Japan
60-795: Taishō period Shōwa period Operation Chahar ( Japanese : チャハル作戦 , romanized : Chaharu Sakusen ), known in Chinese as the Nankou Campaign ( Chinese : 南口戰役 ; pinyin : Nankou Zhanyi ), occurred in August 1937, following the Battle of Beiping-Tianjin at the beginning of Second Sino-Japanese War . This was the second attack by the Kwantung Army and the Inner Mongolian Army of Prince Demchugdongrub on Inner Mongolia after
120-930: A counteroffensive from Zhangbei to Kalgan . From August 18–19, the Chahar Expeditionary Force counterattacked from Zhangbei, and took Shenweitaiko on the Great Wall and the Hanno Dam. The scattered and poorly equipped Chinese forces were unable to stop the Japanese, who now threatened the Peking–Suiyuan Railway at Kalgan. On August 20 Gen. Fu Zuoyi's 7th Group Army diverted its 200th and 211th Brigades, which had been moving south by rail to join Gen. Tang Enbo's forces, back to defend Kalgan. Fu's remaining 72nd Division arrived to reinforce Chenpien, and his 7th Separate Brigade
180-519: A major influence in the prewar Seiyūkai cabinets, had become the first commoner to serve as prime minister. He took advantage of long-standing relationships he had throughout the government, won the support of the surviving genrō and the House of Peers, and brought into his cabinet as army minister Tanaka Giichi , who had a greater appreciation of favorable civil-military relations than his predecessors. Nevertheless, major problems confronted Hara: inflation,
240-614: A new order in the Pacific region. Japan's economic problems made a naval buildup nearly impossible and, realizing the need to compete with the United States on an economic rather than a military basis, rapprochement became inevitable. Japan adopted a more neutral attitude toward the civil war in China, dropped efforts to expand its hegemony into China proper , and joined the United States, Britain, and France in encouraging Chinese self-development. In
300-493: A third power, and miscellaneous other political, economic and military controls, which, if achieved, would have reduced China to a Japanese protectorate. In the face of slow negotiations with the Chinese government, widespread anti-Japanese sentiment in China and international condemnation forced Japan to withdraw the final group of demands and treaties were signed in May of 1915. Japan's hegemony in northern China and other parts of Asia
360-499: The Gen'yōsha ( 玄洋社 , "Black Ocean Society", founded in 1881) and its later offshoot, the Kokuryūkai ( 黒竜会 , "Black Dragon Society" or "Amur River Society", founded in 1901) . These groups became active in domestic and foreign politics, helped foment pro-war sentiments, and supported ultra-nationalist causes through the end of World War II . After Japan's victories over China and Russia,
420-576: The Seiyūkai and the Rikken Minseitō alternated in power. Despite the political realignments and hope for more orderly government, domestic economic crises plagued whichever party held power. Fiscal austerity programs and appeals for public support of such conservative government policies as the Peace Preservation Law—including reminders of the moral obligation to make sacrifices for
480-747: The Allied expeditionary force sent to Siberia in July 1918 as part of the Allied intervention in the Russian Civil War . On October 9, 1916, Terauchi Masatake took over as prime minister from Ōkuma Shigenobu . On November 2, 1917, the Lansing–Ishii Agreement noted the recognition of Japan's interests in China and pledges of keeping an " Open Door Policy " ( 門戸開放政策 ) . From July to September 1918, rice riots erupted due to increasing price of rice. The large scale rioting and collapse of public order led to
540-740: The Comintern . The Comintern realized the importance of Japan in achieving successful revolution in East Asia and actively worked to form the Japanese Communist Party , which was founded in July 1922. The announced goals of the Japanese Communist Party in 1923 included the unification of the working class as well as farmers, recognition of the Soviet Union, and withdrawal of Japanese troops from Siberia, Sakhalin, China, Korea, and Taiwan. In
600-594: The Four-Power Treaty on Insular Possessions signed on December 13, 1921, Japan, the United States, Britain, and France agreed to recognize the status quo in the Pacific, and Japan and Britain agreed to formally terminate the Anglo-Japanese Alliance . The Washington Naval Treaty , signed on February 6, 1922, established an international capital ship ratio for the United States, Britain, Japan, France, and Italy (5, 5, 3, 1.75, and 1.75, respectively) and limited
