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105-852: Like the Ottoman regencies in Tunis and Algiers , the Regency of Tripoli was a major base for the privateering activities of the North African corsairs , who also provided revenues for Tripoli. A remnant of the centuries of Turkish rule is the presence of a population of Turkish origin , and those of partial Turkish origin, the Kouloughlis . By the beginning of the 16th century the Libyan coast had minimal central authority and its harbours were havens for unchecked bands of pirates. The Spaniards occupied Tripoli in 1510, but

210-548: A 10-ship squadron led by Commodore Stephen Decatur —a veteran of the First Barbary War—sailed from New York for Algiers; an even larger force, led by Commodore William Bainbridge , another Barbary War veteran, was close behind. Following a decisive U.S. victory off the coast of Cape Gata in June 1815, and by threat of seizing Algiers itself, Commodore Decatur successfully pressed Dey Omar Agha of Algeria to sue for peace;

315-619: A Turkish-speaking outsider. By mobilizing native loyalties against the Turkish soldiery, he emerged victorious. As ruler, he aimed to portray himself as a popular Muslim leader invested in local welfare and prosperity. He appointed a Tunisian Maliki jurist as the qadi instead of an Hanafi preferred by the Ottomans and curtailed the legal authority of the janissaries and the Dey. During his reign as Bey of Tunis, Husayn b. Ali supported agriculture, particularly

420-562: A conduit for entrenching European influence. In 1881, the French invaded Tunisia, using a border skirmish as a pretext. With the signing of the Treaty of Bardo later that year, a French protectorate was imposed over the country, lasting until 1956. Although the Ottoman sultan officially rejected the Bardo Treaty, no attempt was made to stop the French takeover. During this period of colonial rule,

525-548: A decline in corsair raiding due to increased European pressure. This period saw a rise in commercial trading focused on agricultural products, primarily grains, facilitated by the integration of the rural population into regional networks. However, Mediterranean trade continued to be dominated by European shipping companies . To maximize profits from export trade, the Beys established government monopolies to regulate transactions between local producers and foreign merchants. Consequently,

630-635: A fleet under Andrea Doria of Genoa , comprising mainly Italians, Germans, and Spaniards, which recaptured Tunis in 1535. Subsequently, the Hafsid sultan Mawlay Hasan was reinstated. However, Khayr al-Din managed to escape. Subsequently, as the supreme commander of Ottoman naval forces, Khayr al-Din was primarily engaged in affairs outside the Maghrib. A few decades passed until, in 1556, another Turkish corsair, Dragut (Turgut), ruling in Tripoli, attacked Tunisia from

735-560: A greater threat and formed an alliance with the Spanish, as did the Sa'dids of Morocco. Nevertheless, many Maghrebi Muslims strongly preferred Islamic rule, and the Hafsid's decades-long Spanish alliance was generally unpopular and even anathema to some. On the other hand, the Saadi dynasty sultans of Morocco successfully played off Iberian against Turk, thus remaining both Muslim-ruled and independent of

840-428: A patron to a Corsican named Murad Curso since his youth. After Ramadan's death in 1613, Murad succeeded him as Bey, serving effectively from 1613 to 1631. Eventually, he was also appointed as Pasha, though by then it was a ceremonial role, with his position as Bey remaining subordinate to the Dey. His son Hamuda Bey, ruling from 1631 to 1666, secured both titles with the backing of local Tunisian dignitaries. As Pasha,

945-573: A reason or pretext for French forces to establish a Protectorate in 1881. A legacy of centuries of Turkish rule is the existence of a Turkish-origin population . Historically, male descendants were known as the Kouloughlis . In the 16th century, control of the western Mediterranean was contested between the Spaniards and the Turks , both confident due to recent triumphs and subsequent expansion. In 1492, Spain completed its centuries-long Reconquista of

1050-486: A result, his successors continually held the title and even occasionally identified as pasha. During the 18th century, Ottoman power waned in North Africa, with the sultans ending the practice of sending pashas to Tripoli, Algiers and Tunis. The title of pasha began to assume its hereditary status. In 1711, Ahmed Karamanli , an Ottoman cavalry officer and son of a Turkish officer and Libyan woman, seized power and founded

1155-448: A succession dispute arose between his nephew Ali (r. 1735–1755) and his son Muhammad (r. 1755–1759), who contested his cousin's claim. A bitter civil war ensued, culminating in 1740 with Ali's tenuous triumph. However, in 1756, after another decade of conflict, Muhammad ultimately prevailed, albeit not without continued interference from Algeria. Early Husaynid policy necessitated a delicate equilibrium among several disparate factions:

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1260-645: A vital role in the intellectual life" of Muslim culture for centuries. Moreover, the Turks introduced their popular customs, including their music , attire, and the institution of the coffee house ( kahvehane or "kiva han"). The infusion of Turkish rule brought new vigor to Tunis and other cities, welcomed by the clerical ulama for the regime's stability. While the Ottomans favored the Hanifi school of law, they also admitted some Tunisian Maliki jurists into administrative and judicial roles. Nevertheless, governance remained in

1365-611: The Barbary States . On 5 September 1817, Yusuf Karamanli invited the leaders of the Libyan tribe of Al-Jawazi to his castle in Benghazi , following a dispute regarding tribute and an uprising against his rule. Consequently, the Pasha ordered the execution of all attendees, and chased down the other tribe members, which resulted in the massacre of at least 10,000 people, who eventually sought refuge in neighboring countries, especially Egypt . This

