrested. The next day, large-scale demonstrations erupted on

2030-446: The POO in 2011. There were total of 45 protesters charged under the POO in 2011 compared with a total of just 39 since the handover. The 45 were among 444 protesters arrested were mostly in three massive protests. 54 prosecuted in total were police figures. Two legislators from the radical political group People Power , Wong Yuk-man and Albert Chan were convicted under the POO for organising and taking part in an unlawful assembly in

2100-451: The POO on 14 June 1997, and it came into force on 1 July 1997. The restored and amended provisions were seen as a halfway between the licensing and notification systems. The 1997 amendment of the law gives government the power to prohibit a public meeting or procession on the grounds of "national security" and "the protection of the rights and freedoms of others," in addition to preexisting grounds of "public safety" and "public order." Under

2170-452: The POO. British human rights watchdog Hong Kong Watch criticised the charge of "rioting" and "incitement to riot" under the POO was vague and could lead to excessive punishment for protesters. The POO is criticized as a mean to suppress Hong Kong people's civil liberties. The Reform Club of Hong Kong objected the legislation of the bill when it was first introduced in 1967. It stated the bill made every peace-loving resident of Hong Kong

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2240-476: The PRC were dissolved during and after the 1967 riots. The murder of radio host Lam Bun , in particular, outraged many Hong Kong residents and discredited the leftist movement in Hong Kong as a whole. The credibility of the PRC and its local sympathisers among Hong Kong residents was severely damaged for more than a generation. The 1966 and 1967 riots in Hong Kong served as a catalyst for social reforms in Hong Kong, with

2310-577: The Peace Preservation Ordinance, the Summary Offences Ordinance and in the common law. Under the revised POO in 1980, it generated a licensing system for gatherings in public place. The Public Order (Amendment) Bill 1986 raised concerns over the threat to freedom of speech as the government on the one hand took some potentially oppressive measures including its power to seize and suppress newspapers and other publications, off

2380-753: The Standing Committee of the National People's Congress passed a resolution that under Article 160 of the Basic Law that major amendments to the POO would be scrapped. Following up the NPC's decision, the Office of the Chief Executive Designate proposed amendments to the POO, together with the Societies Ordinance and issued a hastily prepared consultation document "Civil Liberty and Social Order" to

2450-510: The White-Skinned Pig", "Fry The Yellow Running Dogs", "Down With British Imperialism" and "Hang David Trench". Students distributed newspapers carrying information about the demonstrations and pro-CCP rhetoric to the public. On 16 May, demonstrators formed the "Committee of Hong Kong and Kowloon Compatriots from All Circles for Struggle Against British Hong Kong Persecution" or " Anti-British Struggle Committee " for short. Yeung Kwong of

2520-429: The above activities must take place in a "public place" ”Public place" is defined under s.2 of the POO as: any place to which for the time being the public or any section of the public are entitled or permitted to have access, whether on payment or otherwise, and, in relation to any meeting, includes any place which is or will be, on the occasion and for the purposes of such meeting, a public place The test for whether

2590-420: The books, but on the other hand strengthened provisions against "false news": the new provision stated that "any person who publishes false news likely to cause alarm to the public or a section thereof or disturb public order shall be guilty of an offence." The pro-democrats argued the definition of "false news" was not clearly defined. In 1989, the government repealed the section on its own initiative. In 1991

2660-402: The case that a mask was worn with lawful authority, and, second, if worn with a reasonable excuse. Reasonable excuses envisaged include but are not limited to wearing masks for professional reasons, religious reasons, or pre-existing health reasons. Section 5 provides that a police officer may require a person to remove a face covering in order to identify them. If that person refuses, an offence

2730-494: The colony's future declined among some sections of Hong Kong's populace, and many wealthy residents sold their properties and migrated overseas , particularly to places such as Australia, Canada, and Singapore. On 22 August, in Beijing, thousands of people demonstrated outside the office of the British chargé d'affaires , before Red Guards attacked, ransacked, and burned down the main building. Many leftist groups with close ties to

2800-401: The convictions as the severance did not affect the conviction. Justice Bokhary PJ dissented, noting in his judgment that the whole statutory scheme should be struck down except the entitlement to notification. The government was criticised for politically motivated prosecute a few high-profile protesters as Leung Kwok-hung was the veteran activist and a leader of a radical political group and

2870-443: The crowd using tear gas and wooden bullets , prompting armed members of the crowd to open fire on the police. Five police officers were killed and eleven injured in a brief exchange of fire. The People's Daily in Beijing ran editorials supporting the demonstrators' actions in Hong Kong; rumours that the PRC was preparing to take control of the colony began to circulate. The pro-CCP protesters in Hong Kong tried in vain to organise

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2940-542: The end.” The central government immediately criticised the Court of First Instance's ruling, causing concern for the independence of Hong Kong’s judiciary. In response, the government said that it would stop enforcing the ban for the time being. A spokesman from the Chinese legislative affairs commission , however, stated that "Whether the laws of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region comply with

