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107-793: The Ortoiroid are believed to have developed in South America before moving to the West Indies . The earliest radiocarbon date for the Ortoiroid is 5230 BC from Trinidad. The two earliest Ortoiroid sites in Trinidad are the Banwari Trace and at St. John's Road, South Oropouche , which date back at least to 5500 BC. At this time, Trinidad might have still been connected to the South American mainland. The majority of archaeological sites associated with

214-556: A later expedition , Shackleton died on board ship while moored in King Edward Cove, South Georgia. He is buried at Grytviken. The ashes of another noted Antarctic explorer, Frank Wild , who had been Shackleton's second-in-command on the Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition, were interred next to Shackleton in 2011. Argentina claimed South Georgia in 1927. The basis of this claim and of a later claim in 1938 to

321-565: A tundra ( ET ) in Köppen climate classification . Typical daily maximum temperatures in South Georgia at sea level are around 0 °C (32 °F) in winter (August) and 8 °C (46.4 °F) in summer (January). Winter minimum temperatures are typically about −5 °C (23 °F) and rarely dip below −10 °C (14 °F). Annual precipitation in South Georgia is about 1,500 mm (59.1 in), much of which falls as sleet or snow, which

428-669: A fleet to reach Peru by sea, and sought the military support of various rebels from the Viceroyalty of Peru. In 1822 the two men met at the Guayaquil Conference in Ecuador, where they failed to agree on governance strategies for the liberated nations. Two years later Bolívar's forces beat the Spanish at the Battle of Ayacucho , securing the independence of Peru and the rest of South America. In

535-671: A food source, as well as the use of stone and bone tools by human inhabitants. They are considered to belong to the Ortoiroid culture. In the north, two distinct Ortoiroid subcultures have been identified: the Coroso culture , which flourished from 1500 BC–200 AD, and the Krum Bay culture , which spanned 1500—200 BC. The Coroso people lived in Puerto Rico, where the oldest known site is the Angostura site , dating from 4000 BC. The Krum Bay people lived in

642-457: A fortnight in one of the island's bays. The island appeared as Roche Island on early maps. The commercial Spanish ship León , operating out of Saint-Malo , sighted it on 28 June or 29 June 1756. James Cook circumnavigated the island in 1775 and made the first landing. He claimed the territory for the Kingdom of Great Britain , naming it the "Isle of Georgia" in honour of King George III of

749-510: A group of islands rather than a single body of land. The name was chosen in honour of John Montagu, 4th Earl of Sandwich , who was First Lord of the Admiralty. The word "South" was later added to distinguish them from the "Sandwich Islands", now known as the Hawaiian Islands . Southern Thule , at the south end of the island chain, is the southernmost land on Earth outside the area covered by

856-454: A long history of colonialism , the overwhelming majority of South Americans speak Spanish or Portuguese , and societies and states are rich in Western traditions . Relative to Africa, Asia, and Europe, post-1900 South America has been a peaceful continent with few wars, although high rates of violent crime remain a concern in some countries. South America occupies the southern portion of

963-448: A more pleasant climate than the exposed western side. The prevailing weather conditions generally make the islands difficult to approach by ship, though the north coast of South Georgia has several large bays which provide good anchorage. Sunshine, as with many South Atlantic Islands, is low, at a maximum of just 21.5%. This amounts to around 1,000 hours of sunshine annually. The local topography , however, also contributes significantly to

1070-486: A new list of three criteria was created for deciding new names within the territory. During British captain James Cook 's navigation of the islands, he set a standard for the adoption of new names in the territory based on four categories: expedition sponsors, the names of officers and crew, notable contemporary events, and descriptive names referring to the physical nature of the place or geographic formation. This standard

1177-530: A number of locations have been given Spanish names, including Punta Carbón and Punta Hueca . An Argentine naval station called Corbeta Uruguay was clandestinely built on Thule Island , South Sandwich Islands , on 7 November 1976 before its abandonment by Argentine forces following their defeat in the Falklands War . South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands are a collection of islands in

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1284-653: A part of Oceania, also administered by Chile), the Galápagos Islands (administered by Ecuador , sometimes considered part of Oceania), and Tierra del Fuego (split between Argentina and Chile). In the Atlantic Ocean, Brazil administers Fernando de Noronha , Trindade and Martim Vaz , and the Saint Peter and Saint Paul Archipelago , while the Falkland Islands (Spanish: Islas Malvinas ) and South Georgia and

1391-595: A research facility in 1949–1950 by the British Antarctic Survey , which until 1962 was called the Falkland Islands Dependencies Survey. The Falklands War was precipitated on 19 March 1982 when a group of Argentinians (most of them Argentine Marines in mufti ), posing as scrap-metal merchants, occupied the abandoned whaling station at Leith Harbour on South Georgia. On 3 April, Argentine troops attacked and occupied Grytviken . Among

1498-766: A separate territory. The King Edward Point base, which had become a small military garrison after the Falklands War, returned to civilian use in 2001 and is now operated by the British Antarctic Survey . Captain James Cook discovered the southern eight islands of the Sandwich Islands Group in 1775, although he lumped the southernmost three together, and their status as separate islands was not established until 1820 by Fabian Gottlieb von Bellingshausen . The northern three islands were discovered by Bellingshausen in 1819. The islands were tentatively named "Sandwich Land" by Cook, although he also commented that they might be

