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123-841: Operation Flax was an Allied air operation during the Tunisian campaign , as part of the larger North African campaign of the Second World War . Flax was intended to prevent air supply between Italy and the Axis armies in Tunis , Tunisia, in April 1943. An equivalent Allied naval effort was called Operation Retribution . In November 1942, American and British forces landed in North Africa under Operation Torch . Allied thrusts overran Vichy French Morocco and Algeria and advanced into Tunisia . The danger for

246-904: A common Anglo-American vision of the postwar world, as formalized by the Atlantic Charter . At the Second Inter-Allied Meeting in London in September 1941, the eight European governments in exile, together with the Soviet Union and representatives of the Free French Forces, unanimously adopted adherence to the common principles of policy set forth in the Atlantic Charter. In December, Japan attacked American and British territories in Asia and

369-408: A crash on 29 or 30 April. The last transport missions were flown on 4 May, in which 117 tons of fuel and ammunition were brought in. Some supply drops were attempted (by II./ Kampfgeschwader 1 ), but most of the remaining signals, FlaK , transport and administrative staff left were captured when the campaign ended on 13 May 1943. Allies of World War II The Allies , formally referred to as

492-548: A day, KGzbV S only one. The formations would be 80 to 120 aircraft strong. Operations were to be flown at only 150 ft (46 m), arriving around noon to operate during the Allied "lunch" period. The units—operating mostly the Junkers Ju 52 —brought in 90 t (89 long tons; 99 short tons) daily and the giant Messerschmitt Me 323s brought some 30 t (30 long tons; 33 short tons) with their smaller numbers. The logistical effort

615-608: A domination of the world completely different from any known in world history. The domination at which the Nazis aim is not limited to the displacement of the balance of power and the imposition of the supremacy of one nation. It seeks the systematic and total destruction of those conquered by Hitler and it does not treaty with the nations which it has subdued. He destroys them. He takes from them their whole political and economic existence and seeks even to deprive them of their history and culture. He wishes only to consider them as vital space and

738-560: A formalized group upon the Declaration by United Nations on 1 January 1942, which was signed by 26 nations around the world; these ranged from governments in exile from the Axis occupation to small nations far removed from the war. The Declaration officially recognized the Big Three and China as the "Four Powers", acknowledging their central role in prosecuting the war; they were also referred to as

861-595: A heavy toll of Axis shipping. Axis supplies were still reaching the Afrika Korps by air and by early April, many Axis personnel were being evacuated by air. Although the Allies held air superiority by this time, Luftwaffe transports were operating with impunity during darkness. The RAF and the United States Army Air Forces (USAAF) were ordered to attack Axis aircraft by day and night. Owing to bad weather and

984-535: A key role in achieving victory. A series of conferences between Allied leaders, diplomats, and military officials gradually shaped the makeup of the alliance, the direction of the war, and ultimately the postwar international order. Relations between the United Kingdom and the United States were especially close , with their bilateral Atlantic Charter forming the groundwork of their alliance. The Allies became

1107-471: A large air battle developed. The 82nd Fighter Group also engaged. The 1st Fighter Group claimed 11 Ju 52s, two Ju 87s, two Bf 109s and the Fw ;189 for two P-38s lost. The 82nd claimed seven Ju 52s, three Ju 87s, three Bf 109s, one Bf 110 and one Me 210 for four P-38s. German losses were about half this total 13–14 Ju 52s and about three fighters. In 2003, Weal wrote of

1230-640: A massive air attack on Germany, but Stalin kept wanting more. Although the U.S. had a strained relationship with the USSR in the 1920s, relations were normalized in 1933. The original terms of the Lend-Lease loan were amended towards the Soviets, to be put in line with British terms. The United States would now expect interest with the repayment from the Soviets, following the initiation of the Operation Barbarossa , at

1353-571: A preponderance of infantry to meet ground opposition. At Algiers the disembarkation of mobile forces for an advance did not commence until 12 November, making an advance eastwards possible only by 15 November. The Allies had only two infantry brigade groups from the British 78th Infantry Division ( Major-General Vyvyan Evelegh ), an armoured regimental group from the British 6th Armoured Division (Blade Force) and some additional artillery for an advance. An attempt to reach Bizerta and Tunis overland before

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1476-597: A return flight. There were 65 Ju 52s, 16 Axis fighters and five Bf 110s. As the Allied fighters began their attacks, the passengers fired machine guns out of the Junkers' windows in desperation to fend off the attack. In the air battle that followed, six P-40s and a Spitfire were shot down. The Americans claimed 146 victories, which was later reduced to 58 or 59 Ju 52s, 14 Macchi C.202s and Bf 109s and two to four Bf 110s. Actual German losses were 24 Ju 52s, nine Bf 109s and one Bf 110 shot down at sea, and 35 crashed upon

1599-592: A rudimentary radar supported early-warning network. Generalmajor ( Major General ) Ulrich Buchholz, the Geschwaderkommodore (Wing Commander) of KGzbV 3, was appointed Lufttransportführer II, Mittelmeer (Air Transport Leader II, Mediterranean Sea) on 15 January 1943. His forces were organised under the Naples -based KGzbV N ( Neapel or Naples) and the Trapani -based KGzbV S; KGzbV S had to make two missions

1722-640: A separate colony. British Malaya covers the areas of Peninsular Malaysia and Singapore , while British Borneo covers the area of Brunei , including Sabah and Sarawak of Malaysia. British Hong Kong consisted of Hong Kong Island , the Kowloon Peninsula , and the New Territories . Territories controlled by the Colonial Office , namely the Crown Colonies , were controlled politically by

1845-542: A smaller scale, the emphasis was on fighter operations. On 10 April, Flax was renewed and about 75 P-38s of the 1st Fighter Group intercepted 20 Italian Savoia-Marchetti SM.82 and around six Macchi C.200s . The battle resulted in ten transports and two Italian fighters being shot down. Later that morning, 27 P-38s of the 82nd Fighter Group were escorting 18 B-25s of the 310th Bomb Group over Cape Bon when 30 Ju 52s were spotted with two Bf 110s, two Ju 87s and just three Ju 88s with them. At first, eleven P-38s stayed with

