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128-616: HIGHJUMP's objectives, according to the U.S. Navy report of the operation, were: The Western Group of ships reached the Marquesas Islands on December 12, 1946, whereupon the USS Henderson and USS Cacapon set up weather monitoring stations. By December 24, the USS Currituck had begun launching aircraft on reconnaissance missions. The Eastern Group of ships reached Peter I Island in late December 1946. On December 30, 1946,

256-503: A French warship . Protestants went to Hiva Oa, and also had little success. There were few converts; tribal warfare and human sacrifice continued. Protestant missionaries gradually left Hiva Oa and returned to Hawaii, and only James Kekela remained. In 1899, he returned to Hawaii, dying in Honolulu on 29 November 1904. Hawaiian-born missionary James Bicknell translated the Gospel of John into

384-521: A Martin PBM Mariner ) during a blizzard. The surviving six crew members were rescued 13 days later, including aviation radioman James H. Robbins and co-pilot William Kearns. A plaque honoring the three killed crewmen was later erected at the McMurdo Station research base, and Mount Lopez on Thurston Island was named in honor of killed naval aviator Maxwell A. Lopez. In December 2004, an attempt

512-467: A 2010 study that applied higher-precision radiocarbon dating methods to more reliable samples suggests that the earliest colonisation of eastern Polynesia took place much later, within a shorter time period, and in two waves: The first was a migration into the Society Islands between about 1025 and 1120 AD (four centuries later than had previously been thought); the second, between 70 and 265 years later,

640-668: A direct relationship with the metropole, the government in Paris, instead of depending on Papeete . As sentiment was rising in Tahiti in the 21st century for independence from France, several prominent Marquesan political leaders in 2007 floated the idea of the Marquesas Islands separating from French Polynesia but remaining within the French Republic. This has generated controversy in Tahiti, where pro-independence Tahitian leaders have accused

768-603: A letter from Nuku Hiva (the largest of the Marquesas Islands in French Polynesia ) to Chambers, the ship's commanding officer, commending him and his crew "for the courage and efficiency" displayed following the explosion that made Byrd "feel proud to be an American. Great heroism was displayed, especially by the men who lost their lives rescuing the wounded." Byrd completed the Special Mission in December and participated in

896-548: A mountain range, the Ames Range , after her father. They had four children – Richard Evelyn Byrd III , Evelyn Bolling Byrd Clarke, Katharine Agnes Byrd Breyer, and Helen Byrd Stabler. By late 1924, the Byrd family moved into a large brownstone house at 9 Brimmer Street in Boston's fashionable Beacon Hill neighborhood that had been purchased by Marie's father, a wealthy industrialist. Byrd

1024-534: A number of seamounts or shoals, located primarily in the area of the northern Marquesas. Among these are: Most of the Marquesas Islands are of volcanic origin, created by the Marquesas hotspot that underlies the Pacific Plate . The Marquesas Islands lie above a submarine volcanic plateau of the same name. The plateau, like the islands, is generally believed to be less than 5 million years old, though one hypothesis

1152-595: A number of delegates proportional to the size of its population. The president of the CODIM and the community council have their offices in Atuona , on the island of Hiva Oa . The current president is Benoît Kautai , mayor of Nuku Hiva , who was elected president by the community council in July 2020 after the 2020 French municipal elections and is due to serve for six years until the next municipal elections. The community of communes of

1280-572: A parade in New York City, and Congress passed a special act on December 21, 1926, promoting him to the rank of commander and awarding both Floyd Bennett and him the Medal of Honor . The Josephine Ford was flown around the country in celebration. Bennett was promoted to the warrant officer rank of machinist. Byrd and Bennett were presented with Tiffany Cross versions of the Medal of Honor on March 5, 1927, at

1408-455: A privately financed expedition, where he headed the inaugural aircraft crew that successfully flew over the South Pole. Byrd strongly advocated for ski-equipped aircraft, despite the considerable operational, logistical, and maintenance challenges they posed, necessitating the establishment of significant onshore bases to address these issues. As a result of his achievement, Byrd was promoted to

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1536-426: A result, the CODIM is now in charge of drafting a blueprint for local economic development. The French Polynesian government also transferred to the CODIM the power to grant subsidies in favor of cultural and sports activities. Transfers of powers from the six communes to the CODIM have been extremely limited. Besides drafting a blueprint for economic development and granting subsidies for cultural and sports activities,

1664-641: A rich habitat and environment. In 1791, the American maritime fur trader Joseph Ingraham first visited the northern Marquesas while commanding the brig Hope . He named them the Washington Islands. In 1813, Commodore David Porter claimed Nuku Hiva for the United States, but the United States Congress never ratified that claim. For a brief period the islands exported sandalwood , however

1792-568: A small sand bank on a coral reef , the only atoll in the Marquesas Islands. Unlike most French Polynesian islands, the Marquesas islands (other than Motu One) are not surrounded by protective fringing reefs. In those islands, coral is found only in bays and other protected areas, or, in the case of Fatu Huku , in an unusual place: in fossilized form at the top of the island. The South Equatorial Current lashes all these islands fiercely; its force has carved sea-caves that dot their shores. Although

1920-489: A storm in June 1526; it was part of an expedition headed by García Jofre de Loaísa . The Spanish explorer Álvaro de Mendaña reached them nearly 70 years later, on 21 July 1595. He named the islands after his patron, García Hurtado de Mendoza , 5th Marquis of Cañete ( Spanish : Marqués de Cañete ), who served as Viceroy of Peru from 1590 to 1596. Mendaña visited first Fatu Hiva and then Tahuata before continuing on to

2048-617: A time as Honorary National President (1931–1935) of Pi Gamma Mu , the international honor society in the social sciences. He carried the society's flag during his first Antarctic expedition to dramatize the spirit of adventure into the unknown, characterizing both the natural and social sciences. To finance and gain both political and public support for his expeditions, Byrd actively cultivated relationships with many powerful individuals, including President Franklin Roosevelt, Henry Ford, Edsel Ford, John D. Rockefeller Jr. , and Vincent Astor . As