1605-481: A site called Chavín de Huantar in modern Peru at an elevation of 3,177 meters (10,423 ft). Chavín civilization spanned 900 BC to 300 BC. In the central coast of Peru, around the beginning of the 1st millennium AD, Moche (100 BC – 700 AD, at the northern coast of Peru), Paracas and Nazca (400 BC – 800 AD, Peru) cultures flourished with centralized states with permanent militia improving agriculture through irrigation and new styles of ceramic art. At

1712-483: A small boat to summon help, and on 10 May, after an epic voyage, they landed at King Haakon Bay on South Georgia's south coast. While three stayed at the coast, Shackleton and the two others, Tom Crean and Frank Worsley , went on to cover 22 miles (35 km) over the spine of the mountainous island to reach help at Stromness whaling station. The remaining 22 members of the expedition, who had stayed on Elephant Island, were subsequently rescued. In January 1922, during

1819-670: A subtropical climate of the dinaric type. At the highest points of the Andean region, climates are colder than the ones occurring at the highest point of the Norwegian fjords. In the Andean plateaus, the warm climate prevails, although it is tempered by the altitude, while in the coastal strip, there is an equatorial climate of the Guinean type. From this point until the north of the Chilean coast appear, successively, Mediterranean oceanic climate , temperate of

1926-492: A tanning works mixed together", and noted one bizarre peril: "A rotting whale could fill with gas to bursting, ejecting a fetus the size of a motor vehicle with sufficient force to kill a man." With the end of the whaling industry, the stations were abandoned. Apart from a few preserved buildings such as the South Georgia Museum and Norwegian Lutheran Church at Grytviken , only their decaying remains survive. From 1905,

2033-560: Is Alison Blake , who took the post on 1 July 2022. The executive, based in Stanley, Falkland Islands, is made up of a Chief Executive, three Directors, two managers, and a Business Support Officer. The Financial Secretary and Attorney General of the territory are appointed ex officio similar appointments in the Falkland Islands' government. On the island itself, Government Officers manage vessel visits, fishing and tourism, and represent

2140-607: Is a fragment of some greater land-mass now vanished and was probably a former extension of the Andean system . Smaller islands and islets off the coast of South Georgia Island include: These remote rocks are also considered part of the South Georgia Group: The South Sandwich Islands comprise 11 mostly volcanic islands (excluding tiny satellite islands and offshore rocks), with some active volcanoes. They form an island arc running north–south in

2247-515: Is because the most extensive part of the continent is in the equatorial zone (the region has more areas of equatorial plains than any other region), therefore giving the Southern Cone more oceanic influence, which moderates year round temperatures. The average annual temperatures in the Amazon basin oscillate around 27 °C (81 °F), with low thermal amplitudes and high rainfall indices. Between

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2354-487: Is by far the largest island in the territory. The South Sandwich Islands lie about 700 kilometres (430 mi) southeast of South Georgia. The territory's total land area is 3,903 km (1,507 sq mi). The Falkland Islands are about 1,300 kilometres (810 mi) west from its nearest point. The South Sandwich Islands are uninhabited, and a very small non-permanent population resides on South Georgia. There are no scheduled passenger flights or ferries to or from

2461-460: Is by far the most populous South American country, with almost half of the continent's population, followed by Colombia, Argentina, Venezuela, and Peru. In recent decades, Brazil has also generated half of the continent's GDP and has become the continent's first regional power. Most of the population lives near the continent's western or eastern coasts while the interior and the far south are sparsely populated. The geography of western South America

2568-597: Is dominated by the Andes mountains; in contrast, the eastern part contains both highland regions and vast lowlands where rivers such as the Amazon , Orinoco and Paraná flow. Most of the continent lies in the tropics, except for a large part of the Southern Cone located in the middle latitudes . The continent's cultural and ethnic outlook has its origin with the interaction of Indigenous peoples with European conquerors and immigrants and, more locally, with African slaves . Given

2675-517: Is mountainous and largely barren. Eleven peaks rise to over 2,000 metres (6,600 ft) high, their slopes furrowed with deep gorges filled with glaciers; the largest is Fortuna Glacier . The highest peak is Mount Paget in the Allardyce Range at 2,934 metres (9,626 ft). Geologically, the island consists of gneiss and argillaceous schists with occasional tuffs and other sedimentary layers from which fossils have been recovered. The island

2782-595: Is now Colombia. They established the Muisca Confederation of many clans, or cacicazgos , that had a free trade network among themselves. Many were goldsmiths and farmers. Other important Pre-Columbian cultures include: the Cañaris (in south central Ecuador), Chimú Empire (1300–1470, Peruvian northern coast), Chachapoyas , and the Aymaran kingdoms (1000–1450, Western Bolivia and southern Peru). Holding their capital at

2889-476: Is one of the most biodiverse continents on Earth. It is home to many unique species of animals including the llama , anaconda , piranha , jaguar , vicuña , and tapir , and to one of the largest known insects in the world, the Titan beetle . The Amazon rainforests possess high biodiversity , with Brazil estimated to contain 10% of Earth's species . 83% of South America's large mammals ( megafauna ) became extinct at