1470-453: The Diwan , composed of senior Turkish military officials (buluk-bashis) and local dignitaries, provided counsel to the pasha. Turkish remained the language of administration. With the establishment of permanent Ottoman rule in 1574, the government of Tunis gained a degree of stability, contrasting with the insecurity and uncertainty brought by the previous periods of war. However, the tenure of

1575-649: The French conquest of Algeria in 1830 fully ended any vestige of piracy in the region. The First Barbary War (1801–1805) had led to an uneasy truce between the US and the Barbary states, but American attention turned to Britain and the War of 1812 . The Barbary pirates returned to their practice of attacking American merchant vessels in the Mediterranean Sea and ransoming their crews to

1680-683: The Iberian Peninsula , followed by the establishment of the first Spanish settlements in America. Spain then devised an African policy, establishing a series of presidios in port cities along the African coast. The Ottoman Turks achieved their long-term ambition of capturing Constantinople in 1453, then successfully expanded further into the Balkans (1459–1482), and later conquered Syria and Egypt (1516–1517). Turkish Barbary corsairs operated from bases in

1785-586: The Karamanli dynasty , which would last 124 years. The 1790–95 Tripolitanian civil war occurred in those years. In May 1801, Pasha Yusuf Karamanli demanded from the United States an increase in the tribute ($ 83,000) which it had paid since 1796 for the protection of their commerce and enslavement of crews by barbary pirates when the Treaty of Tripoli was signed. The demand was refused by third American President Thomas Jefferson , an American naval force

1890-659: The Kingdom of Italy from September 29, 1911, to October 18, 1912. As a result of this conflict, the Ottoman Turks ceded the provinces of Tripolitania , Fezzan , and Cyrenaica to Italy. These provinces together formed what became known as Libya . By the 19th century, the province of Tripoli, known officially as Tarablus al-Gharb ('Tripoli of the West') was organized into five sanjak s (districts): These district names were reported by James Henry Skene in 1851 and five districts of

1995-839: The Regency of Tunis , refers to the Ottoman presence in Ifriqiya from the 16th to 19th centuries, when Tunis was officially integrated into the Ottoman Empire as the Eyalet of Tunis . The Ottoman presence in the Maghreb began with the takeover of Algiers in 1516 by the Ottoman Turkish corsair and beylerbey Aruj (Oruç Reis), eventually expanding across the entire region except for Morocco . The first Ottoman conquest of Tunis occurred in 1534 under

2100-459: The spahis ) of Cretan descent, ascended to power in 1705. His military units were part of the Tunisian forces that repelled an Algerian invasion at the time. Subsequently, the Turkish janissary corps appointed their own Dey as the new ruler. However, Husayn ibn Ali defied the Dey and garnered support from Tunisian khassa (notables), the ulama (religious scholars), and local tribes, despite being

2205-429: The "life reisi," or "board of captains." This model was later adopted by Tunis and Tripoli and independently by Morocco. Crews were sourced from three main groups: Christian renegades, which included many famous or notorious captains, foreign Muslims, primarily Turkish, and a small number of native Maghrebis. It was rare for a native to achieve high rank, although Reis Hamida, a Kabyle Berber, managed to do so during

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2310-417: The "ojaq" (Trk: "hearth"), the janissary corps maintained a strong sense of unity and élan. "They possessed a high sense of group solidarity and egalitarian spirit in the ranks, and elected their commander-in-chief, the agha , and a diwan [council] which protected their group interests. Being Turkish, they enjoyed a privileged position in the state: they were not subject to the regular system of justice in

2415-682: The Bey gained social standing through his connection to the Sultan - Caliph in Constantinople . In 1640, upon the Dey's death, Hamuda Bey maneuvered to control appointments to that office, consolidating his authority as the supreme ruler of Tunisia. Under Murad II Bey (reigned 1666–1675), the Diwan resumed its role as a council of notables. In 1673, the Janissaries rose in revolt, sensing a decline in their power. During

2520-548: The Bey of Tunisia was held by the Husaynid dynasty , which effectively governed Tunisia as a hereditary monarchy from 1705 to 1881. Although formally considered vassals of the Ottoman Empire until the 19th century, the beys of Tunis enjoyed a significant degree of independence and often conducted their own foreign affairs. The founder of the dynasty, Husayn ibn Ali (r. 1705–1735), originally an Ottoman cavalry officer ( agha of

2625-435: The Dey's corsairs and shore batteries, forcing him to accept a peace offer of the same terms that he had rejected the day before. Pellew warned that if the terms were not accepted, he would continue the action. The Dey accepted the terms, but Pellew had been bluffing since his fleet had already spent all its ammunition. A treaty was signed on 24 September 1816. The British Consul and 1,083 other Christian slaves were freed, and

2730-665: The Dey, was elected by his fellow deys and assumed control over law enforcement and military affairs in the capital, effectively becoming the de facto ruler of the country. Although this change challenged the authority of the Ottoman Empire, from the Tunisian perspective, political power remained in the hands of foreigners. The existing state council, known as the diwan, was dissolved, but to placate local sentiments, some Tunisian Maliki jurists were appointed to key positions, although Hanafi jurists of Ottoman origin continued to dominate. The janissary Dey enjoyed considerable discretion in exercising his authority, although initially, his jurisdiction

