Misplaced Pages

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64-480: Oskaloosa may refer to a place in the United States: Oskaloosa, Iowa Oskaloosa, Kansas Oskaloosa, Missouri [REDACTED] Topics referred to by the same term This disambiguation page lists articles about distinct geographical locations with the same name. If an internal link led you here, you may wish to change the link to point directly to

128-494: A campaign event, a family picnic, at Oskaloosa's George Daily Community Auditorium. He did not give press credentials to the Des Moines Register for the event, due to its having had an editorial urging him to drop out of the race. In November 2019, presidential candidate Joe Biden held a campaign event at William Penn University . Oskaloosa is the home of William Penn University , a private, liberal arts college. It

192-418: A coal seam prior to breaking up during mining) is about 1346 kg/m (84 lb/ft ) while the bulk density of extracted coal is up to 833 kg/m (52 lb/ft ). Bituminous coal characteristically burns with a smoky flame and softens and swells during combustion. It gets its name from this tendency to form a softened, sticky mass when heated, which reflects the presence of bitumen (mineral tar) in

256-663: A composition of about 84.4% carbon, 5.4% hydrogen, 6.7% oxygen, 1.7% nitrogen, and 1.8% sulfur, on a weight basis. This implies that chemical processes during coalification remove most of the oxygen and much of the hydrogen, leaving carbon, a process called carbonization . During coalification, the maturing coal increases in carbon content, decreases in hydrogen and volatiles, increases in its heating value, and becomes darker and more lustrous. Chemical changes include dehydration (which removes oxygen and hydrogen as water), decarboxylation (which removes oxygen as carbon dioxide ), and demethanation (which removes hydrogen as methane ). By

320-721: A creative influence to build up a musical organization that would become the pride of the city. His band garnered statewide acclaim, becoming the official band of the Iowa State Fair for four years. In 1904 the band played at the annual National Encampment of the Grand Army of the Republic in Louisville, Kentucky . En route, it played by invitation at the World's Fair in Saint Louis, Missouri . In

384-465: A fixed carbon content less than 86% (on a dry, mineral-matter-free basis.) Coal with a higher fixed carbon content is classified as anthracite, while agglomerating coal yielding less than 10,500 Btu/lb (24,400 kJ/kg) or nonagglomerating coal yielding less than 11,500 Btu/lb (26,700 kJ/kg) is classified as sub-bituminous coal. In the international market, bituminous coal is defined as coal with a vitrinite reflectance between 0.5 and 1.9. Vitrinite reflectance

448-400: A high carbon content, and a low content of sulfur, phosphorus , and ash. The best unblended coking coal is high quality medium-volatile bituminous coal. However, since single coals with all the necessary properties are scarce, coking coal is usually a blend of high-volatile bituminous coal with lesser amounts of medium- and low-volatile bituminous coal. Smithing coal is bituminous coal of

512-446: A home rule charter. The mayor and city council are elected. The city council is composed of seven members who make decisions regarding rules and regulations pertaining to Oskaloosa. The mayor is elected for a two-year term and council members are elected to serve for four years. The city manager is appointed by the city council. Oskaloosa is a sister city with Shpola , Ukraine . In July 2015, presidential candidate Donald Trump held

576-413: A relatively dirty fuel. The reduction in the use of bituminous coal between 1945 and 1960 is estimated to have saved at least 1,923 lives of all ages and 310 infant lives per winter month. Bituminous coal quality is improved with floatation methods, which increase the fraction of vitrinite to yield a cleaner-burning product. The bioconversion of bituminous coal to methane is being actively researched as

640-476: Is a measure of how reflective a polished surface of an average particle of vitrinite in the coal is. It is determined by how much of the carbon has condensed to an aromatic form from the heat and pressure of deep burial. In the United States, bituminous coal is defined as agglomerating coal yielding at least 10,500 Btu /lb (24,400 kJ/kg) of energy on combustion (on a moist, mineral-matter-free basis), with

704-446: Is accompanied by peak methane generation. This makes these bituminous coals "gassy" and precautions must be taken against methane explosions. Imidazolium -based ionic liquid solvents can reduce spontaneous combustion, which accounts for 2 to 3 percent of global annual carbon dioxide emissions. Bituminous coal was once extensively used for home heating in the US. However, bituminous coal is