1968-599: A vacant territory over which he has every right. The human beings who constitute these nations are for him only cattle. He orders their massacre or migration. He compels them to make room for their conquerors. He does not even take the trouble to impose any war tribute on them. He just takes all their wealth and, to prevent any revolt, he scientifically seeks the physical and moral degradation of those whose independence he has taken away. France experienced several major phases of action during World War II: In Africa these included: French West Africa , French Equatorial Africa ,

2091-554: The Regia Aeronautica (Italian Air Force) sent 28 fighters to Tunis and two days later an airlift began which eventually carried 15,000 men and 581 short tons (527  t ) of supplies; ships brought 176 tanks, 131 guns, 1,152 vehicles and 13,000 short tons (12,000 t) of supplies. By the end of the month, three German divisions, including the 10th Panzer Division (Major-General Wolfgang Fischer ), and two Italian infantry divisions had arrived. On 12 November, Walther Nehring

2214-500: The 17th/21st Lancers , a U.S. light tank battalion plus motorised infantry, paratroops, artillery, anti-tank and anti-aircraft guns and engineers. The two Allied columns advanced towards Djebel Abiod and Beja, under attack from the Luftwaffe , which had local air superiority , because Allied aircraft had to fly from distant bases in Algeria. On the northern road, the leading elements of

2337-521: The 324th Fighter Group , under its command. The 57th had already flown unproductive sorties in the afternoon. Still, 47 USAAF P-40s arrived in the sweep area with 12 Spitfires from 92 Squadron RAF. The Spitfires flew high cover at 15,000 ft (4,600 m) while the P-40s stayed at around 4,000 ft (1,200 m). Soon enough, a large formation of 30 Ju 52s was reported by Allied pilots at an altitude of only 1,000 ft (300 m), flying north east on

2460-505: The 509th Parachute Infantry Battalion made an unopposed drop on Youks-les-Bains , captured the airfield and took the airfield at Gafsa on 17 November. On 19 November, General Nehring demanded passage for his forces across the bridge at Medjez and was refused by Barré. The Germans attacked twice and were repulsed but the French defence was costly and lacking armour and artillery, the French withdrew. Despite some Vichy French forces siding with

2583-706: The Axis Powers was now apparent. American forces advancing eastward and the British Eighth Army advancing westward after the victory at the Second Battle of El Alamein , threatened to trap and destroy the remaining Axis forces in North Africa. Reinforcements for the German Afrika Korps , Italian Army and Luftwaffe were dispatched by sea and air. These reinforcements staved off an immediate defeat in Tunisia,

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2706-574: The British 36th Infantry Brigade had landed unopposed at Bougie but supply difficulties meant Djedjelli was only reached by road on 13 November. Bône airfield was occupied following a parachute drop by 3rd Parachute Battalion and this was followed up on 12 November by No. 6 Commando seizing the port. Advanced guards of 36th Brigade reached Tabarka on 15 November and Djebel Abiod on 18 November where they made first contact with opposition forces. Further south, on 15 November, U.S. Army paratroopers of

2829-535: The British West Indies , British Honduras , British Guiana and the Falkland Islands . The Dominion of Newfoundland was directly ruled as a royal colony from 1933 to 1949, run by a governor appointed by London who made the decisions regarding Newfoundland. British India included the areas and peoples covered by later India , Bangladesh , Pakistan and (until 1937) Burma/Myanmar , which later became

2952-545: The Eighth Army throughout 1941–1942. Rommel, at points, had recognised Malta as a serious obstacle to Axis supply between Axis-held Europe and their forces in North Africa. Malta lay across their lines of communication and, despite the two-and-a-half-year Siege of Malta , it remained a base for Allied naval and air forces to attack Axis supply lines for much of this period. Rommel failed to apply enough pressure on Oberkommando der Wehrmacht (German High Command, OKW) to invade

3075-509: The Kuban allowed the number of Axis transport aircraft to reach 185 by 10 March. By the beginning of April, it rose to 426. The force flew much needed ammunition and fuel to the Axis armies in Africa. James H. Doolittle commanding Northwest African Strategic Air Force (NASAF) was ordered to formulate an air interdiction campaign and named it Operation Flax. Flax called for Allied fighters to intercept

3198-549: The Netherlands , Belgium , Norway , Greece , and Yugoslavia . The Soviet Union, which initially had a nonaggression pact with Germany and participated in its invasion of Poland , joined the Allies after the German invasion of the Soviet Union in June 1941. The United States, while providing some materiel support to European Allies since September 1940, remained formally neutral until

3321-648: The North American B-25 Mitchell would fly sweeps over the Gulf of Tunis. They were to be joined by Lockheed P-38 Lightning heavy fighters which were also detailed to sweep the area. The presence of the B-25s would allow the P-38s to operate in the area without raising the Axis suspicions. It would seem as if they were there to escort the B-25s, rather than to attack Axis air transports. Supermarine Spitfire units would sweep

3444-536: The United Nations from 1942, were an international military coalition formed during World War II (1939–1945) to oppose the Axis powers . Its principal members by the end of 1941 were the " Big Four " – the United Kingdom , United States , Soviet Union , and China . Membership in the Allies varied during the course of the war. When the conflict broke out on 1 September 1939, the Allied coalition consisted of

3567-510: The " trusteeship of the powerful", and later as the " Four Policemen " of the United Nations. Many more countries joined through to the final days of the war, including colonies and former Axis nations. After the war ended, the Allies, and the Declaration that bound them, would become the basis of the modern United Nations ; one enduring legacy of the alliance is the permanent membership of

3690-496: The 1920s, culminating in the invasion of Manchuria in 1931. The League of Nations strongly condemned the attack as an act of aggression against China; Japan responded by leaving the League in 1933. The second Sino-Japanese War erupted in 1937 with Japan's full-scale invasion of China. The League of Nations condemned Japan's actions and initiated sanctions; the United States, which had attempted to peacefully negotiate for peace in Asia,

3813-563: The 310th Bomb Group and 18 P-38s from the 82nd Fighter Group raided Axis airfields in Sicily near Borizzo. Some 80–90 Axis aircraft were counted, poorly camouflaged and vulnerable. The attack achieved good results with fragmentation bombs. The attackers were intercepted by 15 Bf 109s, losing two B-25s. The bombers claimed three Bf 109s while the P-38s claimed two of the German fighters. The 301st Bomb Group attacked Milo airfield, claiming 52 destroyed on