2176-559: A token of his gratitude, Byrd named geographic features in the Antarctic after his supporters. On his second expedition during the summer of 1933–1934, (it was winter in the US, above the equator) Byrd spent five months alone operating a meteorological station, Advance Base, from which he narrowly escaped with his life after suffering carbon monoxide poisoning from a poorly ventilated stove. Unusual radio transmissions from Byrd finally began to alarm

2304-415: Is discussing Operation HIGHJUMP with admirals Byrd and Cruzen. The film re-enacted scenes of critical events, such as shipboard damage control and Admiral Byrd throwing items out of an airplane to lighten it to avoid crashing into a mountain. It won the 1948 Academy Award for Best Documentary Feature Film . [REDACTED]  This article incorporates public domain material from websites or documents of

2432-654: Is estimated that at least 150,000 such envelopes were produced, though their final number may be considerably higher. Rear Admiral Richard H. Cruzen , USN, Commanding Capt. George J. Dufek , USN, Commanding Capt. Charles A. Bond , USN, Commanding Rear Admiral Richard H. Cruzen , USN, Commanding Officer Rear Adm. Richard E. Byrd , Jr. USN, (Ret), Officer in Charge Capt. Clifford M. Campbell , USN, Commanding On December 30, 1946, aviation radiomen Wendell K. Henderson, Fredrick W. Williams, and Ensign Maxwell A. Lopez were killed when their plane crashed (named George 1—

2560-456: Is known to have been distributed via sailing canoes over distances of more than 2500 km to provide adze heads to Mo'orea (Society Islands), Mangareva (Gambier Islands), Tubuai (Austral Islands), Rarotonga (Cook Islands), and Tabuaeran (Northern Line Islands). The first Europeans to reach the Marquesas may have been the crew members aboard the San Lesmes , a Spanish vessel that disappeared in

2688-459: Is numbered 753 in the Scott's Catalog. The U.S. Post Office contracted with the expedition for this purpose as it had no other means to deliver mail to and from the Antarctic. Approximately 150,000 pieces of such mail went through the special Antarctic post office in 1933 to 1934. As only members of the post office were authorized to postmark and handle mail, Charles F. Anderson, a special representative of

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2816-593: Is some controversy as to whether or not Byrd was actually the first person to reach the North Pole. It is generally believed that the distance Byrd claimed to fly was longer than the possible fuel range of his airplane. He was a recipient of the Medal of Honor , the United States Armed Forces' highest military decoration, and the Navy Cross , the second highest honor for valor given by the U.S. Navy. Byrd

2944-465: Is that the plateau (not the islands) is significantly older, and has been formed by forces similar to those that have formed the Inca Plateau , which is subducting under northern Peru . The Marquesas islands are estimated to range in age from 1.3 million years old (Fatu Hiva) to 6 million years old (Eiao). All of them except Motu One are volcanic islands . Motu One is a low island , consisting of

3072-586: The circonscription des Marquises ("district of the Marquesas"), one of French Polynesia's four circonscriptions ("districts") created in 2000 by the Assembly of French Polynesia to serve as deconcentrated subdivisions of the government of French Polynesia in the islands away from Tahiti and Moorea . The head of the circonscription des Marquises is the tavana hau , known as administrateur territorial in French ("territorial administrator"), but

3200-520: The Assembly of French Polynesia (see also Politics of French Polynesia ). The Marquesas Islands are subdivided in six communes (municipalities). In each of the six communes the local residents with either a French or another EU citizenship elect a municipal council and a mayor in charge of managing local affairs within the commune. Three communes ( Nuku-Hiva , Ua-Pou , and Hiva-Oa ) are further subdivided into associated communes due to their larger population. The communes and associated communes are

3328-586: The Legion of Merit . In 1946, Secretary of the Navy James Forrestal appointed Byrd as officer in charge of Antarctic Developments Project. Byrd's fourth Antarctic expedition was code-named Operation Highjump . It was the largest Antarctic expedition to date and was expected to last 6–8 months. The expedition was supported by a large naval force (designated Task Force 68), commanded by Rear Admiral Richard H. Cruzen . Thirteen US Navy support ships (besides

3456-549: The Martin PBM-5 George 1 crashed on Thurston Island killing Ensign Maxwell A. Lopez, ARM1 Wendell K. Henderson, and ARM1 Frederick W. Williams. The other six crew members were rescued 13 days later. These and Vance N. Woodall, who died on January 21, 1947, were the only fatalities during Operation HIGHJUMP. On January 1, 1947, Lieutenant Commander Thompson and Chief Petty Officer John Marion Dickison utilized "Jack Browne" masks and DESCO oxygen rebreathers to log

3584-467: The Solomon Islands . His expedition charted the four southernmost Marquesas as Magdalena (Fatu Hiva), Dominica ( Hiva ʻOa ), San Pedro ( Moho Tani ), and Santa Cristina (Tahuata). In the late 18th century, European explorers estimated that the population was 80,000 to 100,000. Europeans and Americans were impressed with how easy life appeared to be in the islands, which had

3712-605: The Tahitian title tavana hau is most often used. The tavana hau is the direct representative of the president of French Polynesia's government who appoints him. The tavana hau and his staff sit in Taiohae on Nuku Hiva, same as the State administrator. The tavana hau is in charge of: The Marquesas Islands also form the electoral district of the Marquesas Islands, one of French Polynesia 's six electoral districts for

3840-554: The United States Coast Guard . Marquesas Islands The Marquesas Islands ( / m ɑːr ˈ k eɪ s ə s / mar- KAY -səss ; French : Îles Marquises or Archipel des Marquises or Marquises [maʁkiz] ; Marquesan : Te Henua ʻEnana ( North Marquesan ) and Te Fenua ʻEnata ( South Marquesan ), both meaning "the land of men") are a group of volcanic islands in French Polynesia , an overseas collectivity of France in

3968-696: The United States Strategic Bombing Survey (USSBS) in 1944 to 1945. On February 10, 1945, Byrd received the Order of Christopher Columbus from the government of the Dominican Republic . Byrd was present at the Japanese surrender in Tokyo Bay on September 2, 1945. He was released from active duty on October 1, 1945. In recognition of his service during World War II, Byrd received two awards of