2835-575: The Dey. Algeria also paid $ 10,000 for seized shipping. The treaty guaranteed no further tributes by the United States and granted the United States full shipping rights in the Mediterranean Sea. Despite having successfully negotiated for their freedom, all 10 US captives perished when the ship returning them to the US, Epervier , sank in the Atlantic ocean on 9 August 1815. Although the conflict

2940-571: The Greek island of Medelli or Mytilene (ancient Lesbos). After gaining combat experience in the eastern Mediterranean (during which Aruj was captured and spent three years rowing in a galley of the Knights of St. John before being ransomed), the two brothers arrived in Tunis as corsair leaders. By 1504, they had entered into a privateer agreement with the Hafsid sultan Mohammad b. al-Hasan (1493–1526). Under

3045-586: The Hafsids in unsuccessful assaults on Bougie, held by Spain. Then the brothers established an independent base in Djidjelli , east of Bougie, which attracted Hafsid hostility. In 1516, Aruj and his brother Khayr al-Din, accompanied by Turkish soldiers, ventured further west to Algiers, where they seized control from the shaykh of the Tha'aliba tribe, who had made a treaty with Spain. Through political machinations, which involved

3150-558: The Maghreb. Spain captured and occupied several ports in North Africa, including Mers-el-Kebir (1505), Oran (1509), Tripoli (1510), and Bougie (1510). Spain also established treaty relations with half a dozen others. These agreements included Algiers (1510), which granted Spain occupation of the off-shore island of Peñón de Argel. Spain also reached agreements with Tlemcen (1511), a city about 40 km inland, and with Tunis, whose Spanish alliance lasted on and off for decades. Near Tunis,

3255-457: The Maghrebi provinces after the prolonged conflict with Spain. Instead, for each province (present-day Algeria, Libya, Tunisia), the office of pasha was established to oversee provincial governance. Thus, in 1587, a pasha assumed the role of Ottoman governor of Tunisia. The pasha was assisted by a bey , who was responsible for the collection of state revenue. From 1574 to 1591, a council known as

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3360-462: The Mediterranean rivalry between these two global powers. Spain retained some of its Maghrebi presidios and ports, such as Melilla and Oran. Both the Spanish and Ottoman Empires had shifted their focus elsewhere. Despite claiming suzerainty over Tunisia for the next three centuries, the Ottomans' effective political control in the Maghreb was short-lived. After Tunisia fell to the Ottoman Empire,

3465-436: The Ottoman Empire's rule, Tunisia experienced territorial contraction, losing land to the west ( Constantine ) and the east ( Tripoli ). In the 19th century, Tunisian rulers took note of the ongoing political and social reforms in the Ottoman capital . Inspired by these reforms and the Turkish model, the Bey of Tunis embarked on modernizing institutional and economic reforms. However, Tunisia's mounting international debt provided

3570-657: The Ottoman Porte did not maintain the janissary ranks in Tunis but appointed a pasha for Tunisia to oversee recruitment from various regions. The janissaries, also called "yeni-cheri" or "new troops," constituted an elite institution unique to the Ottoman state, though with historical antecedents. The devshirme practice involved impressing Christian youth, often from Greece and the Balkans, into military service and obliging them to convert to Islam. These recruits underwent rigorous training and lived under strict regulations, regimented by

3675-453: The Ottoman grasp. In this naval struggle, the Ottoman Empire supported many Barbary pirates who raided European commercial shipping in the Mediterranean. The corsairs later established Algiers as their principal base. The "architects of Ottoman rule in the Maghrib" were Aruj (c. 1474–1518) and his younger brother Khayr al-Din (c. 1483–1546). Both were known as Barbarossa ("red beard"). The Muslim brothers hailed from obscure origins in

3780-448: The Porte appointed a pasha to govern. "Pasha" ( Turkish : paşa , lit.   'head, chief') was an Ottoman imperial title denoting a high-ranking official with civil or military authority, typically the governor of a province. When Uluj Ali, the beylerbey of Algiers, passed away in 1587, the Ottoman sultan abolished the position, signifying the normalization of administration in

3885-574: The Sanusi influence came in the 1880s under the Grand Senussi's son, Muhammad al-Mahdi al-Sanusi . With 146 lodges spanning the entire Sahara, he moved the Senussi capital to Kufra . Over a 75‑year period, the Ottoman Turks provided 33 governors and Libya remained part of the empire until Italy invaded for the second time in 1911. The Italo-Turkish War was fought between the Ottoman Empire and

3990-604: The Spaniards were more concerned with controlling the port than with the inconveniences of administering a colony. In 1530 the city, along with Malta and Gozo , was ceded by Charles I of Spain to the Knights of St John as compensation for their recent expulsion from the island of Rhodes at the hands of the Ottoman Turks. Christian rule lasted then until 1551, when Tripoli was besieged and conquered by famed Ottoman admirals Sinan Pasha and Turgut Reis . Declared as Bey and later Pasha of Tripoli, Turgut Reis submitted

4095-708: The Spanish-Ottoman accord in 1581, Spain shifted its focus, leading to increased corsair activity and a decline in peaceful trade and commerce. The arrival of a Turkish-speaking ruling elite in Tunisia, whose institutions held sway over governance for centuries, indirectly influenced the enduring linguistic divide between Berber and Arabic in settled areas. The 11th-century invasion by the Arabic-speaking Banu Hilal had reignited this dichotomy in linguistic culture. Consequently, Arabic gained dominance, leading to