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3936-466: The 36th Brigade made rapid progress until 17 November, when they met a mixed force of 17 tanks, 400 paratroops and self-propelled guns at Djebel Abiod. The British knocked out eleven tanks but having no tank support, were held up for nine days. The Allied columns concentrated at Djebel Abiod and Beja, preparing for an assault on 24 November. The 36th Brigade (Brigadier A.L. Kent-Lemon) was to advance from Djebel Abiod towards Mateur and 11th Infantry Brigade

4059-420: The 7 Wing sent out thirty-six P-40s which intercepted a well-escorted Italian formation. The South Africans claimed 12 Ju 52s, two SM 79s, a Ju 87 towing a glider, a Reggiane Re.2001 , two Bf 109s and a Ju 88 for the loss of five Spitfires and three P-40s. Known Axis losses were 12 SM.79s and a Macchi C.202; RAF Spitfires flying from Malta shot down another two transports. Later, a flight made in daylight cost

4182-401: The Allied armies had pushed the Axis forces to the northern tip of Tunisia, near its capital Tunis . Despite the desperate situation, OKW continued to send reinforcements and supplies to the besieged Axis forces by air. To prevent prolonged resistance, the Allies, now aware of the German supply timetables through the use of British Ultra , began an aerial offensive to cut the link. The operation

4305-551: The Allied ground offensive, Operation Vulcan . Flax continued until 27 April and did great harm to the Axis supply effort. Along with the airlift during the Battle of Stalingrad , Flax was so costly to the German transport fleet that it never recovered. The Axis campaign in North Africa was characterised by supply shortages . The failure was one of the primary reasons that Generalfeldmarschall (Field Marshal) Erwin Rommel could not defeat

4428-504: The Allies, the position of most Vichy forces was uncertain. On 22 November, the North African Agreement placed Vichy French North Africa on the Allied side and Allied garrison troops were released for the front; the Axis had been reinforced to a corps and outnumbered the Allies. There were two roads eastwards into Tunisia from Algeria. The Allied plan was to advance along the two roads and take Bizerte and Tunis . Once Bizerte

4551-652: The American Harry Hopkins . It is also often called the "Strange Alliance", because it united the leaders of the world's greatest capitalist state (the United States), the greatest socialist state (the Soviet Union) and the greatest colonial power (the United Kingdom). Relations between them resulted in the major decisions that shaped the war effort and planned for the postwar world. Cooperation between

4674-547: The Axis 16 or 17 Me 323 transports destroyed, plus a Macchi C.202, three German fighters and a Re-2001, when they were intercepted by 36 Australian, British and South African P-40s covered by South African, British and Polish Spitfire units. Four P-40s were lost and one Spitfire had to force land. The main combatants in the battles were 1 Squadron SAAF, 112 Squadron RAF, 450 Squadron RAAF, I./JG 27 and II./JG 27. Göring ordered that no more transport flights be made. Albert Kesselring complained that this would deny

4797-476: The Axis could establish themselves, was a gamble which depended on the ability of the navy and air force to delay an Axis build-up. Although the Allies planned for determined Vichy opposition to the Torch landings they underestimated the speed with which the Axis could reinforce Tunisia. Despite intelligence reports regarding the Axis reaction, the Allies were slow to respond and it was not until nearly two weeks after

4920-565: The Axis forces supplies, and Göring once again permitted flights. This time they were to travel via Sardinia , but no more than 60–70 flights would be allowed per night; some 250 had been mounted daily before Flax. The transports also had to run the gauntlet of radar-equipped Bristol Beaufighters but these rarely were successful at intercepting them. One last Allied effort was made by 70 B-24 Liberators , which bombed airfields around Bari in Italy. Some 54 German aircraft were destroyed and 13 damaged on

5043-444: The Axis held on to a narrow strip of African coastline near Tunis . Allied air superiority was so overwhelming, that Luftwaffe personnel climbed into fighter fuselages, or squeezed into the cockpits of Bf 109s alongside the pilot rather than risk flying in transport aircraft. Most ground crew and pilots attempted to escape this way. Flying large numbers of personnel in one go and by transport was too dangerous; 16 personnel were killed in

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5166-418: The B-25s but then the bombers joined in, flying past the transports and firing on them with their gunners. Around 15 Bf 109s were scrambled from Tunisia to help the transports and they destroyed one P-38 and damaged three more. The Germans had already suffered many losses; one P-38 pilot was killed when he flew into a Bf 110 and some B-25s were shot up. The Americans claimed 25 victories. The Germans recorded

5289-458: The Big Three leaders, although they were not enough to break the alliance during wartime. In 1942 Roosevelt proposed becoming, with China, the Four Policemen of world peace. Although the 'Four Powers' were reflected in the wording of the Declaration by United Nations , Roosevelt's proposal was not initially supported by Churchill or Stalin. Division emerged over the length of time taken by

5412-662: The British Government during the Second World War and made part of the British Army structure. It was mostly Greek Cypriot volunteers and Turkish Cypriot inhabitants of Cyprus but also included other Commonwealth nationalities. On a brief visit to Cyprus in 1943, Winston Churchill praised the "soldiers of the Cyprus Regiment who have served honourably on many fields from Libya to Dunkirk". About 30,000 Cypriots served in

5535-637: The Cyprus Regiment. The regiment was involved in action from the very start and served at Dunkirk , in the Greek Campaign (about 600 soldiers were captured in Kalamata in 1941), North Africa ( Operation Compass ), France, the Middle East and Italy. Many soldiers were taken prisoner especially at the beginning of the war and were interned in various PoW camps ( Stalag ) including Lamsdorf ( Stalag VIII-B ), Stalag IVC at Wistritz bei Teplitz and Stalag 4b near Most in

5658-529: The Czech Republic. The soldiers captured in Kalamata were transported by train to prisoner of war camps. After Germany invaded Poland, France declared war on Germany on 3 September 1939. In January 1940, French Prime Minister Édouard Daladier made a major speech denouncing the actions of Germany: At the end of five months of war, one thing has become more and more clear. It is that Germany seeks to establish

5781-406: The Declaration was signed by Iraq, Iran, Brazil, Bolivia and Colombia. A Tripartite Treaty of Alliance with Britain and the USSR formalised Iran's assistance to the Allies. In Rio de Janeiro , Brazilian dictator Getúlio Vargas was considered near to fascist ideas, but realistically joined the United Nations after their evident successes. In 1944, Liberia and France signed. The French situation