2996-443: Is possible the entire year. Inland, the snow line in summer is at an altitude of about 300 m (984 ft). Westerly winds blow throughout the year interspersed with periods of calm—indeed, in 1963, 25% of winds were in the calm category at King Edward Point, and the mean wind speed of around 8 knots (9.2 mph; 15 km/h) is around half that of the Falkland Islands. This gives the eastern side of South Georgia (leeward side)

3103-523: Is the largest country in South America, covering a little less than half of the continent's land area and encompassing around half of the continent's population. The remaining countries and territories are divided among four subregions : the Andean states , Caribbean South America , The Guianas , and the Southern Cone . Physiographically, South America also includes some of the nearby islands. The Dutch ABC islands ( Aruba , Bonaire , and Curaçao ),

3210-654: Is −19.4 °C (−2.9 °F), but Bird Island just −11.4 °C (11.5 °F). The seas surrounding South Georgia are cold throughout the year due to the proximity of the Antarctic Circumpolar Current . They usually remain free of pack ice in winter, though thin ice may form in sheltered bays, and icebergs are common. Sea temperatures drop to 0 °C (32 °F) in late August and rise to around 4 °C (39.2 °F) only in early April. The South Sandwich Islands are much colder than South Georgia, being farther south and more exposed to cold outbreaks from

3317-510: The Altiplano , Tiahuanaco or Tiwanaku (100 BC – 1200 AD, Bolivia) managed a large commercial network based on religion. Around the 7th century, both Tiahuanaco and Wari or Huari Empire (600–1200, Central and northern Peru) expanded its influence to all the Andean region, imposing the Huari urbanism and Tiahuanaco religious iconography. The Muisca were the main indigenous civilization in what

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3424-533: The Antarctic Treaty . Argentina claimed the South Sandwich Islands in 1938, and challenged British sovereignty in the Islands on several occasions. From 25 January 1955 to mid-1956, Argentina maintained the summer station, "Teniente Esquivel" ( es ) at Ferguson Bay on the southeastern coast of Thule Island . Argentina maintained a naval base ( Corbeta Uruguay ) from 1976 to 1982, in the lee (southern east coast) of

3531-572: The Archipelago of San Andrés, Providencia and Santa Catalina ( San Andrés Island , Providencia Island , and Santa Catalina Island etc., which are administered by Colombia ) are politically parts of South American countries but physiographically parts of North America. Other islands often associated with geopolitical South America are the Chiloé Archipelago and Robinson Crusoe Island (both administered by Chile), Easter Island (culturally

3638-802: The Atacama Desert ; the wettest place on earth, López de Micay in Colombia; the largest rainforest, the Amazon rainforest ; the highest capital city, La Paz , Bolivia ; the highest commercially navigable lake in the world, Lake Titicaca ; and, excluding research stations in Antarctica , the world's southernmost permanently inhabited community, Puerto Toro , Chile. South America's major mineral resources are gold, silver, copper, iron ore, tin , and petroleum. These resources have brought high income to its countries, especially in times of war or of rapid economic growth by industrialized countries elsewhere. However,

3745-686: The Bering Land Bridge (now the Bering Strait ) at least 15,000 years ago from the territory that is present-day Russia. They migrated south through North America, and eventually reached South America through the Isthmus of Panama . Amongst the oldest evidence for human presence in South America is the Monte Verde II site in Chile, suggested to date to around 14,500 years ago. From around 13,000 years ago,

3852-619: The Caribbean colonies and Brazil, as European nations built up economically slave-dependent colonies in the New World . Nearly 40% of all African slaves trafficked to the Americas went to Brazil. An estimated 4.9 million slaves from Africa came to Brazil during the period from 1501 to 1866. In contrast to other European colonies in the Americas which mainly used the labor of African slaves, Spanish colonists mainly enslaved indigenous Americans. In 1750,

3959-935: The Falkland Islands and South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands ; and one internal territory : French Guiana . The ABC islands of the Dutch Caribbean (north of Venezuela in the Leeward Antilles ), Ascension Island (a part of Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha ), Bouvet Island (a dependency of Norway ), Panama , and the Caribbean island country of Trinidad and Tobago may also be considered parts of South America. South America has an area of 17,840,000 square kilometers (6,890,000 sq mi). Its population as of 2021 has been estimated at more than 434 million. South America ranks fourth in area (after Asia, Africa, and North America) and fifth in population (after Asia, Africa, Europe, and North America). Brazil

4066-465: The Fishtail projectile point style became widespread across South America, with its disappearance around 11,000 years ago coincident with the disappearance of South America's megafauna. Maize was present in northern South America by around 6,000 years ago. By 2000 BC, many agrarian communities had been settled throughout the Andes and the surrounding regions. Fishing became a widespread practice along

4173-467: The Fortaleza area, contemporaneous with the pyramids of Ancient Egypt , one of the oldest-known civilizations in the Americas and one of the six sites where civilization separately originated in the ancient world. Caral–Supe governing class established a trade network and developed agriculture then followed by Chavín by 900 BC, according to some estimates and archaeological finds. Artifacts were found at