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4096-506: The Virginia (Byrd's birth state). A base camp named " Little America " was constructed on the Ross Ice Shelf , and scientific expeditions by snowshoe , dog sled , snowmobile , and airplane began. To increase the interest of youth in arctic exploration, a 19-year-old American Boy Scout , Paul Allman Siple , was chosen to accompany the expedition. Siple went on to earn a doctorate and

4224-722: The Virginia Military Institute for two years and transferred to the University of Virginia , before financial circumstances inspired his starting over and taking an appointment to the United States Naval Academy , where he was appointed as a midshipman on May 28, 1908. On June 8, 1912, Byrd graduated from the Naval Academy and was commissioned an ensign in the United States Navy. On July 14, 1912, he

4352-509: The White House by President Calvin Coolidge . Since 1926, doubts have been raised, defenses made, and heated controversy arose over whether or not Byrd actually reached the North Pole. In 1958, Norwegian-American aviator and explorer Bernt Balchen cast doubt on Byrd's statement on the basis of his knowledge of the airplane's speed. Balchen said that Bennett had confessed to him months after

4480-466: The "desert" region of Nuku Hiva is only 510 millimetres (20 in). Droughts are frequent, sometimes lasting several years, and seem to be associated with the El Niño phenomenon. The typical variability of the sea-level climate in the Marquesas is well illustrated by measurements made at the Atuona weather station on Hiva ʻOa: The highest recorded annual rainfall there is 3,760 millimetres (148 in);

4608-489: The 16th-century Spanish Viceroy of Peru , the Marquis of Cañete ( Spanish : Marqués de Cañete ), by navigator Álvaro de Mendaña , who visited them in 1595. The Marquesas Islands constitute one of the five administrative divisions ( subdivisions administratives ) of French Polynesia. The capital of the Marquesas Islands' administrative subdivision is the town of Taiohae , on the island of Nuku Hiva . The population of

4736-599: The 18th century to about 20,000 by the middle of the 19th century, and to just over 4,000 by the beginning of the 20th century, reaching an all-time low of 2,255 in 1926. After that, the population started to increase, reaching 8,548 by the time of the November 2002 census (not including the Marquesan community residing in Tahiti ), and 9,346 by the time of the August 2017 census. In 2024,

4864-502: The 2017 census (down from 3,493 at the 2007 census), whereas 5,907 people born in the Marquesas Islands lived in the Marquesas (down from 6,106 at the 2007 census), and 705 lived in the rest of French Polynesia (up from 679 at the 2007 census). The total number of people born in the Marquesas Islands and living in French Polynesia decreased from 10,278 at the 2007 census to 9,965 at the 2017 census, as net births were not able to offset

4992-523: The Atlantic Ocean. Byrd was one of several aviators who attempted to win the Orteig Prize in 1927 for making the first nonstop flight between the United States and France. Once again, Byrd named Floyd Bennett as his chief pilot, with Norwegian Bernt Balchen, Bert Acosta , and Lieutenant George Noville as other crewmembers. During a practice takeoff with Anthony Fokker at the controls and Bennett in

5120-598: The Atlantic nonstop, another 20 years were needed before it would be realized on a commercial scale. In 1928, Byrd began his first expedition to the Antarctic involving two ships and three airplanes: Byrd's flagship was the City of New York (a Norwegian sealing ship previously named Samson that had come into fame as a ship some said was in the vicinity of the Titanic when the latter

5248-560: The Atlantic nonstop, naming Balchen to replace Bennett, who had not yet fully recovered from his injuries, as chief pilot. Byrd, Balchen, Acosta, and Noville flew from Roosevelt Field, East Garden City, New York , in the America on June 29, 1927. On board was mail from the US Postal Service to demonstrate the practicality of aircraft. Arriving over France the next day, they were prevented from landing in Paris by cloud cover; they returned to

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5376-506: The British designation of R-38 ). As fate would have it, Byrd missed his train to take him to the airship on August 24, 1921. The airship broke apart in midair, killing 44 of 49 crew members on board. Byrd lost several friends in the accident, and was involved in the subsequent recovery operations and investigation. The accident affected him deeply and inspired him to make safety a top priority in all of his future expeditions. Due to reductions in

5504-506: The CODIM is currently in charge only of creating hiking trails, drafting studies for waste collection (but not actually managing waste collection, which the communes kept for themselves), drafting a blueprint for transports between the islands of the archipelago, acquiring computers and office equipment for the six communes of the archipelago, and offering legal and technical support to the six communes. The French Polynesian public auditor ( chambre territoriale des comptes ) has pointed out that

5632-442: The CODIM is not a full-fledged territorial collectivity , but only a federation of communes (in French Polynesia, only the overseas collectivity of French Polynesia and the 48 communes are territorial collectivities). The CODIM is governed by a president and by a community council ( conseil communautaire ) which is made up of 15 delegates elected by the municipal councils of the six communes among their members, with each commune having

5760-585: The Catholic Diocese of Taiohae ( Latin : Dioecesis Taiohaënus seu Humanae Telluris ). According to 2017 data 90.1% of the population of the Marquesas Islands was affiliated with the Catholic Church, an increase from 1950 when Catholics formed 87.3% of population of the islands. Although the Mendaña ships had chaplains on board, there does not appear to have been any serious attempt at missionary work in

5888-607: The Chief of Naval Operations. The expedition continued in Antarctica without him until the last of its participants left Antarctica on March 22, 1941. As a senior officer in the United States Navy, Byrd was recalled on active duty on March 26, 1942, and served as the confidential advisor to Admiral Ernest J. King . From 1942 to 1945 he served on the South Pacific Island Base Inspection Board, which toured bases in

6016-523: The Chilean newspaper El Mercurio and read in part as follows: Admiral Richard E. Byrd warned today that the United States should adopt measures of protection against the possibility of an invasion of the country by hostile planes coming from the polar regions. The admiral explained that he was not trying to scare anyone, but the cruel reality is that in case of a new war, the United States could be attacked by planes flying over one or both poles. This statement

6144-567: The French central State and the government of French Polynesia. As a deconcentrated subdivision of the French central State, the Marquesas Islands form the administrative subdivision of the Marquesas (French: subdivision administrative des Marquises ), one of French Polynesia 's five administrative subdivisions . The head of the administrative subdivision of the Marquesas is the administrateur d'État ("State administrator"), generally simply known as administrateur , also sometimes called chef de la subdivision administrative ("head of