4200-494: The U.S. since 1795 ; the First Barbary War in the early 19th century, fought primarily against Algiers' neighbors, failed to fully stem the problem. In February 1815, after the end of the War of 1812 , U.S. President James Madison requested that Congress declare war against Algiers; legislation was passed on 3 March 1815 authorizing the use of the U.S. Navy to protect American interests and seize Algerian assets. In May,

4305-726: The United States government. At the same time, the major European powers were still involved in the Napoleonic Wars , which did not fully end until 1815. At the conclusion of the War of 1812, however, the United States returned to the problem of Barbary piracy. On 3 March 1815, Congress authorized deployment of naval power against Algiers, and the squadron under the command of Commodore Stephen Decatur set sail on 20 May. It consisted of USS  Guerriere (flagship), Constellation , Macedonia , Epervier , Ontario , Firefly , Spark , Flambeau , Torch , and Spitfire . Following

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4410-520: The War of 1812, Algiers sided with the British (although the British Atlantic blockade had limited US trade in the Mediterranean region). President Madison recommended that Congress declare the "existence of a state of war between the United States and the Dey and Regency of Algiers." While Congress did not formally declare a state of war, they did pass legislation, enacted on 3 March 1815, that authorized

4515-571: The agreement, the 'prizes' (ships, cargoes, and captives) were to be shared. The brothers operated from Goletta [Halq al Wadi]; they ran similar operations from Djerba in the south, where Aruj served as governor. During these years in Spain, non-Christians, including Muslims, were required to leave, according to the required to leave , at times, Aruj used his ships to transport many Moorish Andalusians to North Africa, especially Tunisia, earning praise and attracting many Muslim recruits. Twice, Aruj joined

4620-461: The apex, a select few prominent families, predominantly Turkish-speaking, were favored with business opportunities, land grants, and key government positions, contingent upon their loyalty. The French Revolution and its repercussions disrupted European economic activity, causing shortages that created business opportunities for Tunisia. With goods in high demand but scarce supply, substantial profits could be generated. Hammouda Pasha (r. 1782–1813),

4725-536: The beylical institution was retained, with the Husaynid Bey serving as titular head of state , while the French effectively governed the country. Upon achieving full independence , Tunisia declared itself a republic in 1957, leading to the termination of the beylical office and the end of the Husaynid dynasty. This Ottoman influence enriched Tunisia with its distinct culture and institutions, which diverged notably from

4830-562: The central government, reinforcing their elite status and ties to the Ottoman Empire. At the death of Murad II Bey, internal strife erupted within the Muradid family, leading to an armed conflict known as the Revolutions of Tunis or the Muradid War of Succession (1675-1705). The rulers of Algeria later intervened on behalf of one faction in this domestic turmoil, prolonging their stay even after

4935-417: The challenges of governance and its extensive geographical reach, the Ottoman state played a pivotal role in shaping Muslim legal developments for centuries. Imperial law drew from various sources, including Islamic fiqh, Roman-Byzantine legal codes , and the traditions of the great Turkish and Mongol empires of Central Asia. The Turkish jurist Ebu us-Suud Efendi (c.1490–1574) was credited with harmonizing

5040-625: The command of Khayr al-Din Barbarossa , the younger brother of Aruj , who was the Kapudan Pasha of the Ottoman Fleet during the reign of Suleiman the Magnificent . However, it was not until the final Ottoman reconquest of Tunis from Spain in 1574 that the Turks permanently acquired the former territories of Hafsid Tunisia , retaining it until the French occupation of Tunisia in 1881. Tunis

5145-540: The command of Sinan Pasha and captured Tunis permanently. The last ruler of the Hafsid dynasty was then sent by ship to the Ottoman sultan, imprisoned. In the absence of Turkish intervention in the western Mediterranean, the political landscape favored the Christian north. European powers, led by Spain, continued to strengthen their dominance. Meanwhile, the local Maghrebi states faced declining trade and internal divisions, leaving them vulnerable to potential reconquest from

5250-455: The conventional Arab world. Over more than half a millennium, Islamic principles melded with Turkish experiences, rooted in Central Asia , yielding unique developments and fresh perspectives. For instance, Turks crafted their gazi sagas of frontier warfare, drawing inspiration from Islamic traditions of early Arab conquests, yet infused with legends from the steppes of Central Asia. Due to

5355-483: The countryside to resist Ottoman rule. The Grand Senussi established his headquarters in the oasis town of Jaghbub while his ikhwan (brothers) set up zawiyas (religious colleges or monasteries) across North Africa and brought some stability to regions not known for their submission to central authority. In line with the expressed instruction of the Grand Sanusi, these gains were made largely without any coercion. It

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5460-404: The cultivation of olive orchards, and initiated public works projects, including mosques and madrassas (schools). His popularity was evident in 1715 when the Ottoman fleet's kapudan-pasha arrived in Tunis with a new governor to replace him; however, Husayn Bey convened a council comprising local civil and military leaders who rallied behind him, prompting the Ottoman Empire to relent. In 1735,