660-557: The General Election Law in 1925 benefited communist candidates, even though the Japan Communist Party itself was banned. A new Peace Preservation Law in 1928, however, further impeded communist efforts by banning the parties they had infiltrated. The police apparatus of the day was ubiquitous and quite thorough in attempting to control the socialist movement. By 1926, the Japan Communist Party had been forced underground, by
SECTION 10
#1732858418257720-506: The Meiji Restoration in 1868 had seen not only the fulfillment of many domestic and foreign economic and political objectives—without Japan suffering the colonial fate of other Asian nations—but also a new intellectual ferment, in a time when there was worldwide interest in communism and socialism and an urban proletariat was developing. Universal male suffrage , social welfare , workers' rights , and nonviolent protests were ideals of
780-461: The Russian Revolution . Wanting to seize the opportunity, the Japanese army planned to occupy Siberia as far west as Lake Baikal . To do so, Japan had to negotiate an agreement with China allowing the transit of Japanese troops through Chinese territory. Although the force was scaled back to avoid antagonizing the United States, more than 70,000 Japanese troops joined the much smaller units of
840-606: The Shōwa era . The two kanji characters in Taishō ( 大正 ) were from a passage of the Classical Chinese I Ching : 大亨以正 天之道也 (Translated: "Great prevalence is achieved through rectitude, and this is the Dao of Heaven.") The term could be roughly understood as meaning "great rectitude", or "great righteousness". On 30 July 1912, Emperor Meiji died and Crown Prince Yoshihito succeeded to
900-527: The governor of Suiyuan, was made commander of the 7th Group Army, and Liu Ruming , governor of Chahar , was made its deputy commander, defending Chahar with the 143rd Division and two Brigades. General Tang Enbo was sent by Chiang Kai-shek with the 13th and 17th Army from the Central Army and made Frontline Commander in Chief. The 1st Cavalry Army was sent to Chahar under the command of Zhao Chengshou , facing
960-476: The 14th Army Group arrived on the Japanese flank at Chingpaikou , driving off the Japanese outpost there and contacting the Japanese forces advancing to Chenpien and the front beyond. However, they were delayed in crossing the Yongding River , and their attack was delayed until it was too late to stop the Japanese advance. Due to poor communications they also failed to link up with Gen. Tang En-po's forces during
1020-462: The 14th Group Army were sent on a ten-day march through the plains west of Beiping in a flanking movement in support of Tang Enbo's forces. The Chinese 1st Army Region made attacks on the Japanese forces in Liangxiang and Chaili to distract them, and sent a detachment to Heilung Pass to cover the advance of 14th Group Army. From the dates on a Japanese map of the battle, these forces did not reach
1080-474: The 1920s, Japan changed its direction toward a democratic system of government. However, parliamentary government was not rooted deeply enough to withstand the economic and political pressures of the 1930s, during which military leaders became increasingly influential. These shifts in power were made possible by the ambiguity and imprecision of the Meiji Constitution , particularly regarding the position of
1140-593: The Battle of Laiwu and was framed by Communist spy Han Liancheng. Li Xianzhou led all the divisions with more than 65,000 people. Li Xianzhou himself was captured and Wang Yaowu scolded afterwards: "60,000 pigs wouldn't even have capitulated in just half a day. " He was later detained as a war criminal, reformed and educated, and was released on amnesty by the Supreme People's Court in November 1960. He died in his hometown at
1200-508: The Chinese 1st Cavalry Army captured Shangdu , Nanhaochan , Shangyi and Huade from the puppet Mongolian Army of Demchugdongrub . Elements of the 143rd Division took Zhongli, while its main force reached Zhangbei . During this Chinese advance the Japanese Chahar Expeditionary Force under Lt. General Hideki Tōjō, composed of the mechanized 1st Independent Mixed Brigade and the 2nd and 15th Mixed Brigades, gathered for