5904-617: The Eastern Task Force in Algiers, which was renamed the British First Army . Anderson ordered troops eastward to seize the ports of Bougie , Philippeville and Bône and the airfield at Djedjelli , preliminary to advancing into Tunisia. Allied planners had ruled out an assault landing in Tunisia, because of a lack of troops and the threat from the air; the Allies needed to advance before the Axis could reinforce Tunis. On 11 November,

6027-601: The German war machine. On 1 September 1939, Germany invaded Poland ; two days later Britain and France declared war on Germany. Roughly two weeks after Germany's attack, the Soviet Union invaded Poland from the east. Britain and France established the Anglo-French Supreme War Council to coordinate military decisions. A Polish government-in-exile was set up in London, joined by hundreds of thousands of Polish soldiers, which would remain an Allied nation until

6150-589: The Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor in December 1941, after which it declared war and officially joined the Allies. China had already been at war with Japan since 1937 , and formally joined the Allies in December 1941. The Allies were led by the so-called "Big Three"—the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union, and the United States—which were the principal contributors of manpower, resources, and strategy, each playing

6273-644: The Jefna position failed; the commandos rejoined 36th Brigade by 3 December and the position remained in German hands, until the last days of the fighting in Tunisia in 1943. Early on 26 November, the 11th Infantry Brigade entered Medjez unopposed, reached Tebourba unopposed, ready to advance on Djedeida. Next day, the Germans attacked, inflicted 137 casualties and took 286 prisoners. The brigade attacked again on 28 November towards Djedeida airfield and Combat Command "B", 1st US Armored Division, lost 19 tanks to anti-tank guns in

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6396-421: The League of Nations mandates of French Cameroun and French Togoland , French Madagascar , French Somaliland , and the protectorates of French Tunisia and French Morocco . French Algeria was then not a colony or dependency but a fully-fledged part of metropolitan France . Run for Tunis The planners of Operation Torch had assumed that Vichy would oppose the landings and the invasion convoys had

6519-602: The Mediterranean, Arthur Tedder and commander of Allied Air Forces in Western North Africa Carl Spaatz , decided to wait for the next suitable window to launch the offensive. The Allied order of battle involved all the main commands in the area. The Supreme Allied Air Force Command was the Mediterranean Air Command (MAC) under Air Chief Marshal Arthur Tedder. Below the supreme command were

6642-508: The P-38s returned to base for unrecorded reasons. The B-25s claimed two ferries damaged and a destroyer sunk. One B-25 was shot down. The 1st Group arrived over Cape Bon at 08:00. They reported contact with several formations of Axis aircraft, estimating 50–70 Ju 52s, 20 Bf 109s, four Fw 190s, six Ju 87s and a Fw 189. The German formation had only 31 Ju 52s, ten Bf 109s, six to seven Bf 110s, four Ju 87s and one Fw 190. The U.S. fighters attacked, and

6765-410: The Pacific, resulting in the U.S. formally entering the war as an Allied power. Still reeling from Japanese aggression, China declared war on all the Axis powers shortly thereafter. By the end of 1941, the main lines of World War II had formed. Churchill referred to the "Grand Alliance" of the United Kingdom, the United States, and the Soviet Union, which together played the largest role in prosecuting

6888-399: The Soviet Union, were accepted as members of the United Nations as a way to provide greater influence to Stalin, who had only Yugoslavia as a communist partner in the alliance. British Prime Minister, Neville Chamberlain delivered his Ultimatum Speech on 3 September 1939 which declared war on Germany , a few hours before France. As the Statute of Westminster 1931 was not yet ratified by

7011-517: The Treaty of Versailles and made claims over German-populated Austria and the German-populated territories of Czechoslovakia. The likelihood of war was high, but none of the major powers had the appetite for another conflict; many governments sought to ease tensions through nonmilitary strategies such as appeasement . Japan, which was a principal allied power in the First World War, had since become increasingly militaristic and imperialistic; parallel to Germany, nationalist sentiment increased throughout

7134-431: The U.N. Security Council , which is made up exclusively of the principal Allied powers that won the war. The victorious Allies of World War I —which included what would become the Allied powers of the Second World War—had imposed harsh terms on the opposing Central Powers in the Paris Peace Conference of 1919–1920 . Germany resented signing the Treaty of Versailles , which required that it take full responsibility for

7257-468: The UK and therefore also entered hostilities with Britain's declaration of war. At the outbreak of World War II, the British Indian Army numbered 205,000 men. Later during World War II, the British Indian Army became the largest all-volunteer force in history, rising to over 2.5 million men in size. Indian soldiers earned 30 Victoria Crosses during the Second World War. It suffered 87,000 military casualties (more than any Crown colony but fewer than

7380-485: The United Kingdom and the United States had cooperated in a number of ways, notably through the destroyers-for-bases deal in September 1940 and the American Lend-Lease program, which provided Britain and the Soviet Union with war materiel beginning in October 1941. The British Commonwealth and, to a lesser extent, the Soviet Union reciprocated with a smaller Reverse Lend-Lease program. The First Inter-Allied Meeting took place in London in early June 1941 between

7503-453: The United Kingdom and the United States was especially close and included forming a Combined Chiefs of Staff . There were numerous high-level conferences ; in total Churchill attended 14 meetings, Roosevelt 12, and Stalin 5. Most visible were the three summit conferences that brought together the three top leaders. The Allied policy toward Germany and Japan evolved and developed at these three conferences. There were many tensions among

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7626-404: The United Kingdom). The UK suffered 382,000 military casualties. Kuwait was a protectorate of the United Kingdom formally established in 1899. The Trucial States were British protectorates in the Persian Gulf. Palestine was a mandate dependency created in the peace agreements after World War I from the former territory of the Ottoman Empire , Iraq . The Cyprus Regiment was formed by

7749-408: The United Kingdom, France , and Poland , as well as their respective dependencies , such as British India . They were joined by the independent dominions of the British Commonwealth : Canada , Australia , New Zealand and South Africa . Consequently, the initial alliance resembled that of the First World War . As Axis forces began invading northern Europe and the Balkans , the Allies added