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768-442: Is also routinely measured for U.S. coal as a check on its rank classification Bituminous coal is dark brown to black, hard, but friable . It is commonly composed of thin bands of alternating bright and dull material. Though bituminous coal varies in its chemical composition, a typical composition is about 84.4% carbon, 5.4% hydrogen, 6.7% oxygen, 1.7% nitrogen, and 1.8% sulfur, on a weight basis. Its bank density (the density of

832-455: Is based on several characteristics of the coal. The fixed carbon content refers to the percentage of the coal that is neither moisture, nor ash, nor volatile matter. When evaluated on a dry, mineral-matter-free basis, the fixed carbon content is the fraction of the coal that is not volatile organic matter. An agglomerating coal is a coal that softens when heated, forming a hard, gray, porous coke that resists crushing. Vitrinite reflectance

896-445: Is based on vitrinite reflectance. This classification divides medium rank coal (approximately equivalent to bituminous coal) into four subranks. In order of increasing rank, these are: Bituminous coal is used primarily for electrical power generation and in the manufacture of steel . Coking coal ( metallurgical coal or "met coal") is used in the manufacture of steel . A good coking coal must have excellent agglomeration properties,

960-457: Is composed mostly of plant spores, while boghead coal is composed mostly of nonspore algal remains. In the United States, bituminous coal is further divided into subranks based on its heating value and fixed carbon content. Thus bituminous coal is divided into high-, medium-, and low-volatile categories based on fixed carbon content, and high-volatile bituminous coal is further subdivided by energy content. ISO classification of bituminous coal

1024-511: Is found in the Appalachian and Interior Provinces of North America. Mining is done via both surface and underground mines. Historically, the many seams scattered over rugged terrain in the Appalachians have been conducive to mining by small companies, while the great extent and gentle dip of beds further west favors very large-scale operations. The Appalachian coal is notably low in sulfur and

1088-469: Is held each July on the city square. A concert by the municipal band is the highlight of the corn-on-the-cob and pork burger feast. Each December, the Lighted Christmas Parade travels through the downtown area on two consecutive nights. The floats in the parade are adorned with lights for the after-dark event. The City of Oskaloosa has a mayor-city council-city manager form of government under

1152-669: Is often of metallurgical grade, while the Interior Province coal is much higher in sulfur. The belt of Carboniferous coal fields extends into central Europe, and much of this is bituminous coal. Bituminous coal fields are found in Poland and the Czech Republic, and the Polish deposits are one of the most important of that nation's natural resources. The Czech deposits have been exploited since prehistoric times. The European deposits include

1216-487: Is submerged in standing water. The stagnant water excludes oxygen, creates an acidic environment, and slows decay. The dead plant material is converted to peat . Peat is mostly a mixture of cellulose , hemicellulose , and lignin that originally made up the woody tissue of the plants. Lignin has a weight composition of about 54% carbon, 6% hydrogen, and 30% oxygen, while cellulose has a weight composition of about 44% carbon, 6% hydrogen, and 49% oxygen. Bituminous coal has

1280-462: The Chicago, Burlington and Quincy Railroad . On January 6, 1882, most of the buildings in the north half of Oskaloosa were severely damaged and most of the plate glass windows in the area were broken by an explosion. Three boys were killed in the explosion. The boys had been seen shooting at the A. L. Spencer gunpowder magazine half a mile north of the town center. The first bituminous coal mine in

1344-562: The Coal Measures of Britain, which account for most of Britain's coal production and which are mostly bituminous coal. The Westfield coal basin is the largest in Britain. Other significant bituminous coal deposits are found through much of Europe, including France, Germany, and northern Italy. Coal deposition was interrupted by the Permian-Triassic extinction event , but resumed later in

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1408-638: The Gates Formation . The Intermontane and Insular Coalfields of British Columbia also contain deposits of Cretaceous bituminous coal. As of 2009 , the countries with the greatest estimated ultimately recoverable resources of bituminous coal were the US, 161.6 Gt ; India, 99.7 Gt; China, 78.4 Gt; Australia, 51.3 Gt; South Africa, 38.7 Gt; the UK, 26.8 Gt; Germany, 25.2 Gt; Colombia, 7.8 Gt; Indonesia, 5.6 Gt; and France, 4.4 Gt As of 2018 , total world production of bituminous coal (coking coal plus other bituminous coal)