1260-593: The Chinese account, after repulsing the Oui Column's attack the Chinese 17th Army withdrew to join the rest of Tang Enbo's force on the far side of the Sangchien River. Kalgan fell to the Japanese on August 27. After Gen. Fu Zuoyi's 200th and 211th Brigades failed in a counterattack to recapture Kalgan, Fu's forces fell back to the west to defend the railway to Suiyuan at Chaikoupao . This brought an end to Operation Chahar. According to Time magazine, on September 4,
SECTION 20
#17328584182571320-490: The Chinese and the Ohizumi Detachment (大泉支隊) by the Japanese, attacked. According to Hsu Long-hsuen this unit moved south from Tushihkou , and on August 30 attacked Yenching via Chihcheng, but was repulsed by the Chinese 17th Army. The unit moved to Guyuan (沽源) on August 25 and to Xuanhua (宣化) by September 7, cutting the railroad in the rear of Tang's forces and east of Chinese forces along the Great Wall. According to
1380-525: The Chinese government, put China still deeper into Japan's debt. Toward the end of the war, Japan increasingly filled orders for its European allies' needed war material, thus helping to diversify the country's industry, increase its exports, and transform Japan from a debtor to a creditor nation for the first time. Japan's power in Asia grew following the collapse of the Imperial Russian government in 1917 after
1440-645: The Emperor in relation to the constitution. By coincidence, Taishō year numbering just happens to be the same as that of the Minguo calendar of the Republic of China, and the Juche calendar of North Korea . To convert any Gregorian calendar year between 1912 and 1926 to Japanese calendar year in Taishō era, subtract 1911 from the year in question. Attribution Li Xianzhou Li Xianzhou (李仙洲) (1894 - October 22, 1988)
1500-501: The Japanese-aligned South Chahar Government was set up at Kalgan. After the fall of Kalgan, Chahar's "complete independence" from China was declared by "100 influential persons", headed by Demchugdongrub, a pro-Japanese Mongolian who had long been the head of the "Inner Mongolia for Inner Mongolians" movement. It was Demchugdongrub, with his Mongolian levies, who helped the Japanese to take Kalgan. Demchugdongrub
1560-511: The Meiji period also continued. Notable artists, such as Kobayashi Kiyochika , adopted Western painting styles while continuing to work in ukiyo-e ; others, such as Okakura Kakuzō , kept an interest in traditional Japanese painting . Authors such as Mori Ōgai studied in the West, bringing back with them to Japan different insights on human life influenced by developments in the West. The events following
1620-525: The Mongolian forces of Demchugdongrub . Following the loss of Beiping, Tang Enbo's 13th Army (4th and 89th Divisions) took up positions in depth along the Peking–Suiyuan Railway at Nankou , and further to the rear at Juyongguan (Juyong Pass). Gao's 17th Army stationed its 84th Division at Chihcheng , Yanqing , and Longguan , covering the flank of the 13th Army from Japanese forces in Chahar. The 21st Division
1680-519: The Western powers' rejection of its bid for a racial equality clause in the peace treaty, Japan emerged as a major actor in international politics at the close of the war. The two-party political system that had been developing in Japan since the turn of the century came of age after World War I, gave rise to the nickname for the period, " Taishō Democracy ". In 1918, Hara Takashi , a protégé of Saionji and
1740-472: The area until September, when it was too late, and clashed with Japanese forces from September 9–17 without achieving its objective. On August 12, Tang Enbo's army counterattacked, surrounding the Japanese and cutting them off from their supplies and communications. On August 14, Seishirō Itagaki 's 5th Division was sent to the relief of the 11th Independent Mixed Brigade at Juyongguan . On August 16, Itagaki arrived at Nankou and began an enveloping attack on
1800-568: The battle. After 8 days and 8 nights fighting, Itagaki, on August 24, linked up with the Kwantung army's 2nd Independent Mixed Brigade at Xiahuayuan. On August 26, Gen. Tang Enbo's forces were ordered to break out toward the Sangchien River while Liu Ruming's forces were ordered to withdraw to the far side of the Hsiang-yang River . On August 29, the Japanese unit, called the Oui Column by