6272-582: The French central government of encouraging the separation of the Marquesas Islands from French Polynesia. The Marquesas Islands do not have a provincial or regional assembly, but since 2010 the six communes (municipalities) into which the Marquesas Islands are divided have gathered to form an intercommunality , the community of communes of the Marquesas Islands (in French: communauté de communes des îles Marquises , or CODIM). As all communities of communes in France,

6400-512: The Marquesan language in 1857. From 1838 to 1839, the Catholic mission was able to establish itself, supported by the French order Pères et religieuses des Sacrés-Cœurs de Picpus (founded in 1800). The missionaries spread from Mangareva to Tahuata, Ua Pou, Fatu Hiva and Nuku Hiva . They suffered the same hostile tribal reception as the previous Protestants. However, with the support of the French authorities, they were able to sustain themselves in

6528-417: The Marquesan languages is their almost universal replacement of the /r/ or /l/ of other Polynesian languages by a /ʔ/ (glottal stop). Like other Polynesian languages, the phonology of Marquesan languages is characterised by a paucity of consonants and a comparative abundance of vowels. Richard E. Byrd Richard Evelyn Byrd Jr. (October 25, 1888 – March 11, 1957), an American naval officer ,

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6656-532: The Marquesas Islands administrative subdivision is the settlement of Taiohae on the island of Nuku Hiva . The sparsely populated Marquesas Islands are located 1,371 km (852 mi) from Tahiti . With 183,645 inhabitants (2012 census), Tahiti is the most populous island of French Polynesia, containing 68.5% of the total population of the grouping. Residents of the Marquesas have chafed at Tahiti's overwhelming dominance, complaining of neglect by politicians based in Tahiti, and leaders have suggested developing

6784-459: The Marquesas Islands of French Polynesia . They are usually classified into two groups, North Marquesan and South Marquesan, corresponding roughly along geographic lines. The North Marquesan dialects are spoken on the islands of Ua Pu and Nuku Hiva , and South Marquesan dialects on the islands of Hiva ʻOa , Tahuata and Fatu Hiva . The dialects of Ua Huka are often incorrectly classified as North Marquesan; they are instead transitional. While

6912-431: The Marquesas Islands was 9,346 inhabitants at the time of the August 2017 census. The Marquesas Islands group is one of the most remote in the world. It lies about 1,370 kilometres (850 mi) northeast of Tahiti and about 4,800 kilometres (3,000 mi) west of Mexico (the nearest continental land mass). It is thought to have been formed by a centre of upwelling magma , called the Marquesas hotspot . The islands in

7040-481: The Marquesas Islands was created in 2010 with the aim of delegating powers both from the six communes and from the overseas collectivity of French Polynesia to this new intercommunal structure, due to the isolation of the Marquesas Islands and distance from the seat of the French Polynesian government in Tahiti. The government of French Polynesia transferred to the CODIM the power to oversee economic development. As

7168-445: The Marquesas Islands were listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site under " Te Henua Enata " ( lit.   ' The Land of Men ' ), as part of the committee 's commitment to conservation efforts protecting indigenous populations. The Marquesas Islands form one of the five administrative divisions ( subdivisions administratives ) of French Polynesia. French and Tahitian are the official languages of government. The capital of

7296-548: The Marquesas Islands. The first missionaries to arrive in the Marquesas from 1797, coming from England via Tahiti, were William Pascoe Crook (1775–1846) and John Harris (1754–1819) of the London Missionary Society . Harris could not endure the conditions at all and returned to Tahiti only a few months later. A contemporary report says that he was picked up on the beach, utterly desperate, naked and looted. Crook remained until 1799. The American mission from Hawaii

7424-501: The Marquesas lie within the tropics, they are remarkably dry. That is because they constitute the first major break for the prevailing easterly winds that arise from the (atmospherically) dry Humboldt Current . This subjects the Marquesas to frequent drought conditions. Only those islands that reach highest into the clouds (generally, higher than 750 metres (2,460 ft) above sea level) reliably have periods of precipitation. These conditions have historically led to periodic fluctuations in

7552-418: The Marquesas, as can be seen in the language statistics: 50.8% of the Marquesas Islands' residents whose age was 15 or older and who were born in Tahiti and lived in the Marquesas at the 2017 census reported that the language they spoke the most at home was Marquesan , whereas 42.1% reported French , and only 6.6% reported Tahitian . 3,353 people born in the Marquesas Islands lived on the island of Tahiti at

7680-533: The Navy Department Commission on Training Camps. In the autumn of 1917, he was sent to naval aviation school at Pensacola, Florida . He qualified as a naval aviator (number 608) in June 1918. He then commanded naval air forces at Naval Air Station Halifax in Nova Scotia , Canada, from July 1918 until the armistice in November. In that assignment, he was promoted to the permanent rank of lieutenant and

7808-659: The Navy after the First World War, Byrd reverted to the rank of lieutenant at the end of 1921. During the summer of 1923, then-Lieutenant Byrd and a group of volunteer Navy veterans of the First World War helped found the Naval Reserve Air Station (NRAS) at Squantum Point near Boston, using an unused First World War seaplane hangar which had remained more-or-less intact after the Victory Destroyer Plant shipyard

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7936-403: The Postmaster General, was assigned to the post office at Little America in Antarctica. In late 1938, Byrd visited Hamburg, and was invited to participate in the 1938/1939 German " Neuschwabenland " Antarctic Expedition, but declined. (Although Germany was not at war with the United States at this time, Adolf Hitler had been serving as Führer of the German Reich since 1934, and i nvaded Poland

8064-401: The Ross Ice Shelf under a piece of roller equipment designed to 'pave' the ice to build an airstrip." The documentary about the expedition The Secret Land was filmed entirely by military photographers (both USN and US Army) and narrated by actors Robert Taylor , Robert Montgomery , and Van Heflin . It features Chief of Naval Operations Fleet Admiral Chester W. Nimitz in a scene where he

8192-494: The Secretary of the Navy, the Commander-in-Chief United States Fleet and Chief of Naval Operations ordered Byrd to assume direction of a survey and "investigation of certain islands in the East and South Pacific in connection with national defense and commercial air bases and routes." The members of the Special Navy Mission sailed from Balboa, Canal Zone, on USS Concord , Captain Irving Reynold Chambers, commanding, in September 1943. A large explosion at sea on October 7, 1943, took