1472-737: The Middle Triassic . Extensive bituminous coal deposits of Permian age are found in Siberia, east Asia, and Australia. These include the Minusinsky coal basin in Siberia, the Queensland , Bowen , and Sydney Basins in Australia, and the extensive bituminous coal reserves of China. A second peak in coal deposition began in the Cretaceous , though most of this is lower rank coal rather than bituminous. In

1536-485: The steel industry . Bituminous coal suitable for smelting iron ( coking coal or metallurgical coal ) must be low in sulfur and phosphorus . It commands a higher price than other grades of bituminous coal (thermal coal) used for heating and power generation. Within the coal mining industry, this type of coal is known for releasing the largest amounts of firedamp , a dangerous mixture of gases that can cause underground explosions. Extraction of bituminous coal demands

1600-469: The Earth's geologic history. Vast deposits of coal formed in wetlands —called coal forests —that covered much of the Earth's tropical land areas during the late Carboniferous ( Pennsylvanian ) and Permian times. Bituminous coal is predominantly Carboniferous in age. Most bituminous coal in the United States is between 100 and 300 million years old. Vast deposits of bituminous coal of Pennsylvanian age

1664-647: The Keokuk and Des Moines Railroad, and in 1887, it was leased by the Chicago, Rock Island and Pacific Railroad . The Central Iowa Railway followed, which became the Iowa Central Railway in 1888 and was absorbed by the Minneapolis and St. Louis Railway in 1901. In 1883, the Burlington and Western Railway reached Oskaloosa; this was a narrow gauge line that was widened to Standard Gauge in 1902 and then merged with

1728-661: The Oskaloosa area. Muchakinock was approximately five miles south of town, on the banks of the Muchakinock Creek. Lost Creek was a company town and post office with a population of about 500 in 1905, located about 10 miles south of town. On January 24, 1902, there was a mine explosion in the Lost Creek No. 2 mine. This was one of only two major mine disasters in Iowa between 1888 and 1913. A miner setting shots to blast coal from

1792-676: The United States, Cretaceous bituminous coals occur in Wyoming, Colorado and New Mexico. In Canada, the Western Canada Sedimentary Basin of Alberta and British Columbia hosts major deposits of bituminous coal that formed in swamps along the western margin of the Western Interior Seaway . They range in age from latest Jurassic or earliest Cretaceous in the Mist Mountain Formation , to Late Cretaceous in

1856-426: The age of 18 living with them, 44.0% were married couples living together, 12.2% had a female householder with no husband present, 4.1% had a male householder with no wife present, and 39.7% were non-families. 33.3% of all households were made up of individuals, and 15.1% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.30 and the average family size was 2.92. The median age in

1920-527: The age of 18 living with them, 49.2% were married couples living together, 10.1% had a female householder with no husband present, and 37.8% were non-families. 32.8% of all households were made up of individuals, and 15.7% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.28 and the average family size was 2.89. Population spread: 24.1% under the age of 18, 11.2% from 18 to 24, 26.2% from 25 to 44, 19.9% from 45 to 64, and 18.5% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age

1984-480: The area was opened shortly after 1853 by Robert Seevers, who drove a drift into a four-foot coalbed in an exposed creek bank east of town. Initially, coal was mined entirely for local consumption, but with the arrival of the railroads, coal from the region was shipped widely. In the 1880s, more than one million tons of coal was mined in the county from 38 mines. By 1887, the report of the state mine inspector listed 11 coal mines in or very close to Oskaloosa. By 1895,

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2048-725: The beautiful" is not correct. "Oskaloosa" in the Mvskoke-Creek language means "black rain," from the Mvskoke words "oske" (rain) and "lvste" (black). "loosa" is an English corruption of the Mvskoke word "lvste". See for example the Misplaced Pages entry for Tuskaloosa , eponym of the town of Tuscaloosa, Alabama . In addition the Mvskoke word "Ouscaloosa" means "Black Water"). The first European-American settlers arrived in 1835, led by Nathan Boone, youngest son of frontiersman Daniel Boone . Acting on instructions from Stephen W. Kearny , he selected this as