1860-474: The coming years, authorities tried to suppress the party, especially after the Toranomon Incident when a radical student under the influence of Japanese Marxist thinkers tried to assassinate Prince Regent Hirohito . The 1925 Peace Preservation Law was a direct response to the perceived "dangerous thoughts" perpetrated by communist and socialist elements in Japan. The liberalization of election laws with
Operation Chahar - Misplaced Pages Continue
1920-564: The conservative forces formed a party of their own in 1913, the Rikken Dōshikai , a party that won a majority in the House over the Seiyūkai in late 1914. On February 12, 1913, Yamamoto Gonnohyōe succeeded Katsura as prime minister . In April 1914, Ōkuma Shigenobu replaced Yamamoto. Crown Prince Yoshihito married Sadako Kujō on 10 May 1900. Their coronation took place on November 11, 1915. World War I permitted Japan, which fought on
1980-412: The difficult terrain and the stubborn resistance of the Chinese. A new attack on August 11, supported by tanks and aircraft, took Nankou Station, after which Gen. Suzuki's brigade advanced on Juyong Pass. That same day, Chiang Kai-shek ordered the activation of the 14th Group Army (10th, 83rd, and 85th Divisions) under Gen. Wei Lihuang . Coming by rail from Yingchia-chuang to Yi County , elements of
2040-540: The earlier politics of compromise. When Saionji Kinmochi tried to cut the military budget, the army minister resigned, bringing down the Rikken Seiyūkai cabinet. Both Yamagata Aritomo and Saionji refused to resume office, and the genrō were unable to find a solution. Public outrage over the military manipulation of the cabinet and the recall of Katsura Tarō for a third term led to still more demands for an end to genrō politics. Despite old guard opposition,
2100-544: The early leftist movement. Government suppression of leftist activities, however, led to more radical leftist action and even more suppression, resulting in the dissolution of the Japan Socialist Party ( 日本社会党 , Nihon Shakaitō ) only a year after its founding and general failure of the socialist movement in 1906. The beginning of the Taishō period was marked by the Taishō political crisis in 1912–13 that interrupted
2160-499: The emperor and the state—were attempted as solutions. While the impact of the American panic of October 1929 was still reverberating throughout the world, the Japanese government lifted the gold embargo at the old parity in January 1930. These two blows struck the Japanese economy simultaneously, and the country was plunged into a severe depression. There was a sense of rising discontent that
2220-517: The end of Terauchi Masatake government. The postwar era brought Japan unprecedented prosperity. Japan went to the 1919 Paris Peace Conference as one of the great military and industrial powers of the world and received official recognition as one of the "Big Five" nations of the new international order. Tokyo was granted a permanent seat on the Council of the League of Nations and the peace treaty confirmed
2280-711: The failure of the Suiyuan Campaign . The Chahar Expeditionary Force was under the direct command of General Hideki Tōjō , the chief of staff of the Kwantung Army. A second force from the Beiping Railway Garrison Force, later the 1st Army under General Kiyoshi Katsuki , was also involved. The Chinese forces opposing this invasion of Suiyuan were the Suiyuan Pacification Headquarters under the command of General Yan Xishan . Fu Zuoyi ,
2340-575: The growing national debt and the new election laws, which retained the old minimum tax qualifications for voters. Calls were raised for universal suffrage and the dismantling of the old political party network. Students, university professors, and journalists, bolstered by labor unions and inspired by a variety of democratic, socialist, communist, anarchist, and other Western schools of thought, mounted large but orderly public demonstrations in favor of universal male suffrage in 1919 and 1920. New elections brought still another Seiyūkai majority, but barely so. In
2400-498: The growth of the zaibatsu , could Japan hope to become dominant in Asia. The United States, long a source of many imported goods and loans needed for development, was seen as becoming a major impediment to this goal because of its policies of containing Japanese imperialism. An international turning point in military diplomacy was the Washington Conference of 1921–22 , which produced a series of agreements that effected