4280-688: The Maracaibo Lake and the mouth of the Orinoco, predominates an equatorial climate of the type Congolese, that also includes parts of the Brazilian territory. The east-central Brazilian plateau has a humid and warm tropical climate. The northern and eastern parts of the Argentine pampas have a humid subtropical climate with dry winters and humid summers of the Chinese type, while the western and eastern ranges have

4387-585: The Orinoco Llanos and in the Guianas Plateau , the precipitation levels go from moderate to high. The Pacific coast of Colombia and northern Ecuador are rainy regions, with Chocó in Colombia being the rainiest place in the world along with the northern slopes of Indian Himalayas. The Atacama Desert, along this stretch of coast, is one of the driest regions in the world. The central and southern parts of Chile are subject to extratropical cyclones , and most of

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4494-539: The Portuguese Crown abolished the enslavement of indigenous peoples in colonial Brazil , under the belief that they were unfit for labor and less effective than enslaved Africans. Enslaved Africans were brought to the Americas on slave ships , under inhuman conditions and ill-treatment, and those who survived were sold in slave markets . After independence, all South American countries maintained slavery for some time. The first South American country to abolish slavery

4601-705: The Portuguese Kingdom of Brazil , Dom Pedro I (also Pedro IV of Portugal), son of the Portuguese King Dom João VI , proclaimed the independent Kingdom of Brazil in 1822, which later became the Empire of Brazil . Despite the Portuguese loyalties of garrisons in Bahia , Cisplatina and Pará , independence was diplomatically accepted by Portugal in 1825, on condition of a high compensation paid by Brazil mediated by

4708-665: The Riograndense Republic ). South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands ( SGSSI ) is a British Overseas Territory in the southern Atlantic Ocean . It is a remote and inhospitable collection of islands, consisting of South Georgia and a chain of smaller islands known as the South Sandwich Islands . South Georgia is 165 kilometres (103 mi) long and 35 kilometres (22 mi) wide and

4815-641: The South American Plate . South America is home to several superlatives, including the world's highest uninterrupted waterfall , Angel Falls in Venezuela; the highest single-drop waterfall Kaieteur Falls in Guyana; the largest river by volume, the Amazon River ; the longest mountain range, the Andes (whose highest mountain is Aconcagua at 6,962 m or 22,841 ft); the driest non-polar place on earth,

4922-895: The Southern Hemisphere , with a considerably smaller portion in the Northern Hemisphere . It can also be described as the southern subregion of the Americas . South America is bordered on the west by the Pacific Ocean and on the north and east by the Atlantic Ocean ; North America and the Caribbean Sea lie to the northwest. The continent includes twelve sovereign states : Argentina , Bolivia , Brazil , Chile , Colombia , Ecuador , Guyana , Paraguay , Peru , Suriname , Uruguay , and Venezuela ; two dependent territories :

5029-411: The Spanish American wars of independence between the patriots, who promoted such autonomy, and the royalists , who supported Spanish authority over the Americas. The Juntas, in both Spain and the Americas, promoted the ideas of the Enlightenment . Five years after the beginning of the war, Ferdinand VII returned to the throne and began the Absolutist Restoration , as the royalists got the upper hand in

5136-452: The Thatcher peninsula , was originally given the Swedish name Majviken meaning " May Bay" but was later altered into its current Norwegian spelling. In addition, numerous German placenames were also adopted in recognition of the German International Polar Year Expedition of 1882-1883 and an earlier American whaling voyage in 1877-1878 carrying Austrian painter Heinrich Klutschak , with Klutschak Point and Schrader Glacier commemorating

5243-491: The Virgin Islands . Krum Bay culture, which emerged between 800 BC and 225 BC, also extended to St. Thomas . The Ortoiroid are considered the first settlers of the archipelago of Puerto Rico; however, recent reexamination of data, artifacts, and agricultural evidence and assumptions about culture have suggested a more complex picture. The Ortoiroid were hunter-gatherers . Shellfish remains have been found at Ortoitoid sites indicating that they constituted an important part of

5350-712: The native populations had no immune resistance – caused large-scale depopulation of the native population under Spanish control. Systems of forced labor, such as the haciendas and mining industry's mit'a also contributed to the depopulation. After this, enslaved Africans , who had developed immunities to these diseases, were quickly brought in to replace them. The Spaniards were committed to converting their native subjects to Christianity and were quick to purge any native cultural practices that hindered this end; however, many initial attempts at this were only partially successful, as native groups simply blended Catholicism with their established beliefs and practices. Furthermore,

5457-513: The 19th century. The waters proved treacherous and a number of vessels were wrecked there, such as Earl Spencer , in late 1801. South Georgia became a base for whaling beginning in the 20th century. A Norwegian, Carl Anton Larsen , established the first land-based whaling station and first permanent habitation at Grytviken in 1904. It operated through his Argentine Fishing Company , which settled in Grytviken. The station operated until 1965. Whaling stations operated under leases granted by

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5564-462: The Americas. The continent is generally delimited on the northwest by the Darién watershed along the Colombia–Panama border , although some may consider the border instead to be the Panama Canal . Geopolitically and geographically, all of Panama – including the segment east of the Panama Canal in the isthmus – is typically included in North America alone and among the countries of Central America . Almost all of mainland South America sits on