2112-492: The city has a total area of 7.45 square miles (19.30 km ), of which 7.43 square miles (19.24 km ) is land and 0.02 square miles (0.05 km ) is water. According to the Köppen Climate Classification system, Oskaloosa has a hot-summer humid continental climate , abbreviated "Dfa" on climate maps. As of the census of 2020, there were 11,558 people, 4,664 households, and 2,738 families residing in

2176-524: The city park when it was just a field. A brick walk through the park was constructed with money raised from a local talent minstrel show. In 1886 the Knee Gahh Band went to St. Louis for their national conclave and was a tremendous hit. That marked the beginning of the band's prominence in the Midwest. Charles L. Barnhouse developed the band "atmosphere" from the time he came to Oskaloosa in 1891. He exerted

2240-424: The city park. The citizens recommended a new bandstand be erected in the center of the park. The old double-deck frame bandstand was moved to one side to be used while the new bandstand was being built. The first concert in the new bandstand was played on June 1, 1912, and the bandstand was dedicated on July 25, 1912. Bituminous coal Bituminous coal is used primarily for electrical power generation and in

2304-404: The city was 35.8 years. 23.4% of residents were under the age of 18; 13.1% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 23.3% were from 25 to 44; 23.2% were from 45 to 64; and 17.1% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 48.8% male and 51.2% female. As of the census of 2000, there were 10,938 people, 4,603 households, and 2,863 families residing in the city. The population density

2368-552: The city's town square is a bronze statue of Chief Mahaska , the 19th-century leader of a Native American tribe called the Ioway; he was memorialized by the name of Mahaska County. Restored in the 21st century, the statue was completed in 1907 by an Iowa-born sculptor named Sherry Edmundson Fry (1879–1966). At the time it was commissioned, Fry was living in Paris. He returned to Iowa the following summer to make preparatory drawings of Meskwaki at

2432-484: The city. The building is the largest elementary school in Iowa. Also in Oskaloosa is Oskaloosa Christian Grade School, which was founded in 1946. SonShine Preschool was started later on and is in the same building. Transit services in the city are provided by Oskaloosa Rides. Free bus service is provided along one fixed-route loop in the city, on Mondays, Wednesdays and Fridays from 9:00 AM to 5:30 PM. Paratransit services operated by 10-15 Transit are provided daily. In

2496-440: The city. The population density was 1,441.0 inhabitants per square mile (556.4/km ). There were 5,181 housing units at an average density of 646.0 per square mile (249.4/km ). The racial makeup of the city was 88.9% White , 3.1% Black or African American , 0.2% Native American , 1.8% Asian , 0.1% Pacific Islander , 1.0% from other races and 4.9% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino persons of any race comprised 3.0% of

2560-473: The city. The population density was 1,542.8 inhabitants per square mile (595.7/km ). There were 5,144 housing units at an average density of 692.3 per square mile (267.3/km ). The racial makeup of the city was 94% White , 1.5% African American , 0.3% Native American , 1.5% Asian , 0.9% from other races , and 1.8% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 2.4% of the population. There were 4,715 households, of which 29.7% had children under

2624-544: The coal face re-used a hole left over from a previous failed shot, and the result was a coal dust explosion that detonated barrels of gunpowder stored in the mine. Twenty men died on the site and 14 more were badly injured. The explosion sparked a statewide miner's strike . As a result, in April 1903, the legislature enacted a law to regulate blasting in coal mines. According to the United States Census Bureau ,

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2688-486: The coal output of Mahaska County surpassed that of all other Iowa counties, and production had reached more than one million tons per year. In 1911, coal mining was reported to be the primary industry in the region. In 1914, the Carbon Block Coal Company of Centerville produced more than 100,000 tons of coal, ranking among the top 24 coal producers in the state. Several major coal-mining camps were located in

2752-549: The coal reaches temperatures above about 235 °C (455 °F), bitumen breaks down ( debituminization ) and the coal matures to anthracite. Coal deposits are widely distributed worldwide, and range in age from the Devonian (about 360 to 420 million years ago) to Neogene deposits just a few million years old. However, 90% of all coal beds were deposited in the Carboniferous and Permian periods , which represent just 2% of