7872-420: The United Kingdom, the four co-belligerent British Dominions (Canada, Australia, New Zealand and South Africa), the eight governments in exile ( Belgium , Czechoslovakia , Greece , Luxembourg , the Netherlands , Norway , Poland , Yugoslavia ) and Free France . The meeting culminated with the Declaration of St James's Palace , which set out a first vision for the postwar world. In June 1941, Hitler broke

7995-536: The Western Allies to establish a second front in Europe. Stalin and the Soviets used the potential employment of the second front as an 'acid test' for their relations with the Anglo-American powers. The Soviets were forced to use as much manpower as possible in the fight against the Germans, whereas the United States had the luxury of flexing industrial power, but with the "minimum possible expenditure of American lives". Roosevelt and Churchill opened ground fronts in North Africa in 1942 and in Italy in 1943, and launched

8118-415: The aerial convoys over the Sicily–Tunisia strait. Allied units were also briefed to carry out attacks against Axis airfields in Tunisia and the overcrowded staging fields in Sicily. They were also ordered to carry out anti-shipping sweeps. Flax was an operation which was unlikely to work more than a few times, as shown by the relative impunity with which the surviving Axis air transports operated at night after

8241-421: The afternoon of 22 December, despite rain and insufficient air cover; elements of the 18th Regimental Combat Team , 1st Infantry Division (18th RCT) and the 2nd Battalion, Coldstream Guards of the 1st Guards Brigade made progress up the lower ridges of Longstop Hill that dominated the river corridor from Medjez to Tebourba and thence to Tunis. By the morning of 23 December, the Coldstreams had driven back units of

8364-541: The afternoon. The Allied tanks destroyed more than twenty Axis aeroplanes (including an entire group belonging to Sturzkampfgeschwader 3 ), shot up buildings, supply dumps and caused several casualties; lacking infantry support, the raiders withdrew to Chouigui. The surprise achieved by Blade Force alerted Nehring to the vulnerability of garrison at Medjez to a flanking move and the defenders were withdrawn to Djedeida, only 30 km (19 mi) from Tunis. The 36th Infantry Brigade attack began on 26 November but Nehring used

8487-422: The air. German sources list the loss of 14 Ju 52s in aerial combat and 11 Ju 52s and Me 323s on the ground with 67 damaged. Aside from combat aircraft, the British Official History concludes that 27 German and three Italian transports were lost on 5 April. Flax merged into the preparatory phase of the Sicilian Campaign as air attacks were eroding the Axis air defences on the island. While Flax continued on

8610-427: The airfields in the afternoon were inconclusive, costing the Axis one Ju 88 from II./KG 26 and the Allies a RAF Spitfire from 232 Squadron . That night, air raids killed four German fighter pilots from I./JG 53 and two Ju 88s from II./NJG 2 and III./KG 76 were lost. On 12 April, the RAF Desert Air Force took command over most of the Flax operations. The RAF used sea-looking radar, which

8733-508: The area. On 7 April 1943, the organisation was given 148 fighters for these operations. The Luftwaffe reorganised its forces in Tunisia, Hans Seidemann was appointed Fliegerkorps Tunis (Flying Corps Tunisia) with three commands, Fliegerführer Tunis (Flying Leader Tunis), Mitte (Middle) and Gabès , after its headquarters' location. Siedmann had the equivalent of 12 Gruppen (12 Groups) and maintained around 300 fighters until mid-April. The German fighter defences also benefited from

8856-513: The bombers while the JG ;27 Bf 109s tackled the escorts. The Germans claimed five bombers and one fighter for the loss of one Bf 109. Actual Allied losses are unknown. The patrols failed to intercept any formations of transports on the afternoon of 18 April. In the evening, the Ninth Air Force 57th Fighter Group sent out all of its squadrons, including the 314th Fighter Squadron of

8979-487: The day's operations; 152 Squadron sent 34 Spitfires to intercept 12 Ju 52s escorted by a handful of Bf 109s. Three Ju 52s were shot down for the loss of two Spitfires, both claimed by Wolfgang Tonne of I./JG 53; the German units reported no losses. It had been a bad day for the Luftwaffe, losses amounted to 18 Ju 52s; four from III./KG.z.b.V 1. Raids by RAF Vickers Wellington bombers continued during

9102-608: The declaration; the Big Four were listed first: The United Nations began growing immediately after its formation. In 1942, Mexico, the Philippines and Ethiopia adhered to the declaration. Ethiopia had been restored to independence by British forces after the Italian defeat in 1941. The Philippines, still owned by Washington but granted international diplomatic recognition, was allowed to join on 10 June despite its occupation by Japan. In 1943,

9225-550: The delay at Djebel Abiod, to lay an ambush at Jefna on the road from Sedjenane and Mateur. The Germans occupied high ground on either side of the road, which after heavy rain was very muddy and the ground on either side impassable for vehicles; the leading British battalion had 149 casualties. Kent-Lemon sent units into the hills to outflank the Germans but the determined defence of the paratroopers in well-laid out defences could not be overcome. A landing by No. 1 Commando 14 mi (23 km) west of Bizerta on 30 November to outflank

9348-442: The depleted units facing Tebourba were vulnerable and ordered a retirement of about 6 mi (9.7 km) to the high ground of Longstop Hill ( djebel el Ahmera ) 900 ft (270 m) high and Bou Aoukaz on either side of the river. On 10 December, Axis tanks attacked Combat Command "B" on Bou Aoukaz, bogged in the mud and then U.S. tanks counter-attacked and also mired and were picked off, losing 18 tanks. Another Allied attack

9471-739: The end of the war—the United States were not looking to support any "postwar Soviet reconstruction efforts", which eventually manifested into the Molotov Plan . At the Tehran conference , Stalin judged Roosevelt to be a "lightweight compared to the more formidable Churchill". During the meetings from 1943 to 1945, there were disputes over the growing list of demands from the USSR. Tensions increased further when Roosevelt died and his successor Harry Truman rejected demands put forth by Stalin. Roosevelt wanted to play down these ideological tensions. Roosevelt felt he "understood Stalin's psychology", stating "Stalin

9594-600: The end. After a quiet winter, Germany began its invasion of Western Europe in April 1940, quickly defeating Denmark, Norway, Belgium, the Netherlands, and France. All the occupied nations subsequently established a government-in-exile in London, with each contributing a contingent of escaped troops. Nevertheless, by roughly one year since Germany's violation of the Munich Agreement, Britain and its Empire stood alone against Hitler and Mussolini. Before they were formally allied,