5565-674: The distant Ottomans, the Turkish-speaking elite in Tunisia, and local Tunisians (including urban and rural dwellers, notables, clerics, landowners, and remote tribal leaders). To avoid entanglement with the Ottoman Empire, which could encroach on the Bey's authority, religious connections to the Ottoman Caliphate were cultivated, bolstering the prestige of the Beys and garnering approval from local ulama and deference from notables. While janissaries continued to be recruited, tribal forces were increasingly relied upon. Although Turkish remained

5670-412: The downfall of several Sultans. In the Maghreb under Ottoman rule, the janissaries were initially Turkish or Turkish-speaking. There was some rivalry between the janissaries and the pirates, who were predominantly composed of Christian renegades . Additionally, the janissaries were regarded with suspicion by local tribal forces and the Maghreb militias as potential enemy combatants. Collectively known as

5775-467: The early 17th century, corsair activity again peaked. Afterward, Algiers began to rely more on "tribute" from European nations in exchange for safe passage rather than attacking merchant ships individually. The Ottoman Empire's treaties with European states added a layer of conflicting diplomacy. Lastly, during the wars following the French Revolution (1789–1815), Barbary corsair activity briefly spiked before abruptly ending. In 16th-century Algiers, under

5880-456: The east) and Muslims (more active along the Barbary Coast in the west, targeting Christian merchant ships). The first "great age of the Barbary corsairs" occurred in the 16th century, between 1538 and 1571. Ottoman sea power in the Mediterranean was supreme during these decades following their naval victory at the Battle of Preveza . However, Ottoman supremacy was effectively broken at Lepanto, although Ottoman sea power remained formidable. In

5985-436: The east, entering Kairouan in 1558. In 1569, Uluj Ali Pasha, a renegade corsair, advanced with Turkish forces from the west and seized the Spanish presidio Goletta and the Hafsid capital, Tunis. After the key naval victory of the Christian armada at the Battle of Lepanto in 1571, Don Juan de Austria retook Tunis for Spain in 1573, restoring Hafsid's rule. However, in 1574, a large Ottoman expedition returned under

6090-532: The elimination of the tribal chief and later 22 notables, control of Algiers fell into the hands of the Barbarossa brothers. The Turkish siblings were already allies of the Ottoman Empire. In 1518, during an assault led by Aruj against Tlemcen, which was then under the control of a Spanish ally since 1511, Aruj was killed by Muslim tribal forces and the Spanish. His younger brother, Khayr al-Din, assumed control of Algiers but temporarily relocated eastward for several years. Upon his return to Algiers in 1529, he seized

6195-420: The ensuing conflict, the Janissaries and urban forces, led by the Deys, clashed with the Muradid Beys. They received support from rural factions led by tribal shaykhs , as well as from prominent city figures. As the Beys emerged victorious, so did the rural Bedouin leaders and Tunisian notables, leading to the reinstatement of Arabic as the official language. However, the Muradids maintained the use of Turkish in

6300-519: The establishment of state treaties. However, the Hafsids also harbored corsairs who raided merchant shipping. In the 15th century, the Hafsids employed a Christian force, primarily consisting of Catalans , as bodyguards. By the 16th century, Hafsid rule weakened, often confined to Tunis alone. The last three Hafsid sultans— al-Hasan , his son Ahmad, and his brother Muhammad—engaged in inconsistent treaties with Spain. The cross-cultural Hafsid alliance with Spain wasn't as uncommon as it might appear, given

6405-399: The fifth Bey of Tunis, was highly capable and respected, presiding over this period of prosperity. He successfully repelled an Algerian invasion in 1807 and suppressed a janissary revolt in 1811. After the Congress of Vienna in 1815, Britain and France secured the Bey's agreement to halt sponsoring or permitting corsair raids, which had resumed during the Napoleonic conflict. Although there

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6510-430: The fighting subsided, which proved unpopular. Tunisia remained embroiled in civil discord and faced interference from Algeria. The last Muradid Bey was assassinated in 1702 by Ibrahim Sharif, who subsequently ruled for several years with Algerian support. Consequently, the reign of the Muradid Beys lasted from 1640 to 1702. During the Muradid era (circa the 1630s–1702), there was a gradual economic shift characterized by

6615-443: The following decades, however, the bey of Tunis began to incorporate the title of pasha into his office, and subsequently, the bey's authority eclipsed that of the dey. Eventually, the bey of Tunis emerged as the sole ruling authority, maintaining a distinct separation from Ottoman attempts to challenge their political dominance. The beys of Tunis, like the deys, held the esteemed title of pasha, which carried religious significance as it

6720-486: The foremost position overseeing internal administration and tax collection. Specifically, the Bey was responsible for managing and gathering taxes in the tribal rural areas. Biannually, armed expeditions ( mahallas ) traversed the countryside, demonstrating central authority. To aid in this task, the Bey organized rural cavalry (sipahis) as an auxiliary force, primarily composed of Arabs recruited from what became known as "government" ( makhzan ) tribes. Ramadan Bey had been

6825-421: The governing councils in Tunisia were composed mainly of foreign elite, conducting state affairs primarily in the Ottoman Turkish language . Barbary pirates targeted European shipping, primarily originating from Algiers, Tunis, and Tripoli . However, after a prolonged period of diminishing raids, the increasing power of European states eventually brought an end to the practice through the Barbary Wars . During