2460-575: The influx of Western popular culture together led to the passage of the Peace Preservation Law in 1925, which forbade any change in the political structure or the abolition of private property. In 1921, during the Interwar period , Japan developed and launched the Hōshō , which was the first purpose-designed aircraft carrier in the world. Japan subsequently developed a fleet of aircraft carriers that
Operation Chahar - Misplaced Pages Continue
2520-471: The need to adjust the Japanese economy to postwar circumstances, the influx of foreign ideas, and an emerging labor movement. Prewar solutions were applied by the cabinet to these postwar problems, and little was done to reform the government. Hara worked to ensure a Seiyūkai majority through time-tested methods, such as new election laws and electoral redistricting, and embarked on major government-funded public works programs. The public grew disillusioned with
2580-401: The political milieu of the day, there was a proliferation of new parties, including socialist and communist parties. In the midst of this political ferment, Hara was assassinated by a disenchanted railroad worker in 1921. Hara was followed by a succession of nonparty prime ministers and coalition cabinets. Fear of a broader electorate, left-wing power, and the growing social change engendered by
2640-653: The right flank of 13th Army, making a five pronged attack at Huanglaoyuan . The 7th Brigade of 4th Division under Shi Jue was moved to block this maneuver, and reinforcements of Li Xianzhou 's 21st Division and Zhu Huaibing 's 94th Division were brought up, engaging in days of heavy fighting. On August 17 General Yan Xishan , Director of the Taiyuan Pacification Headquarters, directed the 7th Group Army, under Fu Zuoyi , to move its 72nd Division and three brigades by rail from Datong to Huailai to reinforce Tang Enbo's forces. Meanwhile, in northern Chahar
2700-481: The side of the victorious Allied Powers , to expand its influence in Asia and its territorial holdings in the north equatorial Pacific. Japan declared war on Germany on August 23, 1914, and quickly occupied German-leased territories in China's Shandong and the Mariana , Caroline , and Marshall islands in the north Pacific Ocean. On November 7, Jiaozhou surrendered to Japan. With its Western allies heavily involved in
2760-648: The size and armaments of capital ships already built or under construction. In a move that gave the Japanese Imperial Navy greater freedom in the Pacific Ocean, Washington and London agreed not to build any new military bases between Singapore and Hawaii. The goal of the Nine-Power Treaty also signed on February 6, 1922, by Belgium, China, the Netherlands, and Portugal, along with the original five powers,
2820-488: The summer of 1929 the party leadership had been virtually destroyed, and by 1933 the party had largely disintegrated. Pan-Asianism was characteristic of right-wing politics and conservative militarism since the inception of the Meiji Restoration, contributing greatly to the pro-war politics of the 1870s. Disenchanted former samurai had established patriotic societies and intelligence-gathering organizations, such as
2880-417: The throne as Emperor of Japan . In his coronation address, the newly enthroned Emperor announced his reign's nengō (era name) Taishō , meaning "great righteousness". The end of the Meiji period was marked by huge government, domestic, and overseas investments and defense programs, nearly exhausted credit, and a lack of foreign reserves to pay debts. The influence of Western culture experienced in
2940-560: The transfer to Japan of Germany's rights in Shandong , a provision that led to anti-Japanese riots and a mass political movement throughout China. Similarly, Germany's former north Pacific islands were put under a Japanese mandate . Japan was also involved in the post-war Allied intervention in Russia and was the last Allied power to withdraw (doing so in 1925). Despite its small role in World War I and
3000-599: The ultra-nationalists concentrated on domestic issues and perceived domestic threats such as socialism and communism. Emerging Chinese nationalism, the victory of the communists in Russia, and the growing presence of the United States in East Asia all worked against Japan's postwar foreign policy interests. The four-year Siberian expedition and activities in China, combined with big domestic spending programs, had depleted Japan's wartime earnings. Only through more competitive business practices, supported by further economic development and industrial modernization, all accommodated by