9717-431: The evening of 2 December, had been withdrawn, leaving the 11th Infantry Brigade and Combat Command "B" to resist the Axis attack, which nearly cut off the brigade and broke through. Desperate fighting by 2nd Battalion, Hampshire Regiment (1st Guards Brigade) and the 1st Battalion, East Surrey Regiment for four days delayed the Axis advance and with the fight of Combat Command "B" against armoured and infantry attacks from

9840-497: The following forces available in April 1943 X. Fliegerkorps Alexander Holle : Lufttransportführer II, Mittelmeer (Commander, Air-Transport Mediterranean Ulrich Buchholz ): At 06:30 on 5 April, 26 P-38s of the U.S. 1st Fighter Group conducted a sweep over the Sicilian Strait; 18 B-25s of the 321st Bomb Group, escorted by 32 P-38s of the 82nd Fighter Group , set out on a maritime interdiction operation. Six of

9963-475: The ground. Actual Axis losses were 13 German and eight Italian aircraft destroyed with 11 German and 30 Italian aircraft damaged. Some 72 B-17s of the 99th Bomb Group bombed the airfield at Bocca di Falco. They claimed to have seen 100–150 aircraft, but the raid only destroyed four Axis aircraft and damaged several. Spitfires claimed two Bf 109s for two losses. Two sweeps by P-38 groups found nothing further. The NASAF claimed 201 Axis aircraft destroyed including 40 in

10086-448: The ground. The USAAF units claimed 50. The aerial operation had a considerable effect in strangling Axis supply. The stores reaching Axis units dwindled and the Axis armies and air units remaining in Tunisia gradually ran out of fuel, ammunition and other supplies. Having lost most of its airbases, the Luftwaffe evacuated most of its units. By early May 1943, only the Italian fighter units and one German Gruppe (I./JG 77), remained as

10209-492: The island, Operation Herkules . Although Malta was mostly neutralised as an offensive base in mid-1942, later that year the Allied offensive from Malta became increasingly effective. The Axis defeat at the Second Battle of El Alamein and the Allied landings, Operation Torch, in Western North Africa, threatened to crush the Axis from east and west. The Germans sent reinforcements to Africa through Vichy-held Tunisia but by

10332-452: The lack intelligence, Flax did not begin until 5 April. Although the Axis put up determined resistance and large air battles took place, the Allied air forces cut the aerial link from Axis-held Sicily and Italy. An air battle known as the 18 April Palmsonntag Massaker (Palm Sunday Massacre) took place, in which German Junkers Ju 52 transport aircraft suffered many losses over Cape Bon while evacuating Heer (German Army) forces from

10455-545: The landings that air and naval plans were made to interdict Axis sea transport to Tunis. At the end of November, naval Force K was reformed in Malta, with three cruisers and four destroyers and Force Q was formed in Bône with three cruisers and two destroyers. No Axis ships sailing to Tunis were sunk in November but the Allied navies sank seven Axis transports in early December. The success

10578-511: The last African region still in Axis hands. The poor state of the roads and rail lines in Algeria meant Allied forces faced supply difficulties which helped the Axis prolong their defence. The inexperience of U.S. forces was exposed at the Battle of the Kasserine Pass . The growing number and experience of Allied forces squeezed the Axis toward the northern tip of Tunisia. The Royal Air Force (RAF) and Royal Navy operating from Malta took

10701-489: The loss of 10 Ju 52s, one Ju 88, one Bf 109 and one Bf 110. Some Ju 52s managed to ditch and their crews survived. A Spitfire patrol later shot down four more Ju 52s. It is likely the Bf ;110s "spotted" in the formation were actually Me 210s from Zerstörergeschwader 1 . RAF and USAAF units also shot down a SG 2 Fw 190 on a ferry flight and another from SKG 210. An SG 2 Hs 129

10824-441: The loss of 13 Ju 52s and two Bf 109s, from 5./JG 27. Later that day, 18 B-17s from the 97th Bomb Group bombed Axis airfields at El Aounina. Two Me 323s, two Ju 52s and five Italian transports were destroyed. A second mission was flown to Sid Ahmed. Both raids with Spitfire escorts. Only a few German fighters intercepted, without success. The bombers claimed one German fighter destroyed. An hour later, 35 B-25s from

10947-486: The main advocates of appeasement, decided that Hitler had no intention to uphold diplomatic agreements and responded by preparing for war. On 31 March 1939, Britain formed the Anglo-Polish military alliance in an effort to avert an imminent German attack on Poland; the French likewise had a long-standing alliance with Poland since 1921 . The Soviet Union , which had been diplomatically and economically isolated by much of

11070-452: The night. Ju 88 night fighters from NJG 2 shot down two; the results of the raids are not known. On 13 April, B-17s from the 97th and 301st Bomb Groups bombed Sicilian airfields at Castelvetrano and Trapani. The Italians lost 11 SM.82s destroyed and 16 damaged on the ground. At Trapani the Germans lost eight aircraft and 40 damaged for the loss of two B-17s to the island's fighter defences consisting of Bf 109s from JG 27. Battles over

11193-637: The non-aggression agreement with Stalin and Axis forces invaded the Soviet Union , which consequently declared war on Germany and its allies. Britain agreed to an alliance with the Soviet Union in July, with both nations committing to assisting one another by any means, and to never negotiate a separate peace. The following August saw the Atlantic Conference between American President Franklin Roosevelt and British Prime Minister Winston Churchill , which defined

11316-454: The operation had begun. The flight time across the Strait of Sicily was so short that aerial interception could be made only with precise intelligence. The Germans understood this but did not know that their communications had been compromised and were being read by Allied intelligence. Ignorant of their intelligence leaks, they operated by day. Since their enemy had the option of flying by night, and

11439-494: The parliaments of Australia and New Zealand, the British declaration of war on Germany also applied to those dominions . The other dominions and members of the British Commonwealth declared war from 3 September 1939, all within one week of each other; they were Canada , British India and South Africa . During the war, Churchill attended seventeen Allied conferences at which key decisions and agreements were made. He