6930-511: The gradual erosion of Berber usage. The presence of a Turkish-speaking elite appeared to accelerate the decline of Berber speech in Tunisia. The Ottomans initially stationed 4,000 janissaries in Tunis, drawn from their occupying forces in Algiers, primarily consisting of Turkish troops recruited from Anatolia . The janissary corps operated under the direct command of their Agha ( Trk : "master"). Junior officers, known as deys ("maternal uncle"), led units of about 100 soldiers each. Following this,

7035-554: The hands of a foreign elite. In the countryside, Turkish troops efficiently controlled the tribes without compromising alliances, but their rule was unpopular. "Ottomans' military prowess enabled them to subdue the tribes rather than alleviate their grievances, fostering an image of Turkish dominance and Tunisian subordination." The rural economy remained largely beyond the effective reach of central authority. Government revenues relied heavily on Barbary corsair raids against Mediterranean shipping, which proved more profitable than trade. With

7140-753: The language of the elite, Arabic gained prominence in government affairs. Kouloughlis (offspring of mixed Turkish and Tunisian parentage) and native Tunisian notables gained greater access to higher positions and decision-making processes. Unlike intermarrying with Tunisians, the Husaynid Beys often sought marriage alliances through the institution of mamluks , who also occupied elite roles. The dynasty maintained its Ottoman identity and associated privileges. Nevertheless, local ulama were courted, with funding allocated for religious education and support for clerics. Local Maliki jurists were integrated into government service, while rural marabouts were appeased. Tribal shaykhs received recognition and were invited to conferences. At

7245-599: The later years of the corsair era. Captains were selected by the ship's owners from a list compiled by a select few Riesi, an authoritative council consisting of all active Corsair captains. Residence locations were also regulated, with captains, crews, and suppliers all residing in the western quarter of Algiers, along the harbor and docks. Private capital typically funded Corsair activity. Investors purchased shares in specific Corsair business ventures, drawn from various levels of society, including merchants, officials, janissaries, shopkeepers, and artisans. This financing provided

7350-544: The local military, urban notables (including those from the disbanded diwan), and most rural tribes, with the distant Sultan in Constantinople also exerting influence to some extent. Throughout the 1620s and 1630s, the local Turkish Bey successfully enlisted these social forces, thereby bolstering his own authority and eventually surpassing the Dey. The waning political power of the Dey and his janissaries became evident when their attempted uprising in 1673 failed to regain power. The Bey (Turkish: gazi commander) in Tunisia held

7455-422: The necessary funds for the capital and expenses of ships and crews, including naval stores, supplies, timber, canvas, and munitions. "Because of the potential profits from Corsair prizes, the underwriting of expeditions was an attractive proposition. Shareholding was organized like that of a modern stock company, with the return to individuals dependent on their investment. This type of private investment peaked in

7560-465: The negotiations were stormy. The leader of the diplomatic mission, Admiral Edward Pellew , believed that he had negotiated a treaty to stop the slavery of Christians and returned to England. However, just after the treaty was signed, Algerian troops massacred 200 Corsican , Sicilian and Sardinian fishermen who had been under British protection thanks to the negotiations. This caused outrage in Britain and

7665-454: The new Ottoman Pasha in Tunisia proved to be short-lived. Just four years later, in 1591, a revolt among the occupying Turkish forces, particularly the janissaries , propelled a new military leader, the Dey , to prominence, effectively supplanting the pasha and assuming ruling authority in Tunis. While the pasha's role diminished, they continued to be appointed intermittently by the Ottoman Porte. Over

7770-587: The new Ottoman regime, the customs and practices of the pre-existing Barbary corsairs underwent significant transformation, evolving into impressive institutions. The activity became highly developed, featuring modes of recruitment, hierarchical structures within the corps, peer review systems, both private and public financing, trades, and material support, as well as coordinated operations and markets for resale and ransom. The policies established in Algiers served as an exemplary model of Corsair business, often referred to as

7875-542: The north. The emergence of another powerful foreign entity, the well-armed Ottoman Turks, proved pivotal. Their intervention shifted the balance in the Maghreb, sustaining centuries of Muslim rule under reformed institutions influenced by the Turks. Additionally, the controversial tactic of corsairs raiding European shipping aligned with the Mediterranean strategy pursued by the Ottoman Porte in Constantinople. "Turkey

7980-480: The numerous Muslim-Christian treaties, notwithstanding recurrent hostilities. Indeed, during the early 16th century, France allied with the Ottomans against the Spanish Emperor Charles V . As an indirect result of Spain's African policy, some Muslim rulers encouraged Turkish forces to enter the region to counter the Spanish presence. The Hafsid rulers of Tunis viewed the Turks and their corsair allies as

8085-478: The offshore island Peñón de Argel from Spain, which controlled the city's port with its guns. By constructing a causeway connecting these islands, he developed an excellent harbor for the city. Khayr al-Din continued to orchestrate large-scale raids on Christian shipping and the coastal regions of Mediterranean Europe, amassing considerable wealth and taking numerous captives. He emerged victorious in several naval battles, earning widespread renown. In 1533, Khayr al-Din

8190-453: The ones who steadily provided income to Tripoli from privateering activities. As a self-governing military guild answerable only to their own laws and protected by a divan (a council of senior officers who advised the pasha), the janissaries soon reduced the pasha to a largely ceremonial role. In 1611, the local chiefs of the area conducted a coup d'état and successfully appointed Suleiman Safar, their own leader, as dey (local chief). As