5671-441: The Antarctic continent. They are also surrounded by sea ice from the middle of May to late November (even longer at their southern end). Recorded temperature extremes at South Thule Island have ranged from −29.8 to 17.7 °C (−21.6 to 63.9 °F). Executive power is vested in the monarch of the United Kingdom and is exercised by the Commissioner , a post held by the Governor of the Falkland Islands . The current Commissioner

5778-446: The Argentine Patagonia is desert . In the Pampas of Argentina, Uruguay and South of Brazil the rainfall is moderate, with rains well distributed during the year. The moderately dry conditions of the Chaco oppose the intense rainfall of the eastern region of Paraguay. In the semiarid coast of the Brazilian Northeast the rains are linked to a monsoon regime. Important factors in the determination of climates are sea currents, such as

5885-421: The Argentine Meteorological Office cooperated in maintaining a meteorological observatory at Grytviken under the British lease requirements of the whaling station until these changed in 1949. In 1908, the United Kingdom issued further letters patent that established constitutional arrangements for its possessions in the South Atlantic. The letters covered South Georgia, the South Orkneys , the South Shetlands ,

5992-479: The Breton type and, already in Tierra del Fuego , cold climate of the Siberian type. The distribution of rainfall is related to the regime of winds and air masses. In most of the tropical region east of the Andes, winds blowing from the northeast, east and southeast carry moisture from the Atlantic, causing abundant rainfall. However, due to a consistently strong wind shear and a weak Intertropical Convergence Zone , South Atlantic tropical cyclones are rare. In

6099-411: The Governor of the Falkland Islands . The seven stations, all on the north coast with its sheltered harbours, were, from the west to east: The whaling stations' tryworks were unpleasant and dangerous places to work. One was called "a charnel house boiling wholesale in Vaseline" by an early 20th-century visitor. Tim Flannery wrote that its "putrid vapors [resembled] the pong of bad fish, manure, and

6206-454: The King Edward Point meteorological station (often generically and less accurately called Grytviken) on the sheltered eastern side of South Georgia is 28.8 °C (83.8 °F). Conversely, the highest recorded temperature at Bird Island on the windward western side is a mere 14.5 °C (58.1 °F). As one might expect, the sheltered eastern side can also record lower winter temperatures—the absolute minimum temperature for King Edward Point

6313-443: The Ortoiroid are found near or on the coasts. Tobago has at least one Ortoiroid site, Martinique has two, and Antigua has 24 Ortoiroid shell-midden sites. Ortoiroid peoples settled on St. Kitts from 2000 BC to 400 BC. The shell midden deposits of Banwari Trace and St. John, have been dated between 6000 and 5100 BC. These deposits, consisting of discarded shells, bone tools, and stone tools, represent extended use of crustaceans as

6420-417: The South Atlantic Ocean. Most of the islands, rising steeply from the sea, are rugged and mountainous. At higher elevations, the islands are permanently covered with ice and snow. The South Georgia Group lies about 1,390 kilometres (860 mi; 750 nmi) east-southeast of the Falkland Islands, at 54°–55°S, 36°–38°W. It comprises South Georgia Island itself, by far the largest island in the territory, and

6527-447: The South Sandwich Islands ( biogeographically and hydrologically associated with Antarctica) have been administered as two British Overseas Territories under the Crown , whose sovereignty over the islands is disputed by Argentina . An isolated volcanic island on the South American Plate , Ascension Island is geologically a part of South America. Administered as a dependency of Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha ,

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6634-426: The South Sandwich Islands as part of the Tierra del Fuego, Antártida e Islas del Atlántico Sur Province . Toothfish are vital to the islands' economy; as a result, Toothfish Day is celebrated on 4 September as a bank holiday in the territory. The island of South Georgia was first sighted and visited in April 1675 by Anthony de la Roché , a London merchant and (despite his French name) an Englishman, who spent

6741-409: The South Sandwich Islands has been questioned. During the Second World War , the Royal Navy deployed an armed merchant vessel to patrol South Georgian and Antarctic waters against German raiders, along with two four-inch shore guns (still present) protecting Cumberland Bay and Stromness Bay, which were operated by volunteers from among the Norwegian whalers. The base at King Edward Point was expanded as

6848-408: The South Sandwich Islands in 1938. Argentina maintained a naval station, Corbeta Uruguay , on Thule Island in the South Sandwich Islands from 1976 until 1982 when it was closed by the Royal Navy . The Argentine claim over South Georgia contributed to the 1982 Falklands War , during which Argentine forces briefly occupied the island. Argentina continues to claim sovereignty over South Georgia and

6955-495: The South Sandwich Islands is limited. The territory has revenues of £6.3 million, 80% of which is derived from fishing licences (2020 figures). Other sources of revenue are the sale of postage stamps and coins, tourism, and customs and harbour dues. Fishing takes place around South Georgia and in adjacent waters in some months of the year, with fishing licences sold by the territory for Patagonian toothfish , cod icefish and krill . Fishing licences bring in millions of pounds