11562-895: The sector organisations, the Northwest African Air Forces (NAAF) commanded by Carl Spaatz. Directly subordinated to Spaatz was the NASAF under James H. Doolittle. The second command was the operational/tactical force, the Northwest African Tactical Air Force (NATAF) under Air Marshal Arthur Coningham . Martin Harlinghausen commanded Fliegerkorps II (Air Corps II), which controlled Luftwaffe operations in Africa, as part of Luftflotte 2 (Air Fleet 2). Subordinate to Fliegerkorps II were seven Kampfgeschwader (Bomber Wings). Several Jagdgeschwader (Fighter Wings) were also available in support. The Luftwaffe had

11685-526: The severity of the economic crisis on the Treaty of Versailles. The far-right Nazi Party led by Adolf Hitler , which had formed shortly after the peace treaty, exploited growing popular resentment and desperation to become the dominant political movement in Germany. By 1933, they gained power and rapidly established a totalitarian regime known as Nazi Germany . The Nazi regime demanded the immediate cancellation of

11808-693: The shore during the attack. Some Italian fighters may also have been shot down. Along with the 24 Ju 52s destroyed, another 35 were damaged and managed to crash-land all along the Sicilian coastline. The battle became known as the Palm Sunday Massacre. The following day, 7 Wing SAAF shot down another 16 Italian SM.82s. The ease with which they caught fire led the Allied pilots to believe they were carrying fuel. Among those units involved were 54 Squadron and 2 Squadron SAAF. Another source gives Axis losses as 10 destroyed and four crash landed. On 22 April,

11931-537: The south, the 11th Infantry Brigade was stopped by the defenders of Medjez. Blade Force passed through Sidi Nsir , to reach the Chouigui Pass north of Terbourba, then Company C, 1st Battalion, 1st Armored Regiment , U.S. 1st Armored Division (Major Rudolph Barlow) with 17 M3 Stuart light tanks , supported by armoured cars of the Derbyshire Yeomanry , infiltrated behind Axis lines to an airbase at Djedeida in

12054-683: The south-east, enabled a slow retirement to high ground on each side of the river west of Terbourba. The Hampshires suffered 75 percent casualties and the Surreys nearly 60 percent casualties. As more Allied troops arrived, the V Corps ( Lieutenant-General Charles Walter Allfrey ) of the First Army took all forces in the Tebourba sector, which included the 6th Armoured Division, 78th Infantry Division, Combat Command B from US 1st Armored Division, 1st Parachute Brigade , 1 and 6 Commandos . Allfrey considered

12177-462: The south. The main attack was forestalled by an Axis counter-attack on 1 December and the attack by Blade Force did not take place; the 2nd Battalion retreated 50 miles (80 km) to Allied lines under frequent attack and lost 23 killed and wounded and 266 missing. The Axis counter-attack was conducted by the 10th Panzer Division, which had just arrived in Tunisia, from the north toward Tebourba. Blade Force suffered considerable casualties and by

12300-461: The start of 1943 they were suffering increasing shipping losses to Malta-based forces. Some respite was won for the Axis when the Allies lost the " Run for Tunis " in part owing to rapid German reactions and the difficulty in supplying their armies through the poor Algerian infrastructure. By early 1943, the Axis had numerical superiority in aircraft; 690 to the Allied 480. The campaign from Malta caused chronic supply shortages in Africa. By April 1943,

12423-416: The straits further north, catching any enemy aircraft that evaded the P-38s. More B-25 and B-17 units were detailed to bomb Sicilian airfields to catch transports on the ground. The USAAF 9th Air Force was detailed to send its Consolidated B-24 Liberator bomb groups against airfields in and around Naples in this capacity as well. On 2 April Doolittle's superiors, supreme commander of all Allied Air Forces in

12546-554: The town. On 29 November, fresh units of the 1st Guards Brigade (78th Infantry Division), which had arrived at Algiers on 22 November, began to relieve the 11th Infantry Brigade. On 29 November, Combat Command "B" had assembled to attack with Blade Force on 2 December. The 2nd Battalion, Parachute Regiment ( Lieutenant-Colonel John Frost ) was to be dropped on the same day near Axis airfields around Depienne 30 mi (48 km) south of Tunis, to destroy Junkers Ju 87 Stuka dive bombers at Oudna airfield and to threaten Tunis from

12669-857: The two confirmed victims was Wing Commander Ian "Widge" Gleed of 244 Wing . Gleed was possibly the victim of a Leutnant Ernst-Wilhelm Reinert of 4. Staffel of JG 77; Gleed had 14 victories. The setback meant small operations were abandoned and missions continued with three P-40 squadrons covered by one Spitfire squadron. On 16 April, in a small counter-attack, eight SchlG 10 Fw 190s, escorted by 16 Bf 109s of JG 27 led an attack on Allied airfields near Souk el Khemis. They destroyed six A-20 Havoc bombers. The next day, II./ZG 26 several Bf 110s were shot down by 260 Squadron P-40s. The American 97th Bomb Group dispatched seven B-17s covered by 40 P-38s to bomb Palermo airfields. A large air battle developed when 30 Bf 110s and Bf 109s from ZG 26 and JG 27 intercepted. The Bf 110s attacked

12792-477: The unchallenged Japanese expansion in the East, particularly considering their defeat in previous wars with Japan; the Soviets also recognized, as the U.S. and Britain had suggested, the advantages of a two-front war . Franklin D. Roosevelt , Winston Churchill , and Joseph Stalin were The Big Three leaders. They were in frequent contact through ambassadors, top generals, foreign ministers and special emissaries such as

12915-606: The war, Britain could remain the sole great power in Europe facing the Communist threat, as it was in 1940 and 1941 against Nazism. During the early part of 1945, Peru, Chile, Paraguay, Venezuela, Uruguay, Turkey, Egypt, Saudi Arabia, Lebanon, Syria (these latter two French colonies had been declared independent states by British occupation troops, despite protests by Pétain and later De Gaulle) and Ecuador became signatories. Ukraine and Belarus , which were not independent states but parts of

13038-488: The war, lose a significant portion of territory, and pay costly reparations, among other penalties. The Weimar Republic , which formed at the end of the war and subsequently negotiated the treaty, saw its legitimacy shaken, particularly as it struggled to govern a greatly weakened economy and humiliated populace. The Wall Street Crash of 1929 , and the ensuing Great Depression , led to political unrest across Europe, especially in Germany, where revanchist nationalists blamed