2816-407: The coal. Though almost all agglomerating coal is of bituminous rank, some bituminous coal is not agglomerating. Non-agglomerating bituminous coal includes cannel coal and boghead coal . These are nonbanded and nonreflective, and break with a conchoidal fracture. Both are sapropelic , in contrast with most bituminous coal, which is humic (composed of decayed woody tissue of plants). Cannel coal

2880-459: The ensuing years the band became popular throughout Iowa and other states. In 1907 and 1908 Oskaloosa had two bands playing concerts – the Iowa Brigade Band and LaRue's Band. The merchants on High Avenue West employed their own band to compete with the Iowa Brigade Band in the park on Saturday evenings. In 1911 the citizens decided to beautify the city and voted to fund improvements for

2944-408: The first city in the United States to fingerprint all of its citizens, including children. The first settlers in the area brought along their instruments and a deep love of music. Residents organized a town band in 1864. In 1880 the band was called the K. T. Band (for Knight Templars ). About 1882 the city erected a double-deck bandstand in the center of the city park. The band had started playing in

3008-648: The first site of Fort Des Moines , located on a high ridge between the Skunk and Des Moines rivers. The ridge was originally called the Narrows. The town was formally platted in 1844 when William Canfield moved his trading post from the Des Moines River to Oskaloosa. The town was designated by the legislature as the county seat in the same year. The Des Moines Valley Railroad built north from Eddyville, Iowa through Oskaloosa to Pella, Iowa in 1864. In 1873, this became

3072-569: The highest quality, as free of ash and sulfur as possible, used to manufacture coke for use by blacksmiths . Coking coal commands a higher price than coal used for energy production. As of 2020 , coking coal in the U.S. sold for about $ 127/ short ton , compared with $ 50.05/short ton for bituminous coal generally. The cost of coking coal is about 3.5 times as high as the cost of coal used for electrical power (which includes lower ranks of coal, such sub-bituminous coal and lignite , as well as noncoking bituminous coal.) Bituminous coal which lacks

3136-440: The highest safety procedures involving attentive gas monitoring, good ventilation and vigilant site management. Bituminous coal is a particular rank of coal , as determined by the amount and type of carbon present in the coal and the amount of energy it can produce when burned. It is higher in rank than sub-bituminous coal but lower in rank than anthracite . Bituminous coal is the most abundant rank of coal. Coal rank

3200-429: The intended article. Retrieved from " https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Oskaloosa&oldid=1151300400 " Category : Place name disambiguation pages Hidden categories: Short description is different from Wikidata All article disambiguation pages All disambiguation pages Oskaloosa, Iowa Oskaloosa is a city in, and the county seat of, Mahaska County, Iowa . In

3264-401: The late nineteenth and early twentieth century, Oskaloosa was a national center of bituminous coal mining. The population was 11,558 in the 2020 U.S. census . Oskaloosa derives its name from Ouscaloosa who, according to town lore, was a Creek princess who married Seminole chief Osceola . A local tradition was that her name meant "last of the beautiful." (This interpretation of "last of

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3328-552: The nature of the original plant material, nor the length of burial is nearly as important. The temperature range for maturation of bituminous coal is from 85 to 235 °C (185 to 455 °F). The bitumen that characterizes bituminous coal forms under approximately the same conditions at which petroleum is formed in petroleum source rocks. Bituminization is accompanied by peak methane generation in medium to low volatile bituminous coal. This makes these bituminous coals "gassy" and precautions must be taken against methane explosions. If

3392-579: The nearby Settlement at Tama, Iowa, and to collect Indian artifacts and other reference materials. Returning to Paris, he began on a clay scale model, which he first showed at the Paris Salon in 1907. A year later, Fry exhibited the final full-sized sculpture, for which he won the Prix de Rome . Soon after, it was shipped to the United States, and arrived in Oskaloosa by railroad in September. The formal dedication of

3456-450: The population. Of the 4,664 households, 27.9% of which had children under the age of 18 living with them, 42.5% were married couples living together, 8.1% were cohabitating couples, 29.5% had a female householder with no spouse or partner present and 19.9% had a male householder with no spouse or partner present. 41.3% of all households were non-families. 34.1% of all households were made up of individuals, 15.0% had someone living alone who