7062-481: The South Sandwich Islands, and Graham Land . The claim was extended in 1917 to include a sector of Antarctica reaching to the South Pole . In 1909, an administrative centre and residence were established at King Edward Point on South Georgia, near the whaling station of Grytviken. A permanent local British administration and resident magistrate exercised effective possession , enforcement of British law , and regulation of all economic, scientific, and other activities in

7169-830: The Spaniards brought their language to the degree they did with their religion, although the Roman Catholic Church 's evangelization in Quechua , Aymara , and Guaraní actually contributed to the continuous use of these native languages albeit only in the oral form. Eventually, the natives and the Spaniards interbred, forming a mestizo class. At the beginning, many mestizos of the Andean region were offspring of Amerindian mothers and Spanish fathers. After independence, most mestizos had native fathers and European or mestizo mothers. Many native artworks were considered pagan idols and destroyed by Spanish explorers; this included many gold and silver sculptures and other artifacts found in South America, which were melted down before their transport to Spain or Portugal. Spaniards and Portuguese brought

7276-483: The Spanish and Portuguese colonies. First, Napoleon invaded Portugal, but the House of Braganza avoided capture by escaping to Brazil . Napoleon captured King Ferdinand VII of Spain, and appointed his own brother instead. This appointment provoked popular resistance, which created Juntas to rule in the name of the captured king. Many cities in the Spanish colonies, however, considered themselves equally authorized to appoint local Juntas like those of Spain. This began

7383-473: The United Kingdom . British arrangements for the government of South Georgia were established under 1843 British letters patent . In 1882–1883 a German expedition for the first International Polar Year set up its base at Royal Bay on the southeast side of the island. The scientists of this group observed the transit of Venus and recorded waves produced by the 1883 eruption of Krakatoa . Seal hunting at South Georgia began in 1786 and continued throughout

7490-423: The United Kingdom. The newly independent nations began a process of fragmentation, with several civil and international wars. However, it was not as strong as in Central America. Some countries created from provinces of larger countries stayed as such up to modern times (such as Paraguay or Uruguay), while others were reconquered and reincorporated into their former countries (such as the Republic of Entre Ríos and

7597-437: The coast, helping establish fish as a primary source of food. Irrigation systems were also developed at this time, which aided in the rise of an agrarian society . South American cultures began domesticating llamas , vicuñas , guanacos , and alpacas in the highlands of the Andes circa 3500 BC. Besides their use as sources of meat and wool, these animals were used for transportation of goods. The rise of plant growing and

7704-635: The commanding officers of the Argentine garrison was Alfredo Astiz , a captain in the Argentine Navy who was convicted years later of crimes against humanity committed during the Dirty War in Argentina. The island was recaptured by British forces on 25 April, in Operation Paraquet . In 1985, South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands ceased to be administered as a Falkland Islands Dependency and became

7811-461: The concentration in producing one, or few, major export commodities has often hindered the development and diversification of its economies. The fluctuation in the price of commodities in international markets has led historically to major highs and lows, booms and busts, in the economies of South American states, often causing political instability. This has led for calls to diversify production and increase trade within South America itself. Brazil

7918-535: The conflict. The independence of South America was secured by Simón Bolívar (Venezuela) and José de San Martín (Argentina), the two most important Libertadores . Bolívar led a great uprising in the north, then led his army south towards Lima , the capital of the Viceroyalty of Peru . Meanwhile, San Martín led an army across the Andes Mountains, along with Chilean expatriates, and liberated Chile. He organized

8025-617: The current Humboldt and Falklands . The equatorial current of the South Atlantic strikes the coast of the Northeast and there is divided into two others: the current of Brazil and a coastal current that flows to the northwest towards the Antilles , where there it moves towards northeast course thus forming the most Important and famous ocean current in the world, the Gulf Stream . South America

8132-420: The diet. This diet also included turtles, crabs, and fish. They were known for their lithic technology but did not have ceramics. Ortoiroid artifacts include bone spearpoints, perforated animal teeth worn as jewelry, and stone tools, such as manos and metates , net sinkers , pestles, choppers, hammerstones , and pebbles used for grinding. Ortoiroid people lived in caves and the open. They buried their dead in

8239-533: The end of the Pleistocene around 11,000 years ago as part of the Quaternary extinction event , among the highest of any continent, with the casualties including saber-toothed cats , ground sloths , glyptodonts , gomphotheres , the equines Hippidion and Equus neogeus , and all remaining South American native ungulates . South America is thought to have been first inhabited by humans when people were crossing

8346-476: The government 'on the ground'. A summer Deputy Postmaster runs the Post Office at Grytviken during the tourism season. As no permanent inhabitants live on the islands, no legislative council and no elections are needed. The UK Foreign, Commonwealth and Development Office (FCDO) manages the foreign relations of the territory. Since 1982, the territory celebrates Liberation Day on 25 April. The constitution of

8453-698: The great city of Cusco , the Inca civilization dominated the Andes region from 1438 to 1533. Known as Tawantin suyu , and "the land of the four regions", in Quechua , the Inca Empire was highly distinct and developed. Inca rule extended to nearly a hundred linguistic or ethnic communities, some nine to fourteen million people connected by a 25,000 kilometer road system . Cities were built with precise, unmatched stonework, constructed over many levels of mountain terrain. Terrace farming