13161-428: The war. The alliance was largely one of convenience for each member: the U.K. realized that the Axis powers threatened not only its colonies in North Africa and Asia but also the homeland . The United States felt that the Japanese and German expansion should be contained, but ruled out force until Japan's attack. The Soviet Union, having been betrayed by the Axis attack in 1941, greatly despised German belligerence and

13284-418: The weather conditions were not ideal, the Allies delayed Flax until the most German transport aircraft were in operation so that the blow would be as great as possible. Allied intelligence used information from Y-stations to decide when to begin. The plan included coordinated attacks on Axis airfields carried out by Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress groups to tie down Axis fighters. Medium bomber units operating

13407-513: The world, had sought an alliance with the western powers, but Hitler preempted a potential war with Stalin by signing the Nazi–Soviet non-aggression pact in August 1939. In addition to preventing a two-front war that had battered its forces in the last world war, the agreement secretly divided the independent states of Central and Eastern Europe between the two powers and assured adequate oil supplies for

13530-543: Was "the most important of the Allied leaders during the first half of World War II". British West Africa and the British colonies in East and Southern Africa participated, mainly in the North African, East African and Middle-Eastern theatres. Two West African and one East African division served in the Burma Campaign . Southern Rhodesia was a self-governing colony, having received responsible government in 1923. It

13653-601: Was also shot down and a Ju 88 from III./KG 77 was also shot down. On 11 April, the 82nd ran into 20 Ju 52s, four Ju 88s, four Bf 110s and seven Bf 109s. The Americans claimed all of the Ju ;52s and seven escorts. Actual losses are unclear; in the afternoon, 20 of the 82nd ran into 30 unescorted Ju 52s. The transports fought back, losing only five and shooting down one P-38, its pilot killed. The day's total amounted to 17 Ju 52s, one SM.82 and two Bf 110s destroyed. The RAF had also been involved in

13776-527: Was appointed to the new XC Corps and arrived on 17 November. The French commander in Tunisia, General Barré, moved the Vichy troops into the mountains and formed a defensive line from Tebersouk through Majaz al Bab (also referred to as Medjez el Bab), with orders to resist an attempt to cross. By 10 November, French opposition to the Torch landings had ceased, creating a military vacuum in Tunisia. On 9 November, Lieutenant-General Kenneth Anderson took command of

13899-415: Was due to begin in the last week of March 1943 but bad weather over Tunisia meant that it was delayed until 5 April. The Axis situation in the air, on land and at sea was gradually deteriorating. Axis supply ships had suffered many losses between Cape Bon and Sicily, 67 per cent of which were to Allied aircraft. Theo Osterkamp was appointed Jagdfliegerführer Sizilien (Fighter Leader Sicily) to fly over

14022-516: Was especially angered by the invasion and sought to support China. In March 1939, Germany took over Czechoslovakia , just six months after signing the Munich Agreement , which sought to appease Hitler by ceding the mainly ethnic German Czechoslovak borderlands; while most of Europe had celebrated the agreement as a major victory for peace, the open flaunting of its terms demonstrated the failure of appeasement. Britain and France, which had been

14145-473: Was less effective than it could have been as the German formations flew low. The considerable ranges stretched the P-40s and Spitfires to the limit. The British spread their forces more thinly to maintain continuous coverage and on 16 April 13 Spitfires ran into a large formation of Axis aircraft. The Spitfires shot down seven SM.82s and a Bf 109 for the loss of two, German fighters claiming three Spitfires. One of

14268-417: Was made using Indian prisoners of war , who helped unload supplies. The operational method usually involved escort fighters picking up the formation en route. Only one fighter for every five transports was made available owing to shortages. The Naples units were met near Trapani and on the return leg fighters, including Bf 110 Zerstörer , escorted them home. The end of the airlifts at Stalingrad and in

14391-457: Was not a sovereign dominion. It governed itself internally and controlled its own armed forces, but had no diplomatic autonomy, and, therefore, was officially at war as soon as Britain was at war. The Southern Rhodesian colonial government issued a symbolic declaration of war nevertheless on 3 September 1939, which made no difference diplomatically but preceded the declarations of war made by all other British dominions and colonies. These included:

14514-424: Was ready by late December 1942, when the Allied force comprised 54,000 British, 73,800 American and 7,000 French troops. A hasty intelligence review showed about 125,000 combat and 70,000 service troops, mostly Italian, in front of them. On the night of 16/17 December, a company of the 1st US Infantry Division raided Maknassy, 155 mi (249 km) south of Tunis and took 21 German prisoners. The main attack began

14637-405: Was taken Torch would come to an end. Attacking in the north toward Bizerte would be the 36th Infantry Brigade of the 78th Infantry Division, supported by "Hart Force", a small mobile detachment from the British 11th Infantry Brigade and to the south the rest of the 11th Infantry Brigade. On their left was Blade Force (Colonel Richard Hull ), an armoured regimental group which included the tanks of

14760-405: Was to move down the valley of the river Merjerda, to take Majaz al Bab (also known as Medjez el Bab or Medjez) and thence to Tebourba , Djedeida and Tunis. Blade Force was to strike across country on minor roads, in the gap between the two infantry brigades, towards Sidi Nsir and make flanking attacks on Terbourba and Djedeida. The northern attack was cancelled because of torrential rain and in

14883-416: Was too anxious to prove a point ... he suffered from an inferiority complex." During December 1941, Roosevelt devised the name "United Nations" for the Allies and Churchill agreed. He referred to the Big Three and China as the " Four Policemen " repeatedly from 1942. The alliance was formalised in the Declaration by United Nations signed on 1 January 1942. There were the 26 original signatories of

15006-570: Was too late because the tanks of the 10th Panzer Division had arrived. Axis convoys began to sail in daylight when they could be protected by aircraft. Night convoys resumed on completion of the extension of Axis minefields which severely restricted Force K and Force Q. Tunisian officials were undecided about whom to support and airfields were left open to both sides; on 9 November, reconnaissance flights reported that forty German aircraft had landed at Tunis and next day British photographic reconnaissance showed around 100 German aircraft there. That day

15129-462: Was very confused. Free French forces were recognized only by Britain, while the United States considered Vichy France to be the legal government of the country until Operation Overlord , while also preparing U.S. occupation francs . Winston Churchill urged Roosevelt to restore France to its status of a major power after the liberation of Paris in August 1944; the Prime Minister feared that after

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