8295-415: The port of Goletta was later occupied by Spanish forces, who built a large and strong presidio there. They also constructed an aqueduct to Tunis for use by the kasbah . The Hafsid dynasty had ruled Tunisia since 1227, experiencing periods of prestige as the leading state of the Maghreb, as well as times of struggle. Over the centuries, extensive trade with European merchants persisted, leading to

8400-452: The president to use the U.S. Navy, "as judged requisite by the President" to protect the "commerce and seamen" of the United States on the "Atlantic Ocean, the Mediterranean and adjoining seas." Congress also authorized the president to grant the U.S. Navy the ability to seize all vessels and goods belonging to Algiers. The legislation also authorized the president to commission privateers for

8505-498: The regency and were entitled to rations of bread, meat, and oil, to a regular salary, and a proportion of the yields of piracy." A distinction can be made between a pirate (or privateer ) and a pirate based on the former operating under explicit government authority, while the latter lacks official authorization. The Mediterranean region during the late Middle Ages and Renaissance witnessed widespread piracy (and privateering) practiced by both Christians (targeting Muslim shipping in

8610-476: The regulations of the secular state ( qanun ) and the sacred law ( şeriat ) for use in Ottoman courts. Ottoman popular literature and much of the learning of its elites were expressed in the Turkish language . Turkish became the language of state affairs in Tunisia, infusing its distinctive flavors throughout Tunisian society. After Arabic and Persian , Turkish stands as the third language of Islam and has "played

8715-598: The repair of aqueducts . They successfully quelled rebellious tribes, bringing an end to an extended period of social unrest in Tunisia. The resulting peace and order facilitated a degree of prosperity. The authority of the Dey was reinforced by the Qaptan of the Corsair fleet and the Bey, who were responsible for tax collection. However, during Yusuf Dey's reign, various interest groups emerged and worked to undermine his governing strategies. Many of these groups were Tunisian, including

8820-512: The rest of Europe, and Pellew's negotiations were seen as a failure. As a result, Pellew was ordered to sea again to complete the job and punish the Algerians. He gathered a squadron of five ships of the line, reinforced by a number of frigates, later reinforced by a flotilla of six Dutch ships. On 27 August 1816, following a round of failed negotiations, the fleet delivered a punishing nine-hour bombardment of Algiers . The attack immobilized many of

8925-435: The resulting agreement was formalized in a treaty ratified by the U.S. Senate on 5 December 1815. However, Agha later repudiated the treaty, as well as similar agreements with several European nations, until a combined English and Dutch force bombarded Algiers in 1816 ; the subsequent arrival of a U.S. squadron carrying U.S. commissioner William Shaler led to a new but substantially similar treaty on 23 December 1816, which

9030-435: The rulers and their foreign-connected business associates, who were part of the Turkish-speaking ruling elite , disproportionately benefited from Tunisia's trading profits . This hindered the development of local business interests, including rural landowners and wealthy merchants . The social stratification persisted, with prominent families in Tunisia being recognized as part of the "Turkish" ruling caste . After 1705,

9135-470: The same name existed after the reforms of the 1860s that transformed the province officially into a vilayet (or wilayah in Arabic). Among these, Cyrenaica was made an independent sanjak in 1863 that was directly dependent on Istanbul, then it was assigned to Tripoli's supervision in 1871, and finally it was attached to Istanbul again in 1888. Ottoman Tunisia Ottoman Tunisia , also known as

9240-516: The same purpose. On 20 May 1815, a 10-ship squadron left New York (to be followed by a larger fleet under command of William Bainbridge ). Shortly after departing Gibraltar en route to Algiers, Decatur's squadron encountered the Algerian flagship Meshouda and captured it in the Battle off Cape Gata . They also managed to capture the Algerian brig Estedio in the Battle off Cape Palos . On 29 June,

9345-626: The seventeenth century, the 'golden age.'" Second Barbary War The Second Barbary War, also known as the U.S.–Algerian War and the Algerine War, was a brief military conflict between the United States and the North African state of Algiers in 1815. Piracy had been rampant along the North African "Barbary" coast of the Mediterranean Sea since the 16th century. Algerian pirates and privateers intermittently preyed on American ships, with Algiers extracting annual tribute from

9450-400: The southern coast of the Mediterranean. Throughout the 16th and subsequent centuries, their empire held a prominent position as the foremost Muslim state globally, serving as Islam's primary focal point. The Ottoman Empire earned recognition as "the leader of all Islam for nearly half a millennium." The Turkish sultan assumed the role of the caliph . The Spanish-Ottoman truce of 1581 eased

9555-607: The squadron had reached Algiers and had initiated negotiations with the Bey . The United States made persistent demands for compensation, mingled with threats of destruction, and the Dey capitulated. He signed a treaty aboard the Guerriere in the Bay of Algiers on 3 July 1815, in which Decatur agreed to return the captured Meshuda and Estedio. The Algerians returned all American captives, estimated to be about 10, in exchange for about 500 subjects of

9660-588: The tenets of the Hurufi sect, later known as the Bektashi Sufi order. Initially akin to slavery in the 15th century, janissaries later gained privileges and could ascend to high positions. Symbolized by the massive "Kazan" (kettle) where they congregated, janissaries evolved into a powerful caste, numbering over 130,000 by the 19th century before the institution was dissolved. They wielded considerable influence and were prone to riot and looting if not satisfied, leading to