3010-528: The evening after the 1 July Protest in 2011 where Wong urged hundreds of People Power supporters to vow to march to the Government House . Protesters ended up with a sit-down on Garden Road after the police blocked the way of the march. It brought a serve traffic disruption. Sentencing has been adjourned until 16 May. On 8 May 2013, Melody Chan, a 26-year-old volunteer of the Occupy Central movement

3080-548: The final years of the colonial rule, the Hong Kong Bill of Rights Ordinance Cap. 383 was enacted. A number of ordinances, including the POO that were thought to possibly violate the Bill of Rights had to be reviewed. In 1995, most provisions in the law was repealed by the Legislative Council as part of the government to bring Hong Kong law in line with the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights , and

3150-493: The following decades, the stringent control over public processions and meetings was relaxed incrementally until 1990s when it was brought in line with human rights standards. Upon Hong Kong handover , the amendments in the 1990s were decreed "not adopted as the laws of the HKSAR " by the NPCSC of China and therefore reverted. A 1948 Ordinance of the same short title was enacted in 1948 by

3220-528: The government of Hong Kong Special Administrative Region . The PRC considered the Bill of Rights Ordinance and the 1995 POO to contravene the Hong Kong Basic Law . The Preliminary Working Committee for the HKSAR, an organ oversaw the preparatory works for the transfer of the sovereignty consisting members who were appointed by the PRC government, proposed to reinstate the POO. Therefore, on 23 February 1997,

3290-493: The implementation of positive non-interventionism in 1971, while David Trench grudgingly introduced some social reforms. It was not until the governorship of Murray MacLehose in the 1970s that the scope of reforms was greatly expanded, transforming the lives of those living in Hong Kong and marking the emergence of Hong Kong as one of the Four Asian Tigers , as well as the emergence of the " Lion Rock Spirit ", said to be

3360-453: The lawful occupiers themselves) would not generally be regarded as “public places” under the Ordinance" ([27]). In R v Lam Shing Chow , the accused was charged with "Fight in public". The appeal court quashed the conviction because the fight took place in a common corridor of a residential flat which is not a "public place". On the contrary, in 香港特別行政區政府 訴 梁超明 [2002] HKCFI 170, since the public

3430-406: The licensing system was replaced by a simple notification procedure. In October 1996, Democratic Party 's legislator James To introduced a private member's bill to amend section 6 of the POO to remove the power of the Commissioner of Police to control the extent to which music or speech might be amplified. The Secretary for Security Peter Lai moved an amendment to make it more explicit that

3500-483: The notification system was launched on 9 May 2002 against veteran protestor Leung Kwok-hung of the April Fifth Action and two other student activists was charged with organising an unauthorised public assembly or assisting in organising one. On 10 February 2002, a number of persons gathered at Chater Garden for a procession. Civil activist Leung Kwok-hung was the organiser of the procession, but did not notify

3570-527: The police and the British Forces Overseas Hong Kong defused as many as 8,000 home-made bombs , of which 1,100 were found to be real. Locals nicknamed these bombs " pineapples ". Most police stations across Hong Kong were fortified with sandbags as police facilities were the target of numerous attacks using bombs, homemade fragmentation explosives, and various projectiles. The Hong Kong government imposed emergency regulations, granting

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3640-404: The police responded. Casualties began soon after. At least eight protester deaths were recorded before 1 July; most of the victims were shot or beaten to death by the police. On 8 July, several hundred demonstrators from the PRC, including members of the People's Militia , crossed the border at Sha Tau Kok and attacked Hong Kong police officers stationed nearby. The police attempted to disperse

3710-544: The police special powers in an attempt to quell the unrest. Leftist newspapers were banned from publishing; leftist schools alleged to be bomb-making factories, such as Chung Wah Middle School , were shut down; many pro-CCP leaders were arrested and detained; and some of them were later deported to mainland China. On 19 July, demonstrators set up barbed wire defences on the Bank of China Building. In response, police raided leftist strongholds, including Kiu Kwan Mansion . In one of

3780-469: The police under the POO. Each of them was fined 500 Hong Kong dollars and was required to be bound over for three months. Magistrate Partick Li held that requirement for the notification system was reasonable for maintaining ordre public of Hong Kong society. The appeal was heard before the Court of Final Appeal . At the Court of Final Appeal , the constitutionality of the entire statutory notification scheme

3850-472: The police. The protest, served as a reminder of the Government's decision to seek for re-interpretation of the Basic Law after the right of abode rulings in 1999 , received general public and media sympathy and was viewed by some as an orderly, non-violent and non-provoking act of civil disobedience . More than 500 academics and researchers signed a petition to support the students, about 1,000 people marched on

3920-480: The post-1997 Hong Kong government of the time was supportive of the riots. In 2017, hundreds of protesters who took part in the 1967 riots were hailed as heroes in a memorial ceremony at Wo Hop Shek public cemetery to mark the 50th anniversary of the uprising. Prominent attendees included former finance sector lawmaker Ng Leung-sing, the Hong Kong Federation of Trade Unions' Michael Luk Chung-hung, and head of