3520-476: The poverty line, including 18.0% of those under age 18 and 11.6% of those age 65 or over. Top Ten Companies Oskaloosa is also the headquarters of the music publisher C.L. Barnhouse Company . The Southern Iowa Fair is one of the largest traditional county fairs in Iowa and is held each July. Art on the Square is held each June on the city square. This event features local and regional artists. Sweet Corn Serenade

3584-665: The qualities required for use as metallurgical coal is graded as thermal coal. This is used primarily for electrical power generation. The ideal thermal coal is easily ignited but has a high heat content. Bituminous coal is used for the production of activated carbon . The coal is first coked, removing volatiles, then steam treated to activate it. Chemical processes for activating coke produced from bituminous coal have also been investigated. Like other ranks of coal, bituminous coal forms from thick accumulations of dead plant material that are buried faster than they can decay. This usually takes place in peat bogs , where falling plant debris

3648-669: The statue was held on May 12, 1909, and attended by a crowd of about 12,000 people. Oskaloosa boasts two private homes designed in 1948–51 by American architect Frank Lloyd Wright . Typical of his Usonian homes, these are the Carroll Alsop House at 1907 A Ave E and the Jack Lamberson House at 511 North Park Avenue. Oskaloosa hosted the Iowa State Fair in 1858 and 1859, prior to the Civil War. In 1934, Oskaloosa became

3712-399: The structural element of graphite . This is accompanied by an increase in vitrinite reflectance, used to assess coal rank. During coalification, the pressure of burial reduces the volume of the original peat by a factor of 30 as it is converted to coal. However, the increase in rank of maturing coal mostly reflects the maximum temperature the coal reaches. Neither the maximum pressure, nor

3776-659: The time the coal reaches bituminous rank, most dehydration and decarboxylation has already taken place, and maturation of bituminous coal is characterized by demethanation. During coalification at bituminous rank, coal approaches its maximum heating value and begins to lose most of its volatile content. As carbonization proceeds, aliphatic compounds (carbon compounds characterized by chains of carbon atoms) are replaced by aromatic compounds (carbon compounds characterized by rings of carbon atoms) and aromatic rings begin to fuse into polyaromatic compounds (linked rings of carbon atoms). The structure increasingly resembles graphene ,

3840-479: Was 1,593.8 inhabitants per square mile (615.4/km ). There were 4,945 housing units at an average density of 720.5 per square mile (278.2/km ). The racial makeup of the city was 96.00% White , 1.04% African American , 0.25% Native American , 1.32% Asian , 0.04% Pacific Islander , 0.41% from other races , and 0.94% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 1.26% of the population. There were 4,603 households, out of which 29.4% had children under

3904-406: Was 36 years. For every 100 females, there were 94.9 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 91.3 males. The median income for a household in the city was $ 34,490, and the median income for a family was $ 42,138. Males had a median income of $ 33,830 versus $ 23,698 for females. The per capita income for the city was $ 18,721. About 10.6% of families and 13.7% of the population were below

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3968-444: Was 6.220 Gt. The leading producer is China, with India and the United States a distant second and third. U.S. production of bituminous coal was 238 million short tons in 2020 and represented 44% of all U.S. coal production. Bituminous coal is mined in 18 states, but the five states of West Virginia, Pennsylvania, Illinois, Kentucky, and Indiana produce 74%of U.S. coal. Maturation of bituminous coal at medium and low volatile subrank

4032-423: Was 65 years old or older. The median age in the city was 37.3 years. 25.4% of the residents were under the age of 20; 9.2% were between the ages of 20 and 24; 23.6% were from 25 and 44; 22.5% were from 45 and 64; and 19.4% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 48.6% male and 51.4% female. As of the census of 2010, there were 11,463 people, 4,715 households, and 2,842 families residing in

4096-624: Was founded by members of the Religious Society of Friends (Quakers) in 1873 as Penn College . In 1933, the name was changed to William Penn College , and finally to William Penn University in 2000. Oskaloosa was the home of the now-defunct Oskaloosa College . The city's public system, Oskaloosa Community School District , operates a high school , middle school, elementary school, and an alternative school. Oskaloosa Elementary opened in January 2005, merging five smaller buildings scattered across

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