9765-542: The tribes of the interior and several cities like Misrata , Zuwara , Gharyan , and Gafsa in the next decade. These efforts contributed to cement the foundations of a statal structure in what is today Libya, but control from Constantinople remained loose at best, much like in the rest of the Barbary Coast of North Africa . Under the Ottomans, the Maghreb was divided into three provinces, Algiers , Tunis , and Tripoli . After 1565, administrative authority in Tripoli

9870-642: Was a brief resurgence of raids, they eventually ceased. In the 1820s, economic activity in Tunisia experienced a sharp decline. The Tunisian government was particularly affected due to its monopoly positions in many export sectors. Credit was obtained to weather the deficits, but eventually, the debt grew to unmanageable levels. Tunisia had sought to modernize its commerce and trade, but various foreign business interests began to exert increasing control over domestic markets. Imports of European manufactures often altered consumer pricing, adversely affecting Tunisian artisans whose goods struggled to compete. Foreign trade became

9975-458: Was brief and small-scale, it showed US resolve and was a victory for free trade. In early 1816, Britain undertook a diplomatic mission, backed by a small squadron of ships of the line , to Tunis, Tripoli, and Algiers to convince the Deys to stop their piracy and free European Christian slaves. The Deys of Tunis and Tripoli agreed without any resistance, but the Dey of Algiers was less cooperative, and

10080-574: Was directly associated with the Ottoman Caliph , who bore the honorific title of "Commander of the Faithful" ( Arb : Amīr al-Mu'minīn ). Until 1591, the corps of janissaries in Tunisia was under the authority of the local Ottoman Pasha. However, in that year, junior officers of the janissaries, known as deys, revolted against their senior officers, compelling the Pasha to recognize the leadership of one of their own. This newly appointed leader, known as

10185-544: Was frequently combated by native North African rulers and never gained any hold over Morocco. But the Turks were nonetheless a powerful ally for Barbary, diverting Christian energies into eastern Europe, threatening Mediterranean communications, and absorbing those forces which might otherwise have turned their attention to reconquest in Africa." For the first time, the Ottomans ventured into the Maghreb, eventually establishing their governing authority, albeit indirectly, along most of

10290-464: Was initially under Ottoman rule from Algiers , but the Ottoman Porte soon directly appointed a governor ( pasha ) supported by janissary forces. However, Tunisia quickly gained autonomy and operated as an autonomous province under the local bey , also referred to as the Beylik of Tunis . While Algiers occasionally contested this autonomy, Tunisia successfully maintained its status. Throughout this period,

10395-545: Was known as the Al-Jawazi massacre . In 1835 the government of Sultan Mahmud II took advantage of local disturbances to reassert their direct authority. As decentralized Ottoman power had resulted in the virtual independence of Egypt as well as Tripoli, the coast and desert lying between them relapsed to anarchy, even after direct Ottoman control was resumed in Tripoli. The indigenous Senusiyya (or Sanusi) Movement, led by Islamic cleric Muhammad ibn Ali al-Sanusi , called on

10500-528: Was one of the first Ottoman provinces to be reclassified from an eyalet to a vilayet after an administrative reform in 1865, and by 1867 it had been reformed into the Tripolitania Vilayet. The Ottoman sultan Abdulhamid II twice sent his aide-de-camp Azmzade Sadik El Mueyyed to meet Sheikh Sanusi to cultivate positive relations and counter the West European scramble for Africa. The highpoint of

10605-434: Was primarily confined to Tunis and other urban centers. Two highly effective Deys were 'Uthman Dey (1598–1610) and his son-in-law Yusuf Dey (r. 1610–1637). These capable administrators exhibited tact, thereby enhancing the dignity of their office. Neither inclined toward luxury, they directed treasury funds toward public projects and infrastructure development, including the construction of mosques, fortresses, barracks, and

10710-461: Was ratified on 11 February 1822. The Algerian War resulted in the United States and Europe ceasing tribute to Algiers and marked the beginning of the end of piracy in the Mediterranean. It also further elevated U.S. military prestige and power projection capabilities that had been demonstrated in the prior Barbary War. Western nations built ever more sophisticated and expensive ships that the Barbary pirates could not match in numbers or technology, and

10815-474: Was sent and blockaded Tripoli, and the desultory First Barbary War dragged on from 1801 until 3 June 1805. The Regency of Tripoli was defeated by the newly revived United States Navy . The Second Barbary War (1815, also known as the Algerian War) was the second of the two wars fought between the United States and the Ottoman Turks' North African regencies of Algiers, Tripoli, and Tunis, known collectively as

10920-424: Was summoned to Constantinople, where the Ottoman sultan appointed him Pasha and admiral of the Turkish navy (Kapudan-i Derya). With this title, he gained command over many more ships and soldiers. In 1534, capitalizing on a revolt against the Hafsid ruler al-Hasan, Khayr al-Din launched a naval invasion and captured the city of Tunis from Spain's allies. The following year, Emperor Charles V (r. 1516–1556) organized

11025-514: Was vested in a Pasha directly appointed by the Sultan in Constantinople. The sultan supported the pasha with a corps of janissaries who he was dependent upon, which was in turn divided into a number of companies under the command of a junior officer or bey . The janissaries quickly became the dominant force in Ottoman Libya and were also in charge of collecting taxes; however, Barbary corsairs were

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