8560-513: The historical presence of Norwegian whalers , including Hestesletten ("horse's plain"), Skrap Skerries ("skrapskjaer" or "skrapskjar"), Grytviken ("Pot Bay"), and Elsehul ("Else's hole"), as well as a few whaling stations such as Godthul ("good hollow"). The first person to be born in South Georgia (and south of the Antarctic Convergence ), Solveig Gunbjørg Jacobsen , was also Norwegian. The small cove Maiviken , located in

8667-473: The island is geopolitically a part of Africa. All of the world's major climate zones are present in South America. The distribution of the average temperatures in the region presents a constant regularity from the 30° of latitude south , when the isotherms tend, more and more, to be confused with the degrees of latitude. In temperate latitudes, winters and summers are milder than in North America. This

8774-596: The islands of Trinidad and Tobago ( Trinidad Island and Tobago Island etc.), the State of Nueva Esparta , and the Federal Dependencies of Venezuela sit on the northern portion of the South American continental shelf and are sometimes considered parts of the continent. Geopolitically, all the island countries and territories in the Caribbean have generally been grouped as a subregion of North America instead. By contrast, Aves Island (administered by Venezuela ) and

8881-494: The islands that immediately surround it and some remote and isolated islets to the west and east-southeast. It has a total land area of 3,756 square kilometres (1,450 sq mi), including satellite islands, but excluding the South Sandwich Islands which form a separate island group. South Georgia Island lies at 54°15′S 36°45′W  /  54.250°S 36.750°W  / -54.250; -36.750 and has an area of 3,528 square kilometres (1,362 sq mi). It

8988-526: The land outside Europe should be an exclusive duopoly between the two countries. The treaty established an imaginary line along a north–south meridian 370 leagues west of the Cape Verde Islands , roughly 46° 37' W. In terms of the treaty, all land to the west of the line (known to comprise most of the South American soil) would belong to Spain, and all land to the east, to Portugal. As accurate measurements of longitude were impossible at that time,

9095-476: The line was not strictly enforced, resulting in a Portuguese expansion of Brazil across the meridian. Beginning in the 1530s, the people and natural resources of South America were repeatedly exploited by foreign conquistadors , first from Spain and later from Portugal. These competing colonial nations claimed the land and resources as their own and divided it into colonies. European infectious diseases ( smallpox , influenza , measles , and typhus ) – to which

9202-406: The low insolation . A study published during the early 1960s indicated that sunshine recording instruments remained significantly obscured throughout the year and entirely obscured during June. It was estimated that the theoretical sunshine exposure minus obstructions would be around 14% at Bird Island and 35% at King Edward Point – or, in hourly terms, ranging from around 650 hours in

9309-453: The mid-17th century. It became a Dutch colony in 1667. The indigenous peoples of the Americas in various European colonies were forced to work in European plantations and mines; along with enslaved Africans who were also introduced in the proceeding centuries via the slave trade . European colonists were heavily dependent on indigenous labor during the initial phases of settlement to maintain

9416-479: The region 56°18'–59°27'S, 26°23'–28°08'W, between about 350 and 500 mi (300 and 430 nmi; 560 and 800 km) southeast of South Georgia. The archipelago comprises Candlemas , Vindication , Saunders , Montagu , Bristol , Bellingshausen , Cook and Thule discovered by Cook, and Thule. The northernmost of the South Sandwich Islands form the Traversay Islands and Candlemas Islands groups, while

9523-480: The same island. Although the British discovered the presence of the Argentine base in 1976, protested and tried to resolve the issue by diplomatic means, no effort was made to remove them by force until after the Falklands War . The base was removed on 20 June 1982. The sole official language of the territory is English, which is widely spoken amongst residents currently and used for nearly all administrative functions in

9630-618: The soil beneath shell middens. Red ochre was found at some sites and may have been used for body paint. The Ortoiroid were displaced by the Saladoid people in the West Indies. In many regions, they disappeared by approximately 400 BC; however, the Coroso culture survived until 200 AD. South America South America is a continent entirely in the Western Hemisphere and mostly in

9737-419: The southernmost make up Southern Thule . The three largest islands – Saunders , Montagu , and Bristol  – lie between the two. The islands' highest point is Mount Belinda (1,370 m or 4,495 ft) on Montagu Island. The fourth highest peak, Mount Michael (990 m or 3,248 ft) on Saunders Island has a persistent lava lake , known to occur at only eight volcanoes in

9844-421: The subsequent appearance of permanent human settlements allowed for the multiple and overlapping beginnings of civilizations in South America. One of the earliest known South American civilizations was Caral–Supe , on the central Peruvian coast. Though a pre-ceramic culture, the monumental architecture of Caral–Supe created one of the first cities of the world, generally dated to around 3500 BC, at Huaricanga in

9951-411: The subsistence economy, and natives were often captured by expeditions. The importation of African slaves began midway through the 16th century, but the enslavement of indigenous peoples continued well into the 17th and 18th centuries. The Atlantic slave trade brought enslaved Africans primarily to South American colonies, beginning with the Portuguese since 1502. The main destinations of this phase were