8320-413: The South Pacific in May and June 1942. The report submitted by the Board describes conditions found at each base and analyses, lessons learned in planning and equipping these bases. The report contains recommendations applicable to the individual bases and others designed to be helpful in the planning of future advanced bases. On 1 September 1943, in compliance with a series of letters from the President to

8448-403: The United States in late February 1947, and the expedition was terminated due to the early approach of winter and worsening weather conditions. Byrd discussed the lessons learned from the operation in an interview with Lee van Atta of International News Service held aboard the expedition's command ship, the USS Mount Olympus . The interview appeared in the Wednesday, March 5, 1947, edition of

8576-407: The actions of the CODIM have been very limited and fallen short of its theoretical powers due to a very small budget (less than 100 million Pacific Francs, i.e. less than US$ 1 million). For example, the CODIM has not exercised its power to acquire computers and office equipment for the six communes of the archipelago, and more generally its creation has not led to a pooling of resources and expenses by

8704-401: The adjutant general of Rhode Island, for making great strides in improving the efficiency of the militia. Shortly after the entry of the United States into the First World War in April 1917, Byrd oversaw the mobilization of the Rhode Island Naval Militia. He was then recalled to active duty and was assigned to the Office of Naval Operations and served in a desk job as secretary and organizer of

8832-413: The administrative subdivision"). The administrateur is a civil servant under the authority of the High Commissioner of the French Republic in French Polynesia in Papeete . The administrateur and his staff sit in Taiohae , on the island of Nuku Hiva , which has become the administrative capital of the Marquesas Islands, having replaced Atuona on the island of Hiva ʻOa , which was previously

8960-424: The admiral – is one of the most important lessons learned during his recent Antarctic exploration. I have to warn my compatriots that the time has ended when we were able to take refuge in our isolation and rely on the certainty that the distances, the oceans, and the poles were a guarantee of safety. After the operation ended, a follow-up Operation Windmill returned to the area in order to provide ground-truthing to

9088-441: The aerial photography of HIGHJUMP from 1947 to 1948. Finn Ronne also financed a private operation to the same territory until 1948. As with other U.S. Antarctic expeditions, interested persons were allowed to send letters with enclosed envelopes to the base, where commemorative cachets were added to their enclosures, which were then returned to the senders. These souvenir philatelic covers are readily available at low cost. It

9216-414: The availability of fresh water. Periodic lack of water has made human habitation only intermittently sustainable in certain parts of the various islands throughout the archipelago. For example, Ua Huka Island (maximum elevation 857 metres (2,812 ft)) has a history of low population levels, and Eiao Island (maximum elevation 576 metres (1,890 ft)) has been intermittently uninhabited. There are also

9344-444: The aviation element during the expedition led to Byrd's renown as a pioneer of aircraft in exploration. During this expedition, Byrd made the acquaintance of Navy Chief Aviation Pilot Floyd Bennett and Norwegian pilot Bernt Balchen , both of whom would later contribute to Byrd's expeditions. Bennett served as a pilot in his flight to the North Pole the next year. Balchen, whose knowledge of Arctic flight operations proved invaluable,

9472-418: The capital (although, in reverse to this general trend, Atuona was selected as the seat of the community of communes of the Marquesas Islands in 2010). Acting as the representative of the French central State and delegate of Papeete's High Commissioner, the administrateur of the Marquesas is in charge of: As a deconcentrated subdivision of the government of French Polynesia, the Marquesas Islands form

9600-541: The co-pilot seat, the Fokker Trimotor airplane, America , crashed, severely injuring Bennett and slightly injuring Byrd. As the plane was being repaired, Charles Lindbergh won the prize by completing his historic flight on May 21, 1927. (Coincidentally, in 1925, then Army Air Service Reserve Corps Lieutenant Charles Lindbergh had applied to serve as a pilot on Byrd's North Pole expedition, but apparently, his bid came too late.) Byrd continued with his quest to cross

9728-543: The coast of Normandy and crash-landed near the beach at Ver-sur-Mer (known as Gold Beach during the Normandy Invasion on June 6, 1944) without fatalities on July 1, 1927. In France, Byrd and his crew were received as heroes and Byrd was invested as an Officer of the French Legion of Honor by Prime Minister Raymond Poincare on July 6. After their return to the United States, an elaborate dinner in their honor

9856-532: The departures to New Caledonia and Metropolitan France due to the economic crisis experienced by French Polynesia. Most of the population of the Marquesas Islands is Christian as a consequence of the missionary activity of the Catholic Church , and various Protestant Christian groups. The main church in the area is the Cathedral of Our Lady of Taiohae ( French : Cathédrale Notre-Dame de Taiohae ), seat of

9984-450: The expedition. The flight left from Spitsbergen (Svalbard) and returned to its takeoff airfield, lasting 15 hours and 57 minutes, including 13 minutes spent circling at their Farthest North . Byrd and Bennett said they reached the North Pole, a distance of 1,535 miles (1,335 nautical miles ). When he returned to the United States from the Arctic, Byrd became a national hero. He was thrown

10112-458: The first dive by Americans under the Antarctic. Paul Siple was the senior U.S. War Department representative on the expedition. Siple was the same Eagle Scout who accompanied Byrd on the previous Byrd Antarctic expeditions. The Central Group of ships reached the Bay of Whales on January 15, 1947, where they began construction of Little America IV . Naval ships and personnel were withdrawn back to

10240-509: The flight of the airship Norge that flew from Spitsbergen (Svalbard) to Alaska nonstop with a crew including Roald Amundsen , Umberto Nobile , Oscar Wisting , and Lincoln Ellsworth . In 1927, Byrd announced he had the backing of the American Trans-Oceanic Company , which had been established in 1914 by department-store magnate Rodman Wanamaker for the purpose of building aircraft to complete nonstop flights across

10368-509: The flight that Byrd and he had not reached the pole. Bennett, who had not completely healed from the early crash, developed pneumonia after participating in a flight to rescue downed German aviators in Greenly Island, Canada, leading to his death on April 25, 1928. Bennett, though, had started a memoir, given numerous interviews, and wrote an article for an aviation magazine about the flight before his death that all confirmed Byrd's version of