3060-603: The war in Europe, Japan sought further to consolidate its position in China by presenting the Twenty-One Demands (Japanese: 対華二十一ヶ条要求 ; Chinese: 二十一条 ) to the Government in January 1915. Besides expanding its control over German holdings, Manchuria and Inner Mongolia , Japan also sought joint ownership of a major mining and metallurgical complex in central China, prohibitions on China's ceding or leasing any coastal areas to
SECTION 50
#17328584182573120-468: Was a Kuomintang general from Shandong . He was a graduate of the Whampoa Military Academy . After the victory of the Anti-Japanese War in 1945, he was transferred to Jinan as Deputy Commander-in-Chief of the Second Appeasement District. In February 1947, the 46th Division and the 73rd Army were ordered to attack Laiwu and Xintai from Mingshui and Zichuan, preparing to attack the East China Field Army from north to south. The East China Field Army launched
3180-407: Was a sickly man, which prompted the shift in political power from the old oligarchic group of elder statesmen (or genrō ) to the Imperial Diet of Japan and the democratic parties . Thus, the era is considered the time of the liberal movement known as Taishō Democracy ; it is usually distinguished from the preceding chaotic Meiji era and the following militaristic -driven first part of
3240-444: Was deployed in Huailai , on the railroad to the rear of Tang's forces. Zhao Chengshou's 1st Cavalry Army, Liu Ruming's 143rd Division, and two Peace Preservation Brigades began an attack on the Mongol forces in northern Chahar. On August 8, the Japanese 11th Independent Mixed Brigade , commanded by Gen. Shigiyasu Suzuki , began their attack on the left flank of the 13th Corps position at Nankou , but were thwarted after three days by
3300-407: Was facilitated through other international agreements. One with Russia in 1916 helped further secure Japan's influence in Manchuria and Inner Mongolia, and agreements with France, Britain, and the United States in 1917 recognized Japan's territorial gains in China and the north Pacific. The Nishihara Loans (named after Nishihara Kamezo, Tokyo's representative in Beijing) of 1917 and 1918, while aiding
3360-399: Was heightened with the assault upon Rikken Minseitō prime minister Osachi Hamaguchi in 1930. Though Hamaguchi survived the attack and tried to continue in office despite the severity of his wounds, he was forced to resign the following year and died not long afterwards. The victory of the Bolsheviks in Russia in 1922 and their hopes for a world revolution led to the establishment of
3420-421: Was rewarded for his collaboration with the highest position in this new Japanese puppet state, the Mongol United Autonomous Government . Notes Taish%C5%8D period The Taishō era ( 大正時代 , Taishō jidai , [taiɕoː dʑidai] ) was a period in the history of Japan dating from 30 July 1912 to 25 December 1926, coinciding with the reign of Emperor Taishō . The new emperor
3480-432: Was second to none. Unstable coalitions and divisiveness in the Diet led the Kenseikai ( 憲政会 , Constitutional Government Association) and the Seiyū Hontō ( 政友本党 , True Seiyūkai ) to merge as the Rikken Minseitō ( 立憲民政党 , Constitutional Democratic Party) in 1927. The Rikken Minseitō platform was committed to the parliamentary system, democratic politics, and world peace. Thereafter, until 1932,
3540-525: Was sent to defend the railhead at Huailai. On August 21, the Japanese forces broke through at the villages of Henglingcheng and Chenbiancheng . Gen. Tang Enbo's forces awaiting reinforcement; but, having suffered over 50% casualties, still defended Huailai, Juyong Pass, and Yenqing. Liu Ruming's 143rd Division fell back to defend Kalgan from the advancing Japanese. On August 23, as Seishirō Itagaki's 5th Division pushed toward Huailai from Chenpien against Ma Yenshou's 7th Separate Brigade, advance elements of
3600-601: Was to prevent a war in the Pacific. The signatories agreed to respect China's independence and integrity, not to interfere in Chinese attempts to establish a stable government, to refrain from seeking special privileges in China or threatening the positions of other nations there, to support a policy of equal opportunity for commerce and industry of all nations in China, and to reexamine extraterritoriality and tariff autonomy. Japan also agreed to withdraw its troops from Shandong , relinquishing all but purely economic rights there, and to evacuate its troops from Siberia. Overall, during
#256743