10058-463: The territory (adopted 3 October 1985), the manner in which its government is directed and the availability of judicial review were discussed in a series of litigations between 2001 and 2005 (see, in particular, Regina v. Secretary of State for Foreign and Commonwealth Affairs (Appellant) ex parte Quark Fishing Limited [2005] UKHL 57 ). Although its government is directed by the FCDO, it was held that, since it

10165-521: The territory include Morrell Point , Wasp Point , Pacific Point , and Comer Crag . Prominent Russian-language names chosen by Bellingshausen include the Traversay Islands , Zavodovski Island , and Visokoi Island ( высокий meaning "high"). There is also a Lowland Scots language presence within the topography of the territory, with some locations being named after notable Scottish individuals, such as Geikie Glacier and Allardyce Range , amongst others . A number of placenames were influenced by

10272-535: The territory, although visits by cruise liners to South Georgia are increasingly popular, with several thousand visitors each summer. The United Kingdom claimed sovereignty over South Georgia in 1775 and the South Sandwich Islands in 1908. The territory of "South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands" was formed in 1985; previously, it had been governed as part of the Falkland Islands Dependencies . Argentina claimed South Georgia in 1927 and claimed

10379-442: The territory, which was then governed as the Falkland Islands Dependencies . In about 1912, what is according to some accounts the largest whale ever caught, a blue whale of 110 feet (34 m), was landed at Grytviken. In April 1916, Ernest Shackleton 's Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition became stranded on Elephant Island , some 800 miles (1,300 km) southwest of South Georgia. Shackleton and five companions set out in

10486-593: The territory. Although English is used in the majority of government functions, the islands' motto Leo Terram Propriam Protegat is in Latin and is translated as "May the Lion protect his own land". The adoption of new placenames was governed by the Place-names Ordinance of 1956 and Place-names Regulation of 1957 until 11 September 2020, when a representative was appointed to the regional Antarctic Place-names Committee and

10593-453: The two trips. There has been a Spanish language presence in the territory for a significant amount of time, with the whaling company Compañía Argentina de Pesca operating in the territory for approximately 60 years. However, there are relatively few Spanish names within the territory currently, in part due to ongoing sovereignty dispute over the islands by Argentina, although since the beginning of Argentine Antarctic Expeditions in 1952,

10700-552: The west to 1,500 hours in the east. This illustrates the effect the Allardyce Range has in breaking up cloud cover. Mountain winds rise over the western slopes of the mountains of South Georgia and down the eastern side and become much warmer and drier due to the Föhn effect ; this produces the most pleasant conditions when temperatures can occasionally rise to over 20 °C (68 °F) on summer days. The highest temperature recorded at

10807-568: The western European architectural style to the continent, and helped to improve infrastructures like bridges, roads, and the sewer system of the cities they discovered or conquered. They also significantly increased economic and trade relations, not just between the old and new world but between the different South American regions and peoples. Finally, with the expansion of the Portuguese and Spanish languages, many cultures that were previously separated became united through that of Latin American. Guyana

10914-461: The world. The South Sandwich Islands are uninhabited, though a permanently staffed Argentine research station was located on Thule Island from 1976 to 1982. Automatic weather stations are on Thule Island and Zavodovski . To the northwest of Zavodovski Island is the Protector Shoal , a submarine volcano. The climate is classified as polar, and the weather is highly variable and harsh, making

11021-465: Was Chile in 1823, Uruguay in 1830, Bolivia in 1831, Guyana in 1833, Colombia and Ecuador in 1851, Argentina in 1853, Peru and Venezuela in 1854, Suriname in 1863, Paraguay in 1869, and in 1888 Brazil was the last South American nation and the last country in western world to abolish slavery. The European Peninsular War (1807–14), a theater of the Napoleonic Wars , changed the political situation of

11128-614: Was a useful form of agriculture. The Mapuche in Central and Southern Chile resisted the European and Chilean settlers, waging the Arauco War for more than 300 years. In 1494, Portugal and Spain, the two great maritime European powers of that time, on the expectation of new lands being discovered in the west, signed the Treaty of Tordesillas , by which they agreed, with the support of the Pope, that all

11235-639: Was acting as an agent of the Crown in right of South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands rather than in right of the UK, its decisions under that direction could not be challenged as if they were in law decisions of a UK government department; thus the European Convention on Human Rights did not apply. Commercial sealing occurred on the islands between 1817 and 1909. During that period 20 visits are recorded by sealing vessels. Economic activity in South Georgia and

11342-549: Was initially colonized by the Dutch before coming under British control , though there was a brief period during the Napoleonic Wars when it was occupied by the French . The region was initially partitioned between the Dutch, French and British before fully coming under the control of Britain. Suriname was first explored by the Spanish in the 16th century and then settled by the English in

11449-487: Was mostly followed by later visitors in the region, including by explorers from different countries, such as Russian explorer Fabian Gottlieb von Bellingshausen , who selected six new names within the territory in his 1819-1821 Antarctic expedition. Locations currently bearing names selected by Cook include Clerke Rocks , Possession Bay , and Bay of Isles , amongst others. Additional English names given many years after in recognition of past visits by American whalers in

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