10496-589: The flight. The 1996 release of Byrd's diary of the May 9, 1926, flight revealed erased (but still legible) sextant sights that sharply differ from Byrd's later June 22 typewritten official report to the National Geographic Society. Byrd took a sextant reading of the Sun at 7:07:10 GCT. His erased diary record shows the apparent (observed) solar altitude to have been 19°25'30", while his later official typescript reports

10624-411: The following: Between the 2007 and 2017 censuses, the population of residents of the Marquesas Islands born in Tahiti rose by 50.5% (from 1,810 at the 2007 census to 2,726 at the 2017), and as a result, they made up 29.2% of the population in 2017. A lot of these arrivals from Tahiti, however, are children of Marquesans who had migrated to Tahiti and given birth there, and whose children are returning to

10752-588: The funding needed to finance Byrd's expedition to the Antarctic. The expedition, via the Post Office, sold philatelic subscription Philatelic covers to be serviced at the official USPOD post office set up in the Antarctic exploration base , dubbed Little America , and which was officially established on October 6, 1933. All mail sent to the Antarctic required at least one Byrd II 3 cent stamp (pictured), along with sufficient postage amounting to 53 cents. The postage stamp

10880-463: The group fall naturally into two geographical divisions. One is the northern group, consisting of Eiao , Hatutu ( Hatutaa ), Motu One , and the islands surrounding the large island of Nuku Hiva : Motu Iti , also called Hatu Iti ; Ua Pou ; Motu Oa ; and Ua Huka ). The other is the southern group, consisting of Fatu Uku , Tahuata , Moho Tani ( Motane ), Terihi , Fatu Hiva , and Motu Nao (also called Thomasset Rock), which are clustered around

11008-413: The island is in the northern Marquesas group, the dialects show more morphological and phonological affinities with South Marquesan. The North Marquesan dialects are sometimes considered to be two separate languages: North Marquesan and Tai Pi Marquesan , the latter being spoken in the valleys of the eastern third of the island of Nuku Hiva, in the ancient province of Tai Pi . The most striking feature of

11136-447: The islands have valleys that empty into small bays, they are remarkable for their mountain ridges, which end abruptly in cliffs at the edge of the sea. Temperatures in the Marquesas are stable all year round. Precipitation is highly variable: greater in the northern and eastern (windward) coastal areas and mountains, averaging 2,500 millimetres (98 in) annually; much lower in the western (leeward) areas. Average annual precipitation in

11264-413: The lives of 24 Concord crewmen, including the executive officer, Commander Rogers Elliott. Caused by ignition of gasoline fumes at the stern of the ship, the explosion threw some men overboard, while others were killed from concussion, burns, fractured skulls and broken necks. Several sailors died while trying to save their shipmates. The dead were buried at sea on October 8. On October 23, 1943, Byrd wrote

11392-756: The long run, despite the obstacles. They even managed to baptize King Moana of Nuku Hiva who, however, would die of smallpox in 1863. The missionaries of all denominations did their best to eradicate the traditional culture in any way possible. Not only were the Christians disapproving of the long-enjoyed consumption of kava , the ancient and sacred tattoo artwork, and general dancing and traditional music, but they were especially horrified by tribal fertility /virility rites and skull dissection . However, they also tried – and finally succeeded – putting an end to cannibalism , human sacrifice and constant tribal warfare. French and Tahitian are

11520-482: The lowest is 560 millimetres (22 in). The first recorded settlers of the Marquesas were Polynesians who arrived from West Polynesia, descendants of the Lapita Culture . Early attempts to carbon-date evidence from the site suggested they arrived before 100 AD, with other estimates proposing settlement from 600 AD, but several more recent independent studies suggest that they arrived more recently. For example,

11648-472: The main island of Hiva ʻOa . The Marquesas are among the largest island groups in French Polynesia. Their combined land area is 1,049 square kilometres (405 sq mi). One of the islands in the group, Nuku Hiva, is the second-largest island in the entire territory (after Tahiti ). With the exception of Motu One, all the islands of the Marquesas are of volcanic origin. Although Polynesia tends to be associated with images of lush tropical vegetation, and

11776-412: The men at the base camp, who then attempted to go to Advance Base. The first two trips were failures due to darkness, snow, and mechanical troubles. Finally, Thomas Poulter , E. J. Demas , and Amory Waite arrived at Advance Base, where they found Byrd in poor physical health. The men remained at Advance Base until October 12. when an airplane from the base camp picked up Dr. Poulter and Byrd. The rest of

11904-511: The men returned to base camp with the tractor. This expedition is described by Byrd in his autobiography Alone . During the summer months the days were long and the evenings existed in twilight. Inside the exploration headquarters Byrd had fashioned a large calendar on the wall, where he would cross off each day as it passed. A CBS radio station, KFZ, was set up on the base camp ship, the Bear of Oakland and The Adventures of Admiral Byrd program

12032-408: The natural resources in the islands has historically supported a large population. The inhabitants historically made a living by fishing, collecting shellfish, hunting birds, and gardening. They relied heavily on breadfruit but raised at least 32 other introduced crops. Hard evidence of significant pre-European interarchipelago trade has been found in basalt from the Marquesan quarry island of Eiao. It

12160-506: The next year .) Byrd's third expedition was the first one financed and conducted by the United States government. The project included extensive studies of geology, biology, meteorology, and exploration. The innovative Antarctic Snow Cruiser was brought with the expedition, but broke down shortly after arriving. Within a few months, in March 1940, Byrd was recalled to active duty in the Office of

12288-471: The official languages of all of French Polynesia, but the Marquesan languages, in their various forms, remain the primary means of communication among residents within this archipelago. In addition, knowledge of French is now almost universal among residents of the Marquesas Islands (see census data below). Marquesan is a collection of East-Central Polynesian language dialects, of the Marquesic group, spoken in

12416-496: The only elected councils in the Marquesas since there does not exist a provincial or regional assembly for the entire archipelago (the community council of the CODIM ( community of communes of the Marquesas Islands) is not directly elected by local residents, but is only made up of delegates chosen by the municipal councils of the six communes). Municipal elections are held every six years on the same day as municipal elections in