3990-535: The pro-Beijing newspapers Ta Kung Pao and Wen Wei Po similarly voiced their support for the demonstrators and opposition to the colonial government. In Hong Kong's Central District , large loudspeakers broadcasting pro-CCP rhetoric and propaganda were placed on the roof of the Bank of China Building . Colonial authorities responded by blaring out Cantonese opera from larger speakers placed nearby. Posters were put up on walls with slogans like "Blood for Blood", "Stew

4060-411: The public has access would constitute a public place while other school campuses or private areas of university campuses would not constitute "public places". The first charge under the POO was taken after the handover was in 2000, when seven student leaders were arrested for joining "illegal assemblies" and obstructing the police on a demonstration on 26 June 2000 that was without a prior notice given to

4130-461: The public in April 1997. The proposed amendments created widespread criticisms that the future SAR government intended to restrict Hong Kong people's civil liberties. The colonial Hong Kong government even distribute a commentary criticising the proposals in unusual manner. The CE Office scaled down the amendments on 15 May in result. The Hong Kong Provisional Legislative Council enacted the new version of

4200-421: The raids, helicopters from HMS Hermes – a Royal Navy aircraft carrier – landed police on the roof of the building. Upon entering the building, the police discovered bombs and weapons, as well as a leftist "hospital" complete with dispensary and an operating theatre. The public outcry against the violence was widely reported in the media, and the demonstrators again switched tactics. On 24 August, Lam Bun ,

4270-408: The section 17A any failure to do is a criminal offence and may face an imprisonment term of up to five years. The details of the current version of the POO that restrict the right of assembly: On the other hand, certain statutory safeguards are present in the POO. "Public gathering", "public meeting" and "public procession" under the POO is defined with reference to the term "public place". All of

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4340-529: The street without police's letter of no objection in open defiance of the POO, and the Hong Kong Bar Association condemned the police for singling out students for arrest. Due to large pressure from society, the Secretary for Justice Elsie Leung decided not to prosecute the student leaders and other protestors. The first case that the HKSAR government decide to prosecute protesters for violation of

4410-462: The streets of Hong Kong. Many pro-CCP demonstrators carried Mao Zedong 's Little Red Book in their left hands and shouted communist slogans. The Hong Kong Police Force engaged with the demonstrators and arrested another 127 people. A curfew was imposed and all police personnel were called into duty. In the PRC, newspapers praised the demonstrators' activities and condemned the colonial government's actions as "fascist atrocities". In Hong Kong,

4480-529: The student activists were the prominent members of the Hong Kong Federation of Students which is a vocal critic of government policy. In the 2005 WTO conference , the Hong Kong Police referred to the POO to arrest nearly a thousand protesting South Korean farmers in Hong Kong, but afterwards but no one could successfully be convicted. The HKSAR government recorded the number of prosecution under

4550-420: The subsequent violence. As many of the bombs were made in pro- Chinese Communist Party (CCP) schools, then governor David Trench decided to close those schools and ban pro-CCP publications in the colony. The protests occurred in the backdrop of the Cultural Revolution taking place in the People's Republic of China ( mainland China ), with many of the protesters harbouring leftist views and sympathies toward

4620-586: Was a rioter who later co-founded the largest pro-Beijing political party in the city, the Democratic Alliance for the Betterment and Progress of Hong Kong . Along with his brother Tsang Yok-sing , they continued to promote Marxism in Hong Kong. In 2001, Yeung Kwong was awarded the Grand Bauhinia Medal by then chief executive Tung Chee-hwa , a symbolic gesture that raised controversy as to whether

4690-470: Was arrested for her alleged involvement in the blocking of roads in Central nearly two years ago, the same protest that Wong Yuk-man and Albert Chan took part in and were charged much earlier. In the 2016 Mong Kok civil unrest , the government prosecuted 36 protesters with the charge of rioting, a charge previously used only three times since 1970 which carried a maximum sentence of ten years' imprisonment under

4760-438: Was challenged. On 8 July 2005, the Court of Final Appeal by a majority of 4 to 1 dismissed the appeal. Chief Justice Li , Justice Chan PJ , Justice Ribeiro PJ and Sir Anthony Mason NPJ , having considered all the statutory restrictions on the freedom of assembly and the statutory safeguards listed above, held that the notification system was constitutional. However, they held that the norm of " ordre public ", which existed as

4830-513: Was not restored to Macau despite the intervention of the Portuguese army , and a general strike in January 1967 pressured the Portuguese government into agreeing to many of the demonstrators' demands, placing the colony under the de facto control of the PRC. Up to 31 protests were held in Hong Kong. On 1 May ( International Workers' Day ), three labour strikes began in Hong Kong, including one at

4900-423: Was vetoed by Zhou Enlai. By the time the rioting subsided at the end of the year, 51 people had been killed, of whom at least 22 were killed by the police and 15 died in bomb attacks, with another 832 people sustaining injuries, while 4,979 people were arrested and 1,936 convicted. Millions of dollars in property damage resulted from the rioting, far in excess of that reported during the 1956 riot . Confidence in

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