12544-522: The rank of rear admiral by a special act of Congress on December 21, 1929. As he was only 41 years old at the time, this promotion made Byrd the youngest admiral in the history of the United States Navy. By way of comparison, none of his Annapolis classmates became admirals until 1942, after 30 years of commissioned service. He is one of only four persons including Admiral David Dixon Porter , Arctic explorer Rear Admiral Donald Baxter MacMillan and Rear Admiral Frederic R. Harris , to have been promoted to

12672-588: The rank of rear admiral in the United States Navy without having first held the rank of captain. After a further summer of exploration, the expedition returned to North America on June 18, 1930. Unlike the 1926 flight, this expedition was honored with the gold medal of the American Geographical Society . This was also seen in the film With Byrd at the South Pole (1930), which covered his trip there. Byrd, by then an internationally recognized, pioneering American polar explorer and aviator, served for

12800-657: The resource was depleted within four years. The islands were a popular port of call for whaling ships in the Age of Sail . The first on record to visit was the Hope , in April 1791. The last known such visitor was the American whaler Alaska in February 1907. In 1842, France conducted a successful military operation in support of the native chief Iotete 's claim that he was king of the whole island of Tahuata. The French government then laid claim to

12928-417: The rest of France (see 2020 French municipal elections for the last municipal elections). Each municipal council then selects delegates among its members to sit in the community council of the CODIM in Atuona (on the island of Hiva Oa ). The areas and populations of the communes at the 2012 Census were as follows: The places of birth of the 9,346 residents of the Marquesas Islands at the 2017 census were

13056-400: The same 7:07:10 apparent solar altitude to have been 18°18'18". On the basis of this and other data in the diary, Dennis Rawlins concluded that Byrd steered accurately, and flew about 80% of the distance to the pole before turning back because of an engine oil leak, but later falsified his official report to support his statement of reaching the pole. Accepting that the conflicting data in

13184-438: The sextant data in the long-unavailable original official typewritten report are all expressed to 1 second, a precision not possible on Navy sextants of 1926 and not the precision of the sextant data in Byrd's diary for 1925 or the 1926 flight, which was normal (half or quarter of a minute of arc). If Byrd and Bennett did not reach the North Pole, then the first flight over the pole occurred a few days later, on May 12, 1926, with

13312-428: The six communes. Most of the CODIM's budget has been spent on drafting a blueprint for local economic development, but the CODIM has neither the power nor the financial means to implement the blueprint and build the required infrastructure. The public auditor has called for an expansion of the powers and financial resources of the CODIM. Administratively, the Marquesas Islands form a deconcentrated subdivision of both

13440-436: The southern Pacific Ocean. Their highest point is the peak of Mount Oave (French: Mont Oave ) on Ua Pou island, at 1,230 m (4,035 ft) above sea level. Archaeological research suggests the islands were colonized in the 10th century AD by voyagers from West Polynesia. Over the centuries that followed, the islands have maintained a "remarkably uniform culture, biology and language". The Marquesas were named after

13568-480: The temporary rank of lieutenant commander. For his services during the war, he received a letter of commendation from Secretary of the Navy Josephus Daniels , which was after World War II converted to a Navy Commendation Medal . After the war, Byrd volunteered to be a crew member in the U.S. Navy's 1919 aerial transatlantic crossing. This mission was historic, as it was the first time the Atlantic Ocean

13696-510: The trip on May 18, 1919, achieving the first transatlantic flight. In 1921, Byrd volunteered to attempt a solo nonstop crossing of the Atlantic Ocean, prefiguring Charles Lindbergh 's historic flight by six years. Byrd's ambition was dashed by then acting Secretary of the Navy Theodore Roosevelt Jr. , who felt the risks outweighed the potential rewards. Byrd was then assigned to the ill-fated dirigible ZR-2 (formerly known by

13824-510: The typed report's flight times indeed require both northward and southward ground speeds greater than the flight's 85-mph airspeed , a Byrd defender posits a westerly-moving anticyclone that tailwind-boosted Byrd's ground speed on both outward and inward legs, allowing the distance said to be covered in the time stated (the theory is based on rejecting handwritten sextant data in favor of typewritten alleged dead-reckoning data ). This suggestion has been challenged by Dennis Rawlins, who adds that

13952-629: The whole island group and established a settlement on Nuku Hiva. That settlement was abandoned in 1857, but France re-established control over the group in 1870. It later incorporated the Marquesas into French Polynesia . The indigenous people of the Marquesas suffered high death rates from diseases carried by Western explorers, such as smallpox and measles , because none of them had any immunity to them. The Marquesas lost more people to death from these diseases than any other island group in Polynesia. The population shrank from over 78,000 inhabitants in

14080-414: Was a dispersal of migrants to all the remaining Marquesas islands between about 1190 and 1290 AD. This relatively rapid colonisation is believed to account for the "remarkable uniformity of East Polynesian culture, biology and language". A different study, published in 2014, suggested that the date of first settlement in the Marquesas was somewhat earlier: between around 900 and 1000 AD. The richness of

14208-611: Was a pioneering American aviator, polar explorer, and organizer of polar logistics. Aircraft flights in which he served as a navigator and expedition leader crossed the Atlantic Ocean, a segment of the Arctic Ocean, and a segment of the Antarctic Plateau . He is also known for discovering Mount Sidley , the largest dormant volcano in Antarctica. Byrd claimed to be the first to reach both the North and South Poles by air. However, there

14336-596: Was assigned to the battleship USS Wyoming . During service in the Caribbean Sea, Byrd received his first letter of commendation, and later a Silver Lifesaving Medal , for twice plunging fully clothed to the rescue of a sailor who had fallen overboard. In April 1914, he transferred to the armored cruiser USS Washington and served in Mexican waters in June following the American intervention in April. His next assignment

14464-576: Was born in Winchester, Virginia , the son of Esther Bolling (Flood) and Richard Evelyn Byrd Sr. He was a descendant of one of the First Families of Virginia . His ancestors include planter John Rolfe and his wife Pocahontas , William Byrd II of Westover Plantation , who established Richmond , as well as William Byrd I and Robert "King" Carter , a colonial governor. He was also descended from George Yeardley , Francis Wyatt and Samuel Argall . He

14592-484: Was built on the site. NRAS Squantum was commissioned on August 15, 1923, and is considered to have been the first air base in the Naval Reserve program. Byrd commanded the aviation unit of the arctic expedition to North Greenland led by Donald B. MacMillan from June to October 1925. Although the expedition was largely unsuccessful (they did not in fact reach the pole) Byrd's efforts and the successful contributions of

14720-568: Was crossed by an aircraft. It was decided that only men who had not served overseas would be allowed on the mission. Unfortunately for Byrd, his tour of duty in Newfoundland was considered overseas service. Byrd was, however, able to make a valuable contribution, as his expertise in aerial navigation resulted in his appointment to plan the flight path of the mission. Of the three flying boats (NC-1, NC-3, and NC-4) that started from Newfoundland, only Lieutenant Commander Albert Read 's NC-4 completed

14848-583: Was friends with Edsel Ford and his father Henry Ford , whose admiration of his polar exploits helped to gain Byrd sponsorship and financing for his various polar expeditions from the Ford Motor Company. He had a pet dog, Igloo, who accompanied Byrd to the North and South poles and who is buried at the Pine Ridge Pet Cemetery with a tombstone that reads "He was more than a friend." Byrd attended

14976-710: Was held in New York City on July 19. Byrd and Noville were awarded the Distinguished Flying Cross by Secretary of the Navy Curtis D. Wilbur at the dinner. Acosta and Balchen did not receive the Distinguished Flying Cross because, at that time, it could only be awarded to members of the armed services and not to civilians. Byrd wrote an article for the August 1927 edition of Popular Science Monthly in which he accurately predicted that while specially modified aircraft with one to three crewmen would fly

15104-556: Was launched. Byrd, along with pilot Bernt Balchen , co-pilot/radioman Harold June , and photographer Ashley McKinley , flew the Floyd Bennett to the South Pole and back in 18 hours, 41 minutes. They had difficulty gaining enough altitude, and they had to dump empty gas tanks, as well as their emergency supplies, to achieve the altitude of the Polar Plateau, but they were ultimately successful. In November 1929, Byrd participated in

15232-404: Was made as part of a recapitulation of his own polar experience, in an exclusive interview with International News Service. Talking about the recently completed expedition, Byrd said that the most important result of his observations and discoveries is the potential effect that they have in relation to the security of the United States. The fantastic speed with which the world is shrinking – recalled

15360-539: Was made to locate the remains of the plane. In 2007 a group called the George One Recovery Team was unsuccessful in trying to get direct military involvement and raise extensive funds from the United States Congress to try to find the bodies of the three men killed in the crash. On January 21, 1947, Vance N. Woodall died during a "ship unloading accident". In a crew profile, deckman Edward Beardsley described his worst memory as "when Seaman Vance Woodall died on

15488-501: Was no more successful. William Patterson Alexander (1805–1864), Benjamin Parker (1803–1877), and Richard Armstrong (1805–1860) arrived in the Marquesas in 1834 from Hawaii with their wives and a three-month-old baby. They returned the same year. In 1853, more missionaries led by James Kekela (1824–1904) arrived at Fatu Hiva with their wives from Hawaii, but were unable to remain there because of clashes with Catholic missionaries arriving on

15616-415: Was probably the only person, other than Byrd himself, to participate in all five of Byrd's Antarctic expeditions. Photographic expeditions and geological surveys were undertaken for the duration of that summer, and constant radio communications were maintained with the outside world. After their first winter, their expeditions were resumed, and on November 28, 1929, the first flight to the South Pole and back

15744-488: Was short-waved to Buenos Aires, then relayed to New York. Sponsored by General Foods , the broadcasts aired on Saturday nights at 10:00 pm and reached #16 on the Hooper rating for the 1933-34 broadcast season, reaching an average audience of 19.1 million. Byrd's Antarctic expedition prompted President Roosevelt and the U.S. Postmaster General to honor the event in 1933 on a U.S. commemorative stamp which greatly helped raise

15872-591: Was sinking) and the Eleanor Bolling (named after Byrd's mother); a Ford Trimotor airplane called the Floyd Bennett (named after the recently deceased pilot of Byrd's previous expeditions) flown by Dean Smith ; a Fairchild FC-2W2 , NX8006, built 1928, named Stars And Stripes (now displayed at the National Air and Space Museum 's Steven F. Udvar-Hazy Center ); and a Fokker Super Universal monoplane called

16000-529: Was the brother of Virginia Governor and U.S. Senator Harry F. Byrd , a dominant figure in the Virginia Democratic Party from the 1920s until the 1960s; their father served as Speaker of the Virginia House of Delegates for a time. On January 20, 1915, Richard married Marie Ames Byrd (d. 1974). He would later name a region of Antarctic land he discovered " Marie Byrd Land " after her, and

16128-437: Was the primary pilot on Byrd's flight to the South Pole in 1929. On May 9, 1926, Byrd and Navy Chief Aviation Pilot Floyd Bennett attempted a flight over the North Pole in a Fokker F.VIIa/3m tri-motor monoplane named Josephine Ford after the daughter of Ford Motor Company president Edsel Ford , who helped finance the expedition. In addition to Ford contributions, John D. Rockefeller also notably provided funding for

16256-692: Was to the gunboat USS Dolphin , which also served as the yacht of the Secretary of the Navy. This assignment brought Byrd into contact with high-ranking officials and dignitaries, including then Assistant Secretary of the Navy Franklin Roosevelt . He was promoted to the rank of lieutenant (junior grade) on June 8, 1915. During Byrd's assignment to Dolphin , he was commanded by future Fleet Admiral William D. Leahy , who served as chief of staff to President Franklin D. Roosevelt during World War II . Byrd's last assignment before forced retirement

16384-568: Was to the presidential yacht USS Mayflower . On March 15, 1916, Byrd, much to his frustration, was medically retired on three-quarters pay for an ankle injury he suffered on board Mayflower . Shortly thereafter, on December 14, 1916, he was assigned as the inspector and instructor for the Rhode Island Naval Militia in Providence, Rhode Island . While serving in this position, he was commended by Brigadier General Charles W. Abbot ,

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