Early research and development:
125-434: Network neutrality , often referred to as net neutrality , is the principle that Internet service providers (ISPs) must treat all Internet communications equally, offering users and online content providers consistent transfer rates regardless of content, website, platform , application , type of equipment, source address, destination address, or method of communication (i.e., without price discrimination ). Net neutrality
250-669: A core network /backbone network; each subsequent network handles more traffic than the last. Mobile service providers also have similar networks. A mailbox provider is an organization that provides services for hosting electronic mail domains with access to storage for mail boxes. It provides email servers to send, receive, accept, and store email for end users or other organizations. Many mailbox providers are also access providers, while others are not (e.g., Gmail , Yahoo! Mail , Outlook.com , AOL Mail , Po box ). The definition given in RFC 6650 covers email hosting services , as well as
375-422: A data compression algorithm. Adaptive DPCM (ADPCM) was introduced by P. Cummiskey, Nikil S. Jayant and James L. Flanagan at Bell Labs in 1973. Perceptual coding was first used for speech coding compression, with linear predictive coding (LPC). Initial concepts for LPC date back to the work of Fumitada Itakura ( Nagoya University ) and Shuzo Saito ( Nippon Telegraph and Telephone ) in 1966. During
500-462: A digital system do not result in error unless they are so large as to result in a symbol being misinterpreted as another symbol or disturbing the sequence of symbols. It is, therefore, generally possible to have an entirely error-free digital audio system in which no noise or distortion is introduced between conversion to digital format and conversion back to analog. A digital audio signal may be encoded for correction of any errors that might occur in
625-486: A digital-to-analog converter (DAC) performs the reverse process, converting a digital signal back into an analog signal, which is then sent through an audio power amplifier and ultimately to a loudspeaker . Digital audio systems may include compression , storage , processing , and transmission components. Conversion to a digital format allows convenient manipulation, storage, transmission, and retrieval of an audio signal. Unlike analog audio, in which making copies of
750-476: A dumb network is a network with little or no control or management of its use patterns. Experts in the high-technology field will often compare the dumb pipe concept with smart pipes and debate which one is best applied to a certain portion of Internet policy. These conversations usually refer to these two concepts as being analogous to the concepts of open and closed Internet respectively. As such, certain models have been made that aim to outline four layers of
875-441: A tier 1 carrier . In reality, the situation is often more complex. ISPs with more than one point of presence (PoP) may have separate connections to an upstream ISP at multiple PoPs, or they may be customers of multiple upstream ISPs and may have connections to each one of them at one or more point of presence. Transit ISPs provide large amounts of bandwidth for connecting hosting ISPs and access ISPs. Border Gateway Protocol
1000-489: A DAC. According to the Nyquist–Shannon sampling theorem , with some practical and theoretical restrictions, a band-limited version of the original analog signal can be accurately reconstructed from the digital signal. During conversion, audio data can be embedded with a digital watermark to prevent piracy and unauthorized use. Watermarking is done using a direct-sequence spread-spectrum (DSSS) method. The audio information
1125-902: A Tier 1 ISP. Transit ISPs may use OTN ( Optical transport network ) or SDH/SONET (Synchronous Digital Hierarchy/Synchronous Optical Networking) with DWDM ( Dense wavelength-division multiplexing ) for transmitting data over optical fiber. For transmissions in a metro area such as a city and for large customers such as data centers, special pluggable modules in routers, conforming to standards such as CFP , QSFP-DD, OSFP, 400ZR or OpenZR+ may be used alongside DWDM and many vendors have proprietary offerings. Long-haul networks transport data across longer distances than metro networks, such as through submarine cables, or connecting several metropolitan networks. Optical line systems and packet optical transport systems can also be used for data transmission. Ultra long haul transmission transports data over distances of over 1500 kilometers. A virtual ISP (VISP)
1250-551: A U.S. appeals court ruled in April 2010 that the FCC exceeded its authority when it sanctioned Comcast in 2008 for deliberately preventing some subscribers from using peer-to-peer file-sharing services to download large files. However, the FCC spokeswoman Jen Howard responded, "The court in no way disagreed with the importance of preserving a free and open Internet, nor did it close the door to other methods for achieving this important end." Despite
1375-460: A billion people, and are expected to help the culture of startups and innovation. The only exceptions to the rules are new and emerging services like autonomous driving and tele-medicine , which may require prioritized internet lanes and faster than normal speeds. Net neutrality in China is not enforced, and ISPs in China play important roles in regulating the content that is available domestically on
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#17329388025611500-530: A call, as the phone company prioritizes emergency calls. Over-provisioning is a form of statistical multiplexing that makes liberal estimates of peak user demand . Over-provisioning is used in private networks such as WebEx and the Internet 2 Abilene Network , an American university network. David Isenberg believes that continued over-provisioning will always provide more capacity for less expense than QoS and deep packet inspection technologies. Device neutrality
1625-537: A different sampling rate to a common sampling rate prior to processing. Audio data compression techniques, such as MP3 , Advanced Audio Coding (AAC), Opus , Ogg Vorbis , or FLAC , are commonly employed to reduce the file size. Digital audio can be carried over digital audio interfaces such as AES3 or MADI . Digital audio can be carried over a network using audio over Ethernet , audio over IP or other streaming media standards and systems. For playback, digital audio must be converted back to an analog signal with
1750-418: A fair use guarantee. This is generally not considered to be an intrusion, but rather allows for a commercial positioning among ISPs. Some networks like public Wi-Fi can take traffic away from conventional fixed or mobile network providers. This can significantly change the end-to-end behavior (performance, tariffs). Discrimination by protocol is the favoring or blocking of information based on aspects of
1875-456: A matter of several ongoing legal challenges by both states supporting net neutrality, and ISPs challenging it. The United States Congress has attempted to pass legislation supporting net neutrality but has failed to gain sufficient support. In 2018, a bill cleared the U.S. Senate, with Republicans Lisa Murkowski , John Kennedy , and Susan Collins joining all 49 Democrats but the House majority denied
2000-494: A page fails to load at the expected speed, many of them simply click out. A study found that even a one-second delay could lead to "11% fewer page views, a 16% decrease in customer satisfaction, and 7% loss in conversions." This delay can cause a severe problem to small innovators who have created new technology. If a website is slow by default, the general public will lose interest and favor a website that runs faster. This helps large corporate companies maintain power because they have
2125-522: A range of digital transmission applications such as the integrated services digital network (ISDN), cordless telephones and cell phones . Digital audio is used in broadcasting of audio. Standard technologies include Digital audio broadcasting (DAB), Digital Radio Mondiale (DRM), HD Radio and In-band on-channel (IBOC). Digital audio in recording applications is stored on audio-specific technologies including CD, DAT, Digital Compact Cassette (DCC) and MiniDisc . Digital audio may be stored in
2250-502: A range of technologies to connect users to their network. Available technologies have ranged from computer modems with acoustic couplers to telephone lines, to television cable (CATV), Wi-Fi , and fiber optics. For users and small businesses, traditional options include copper wires to provide dial-up , DSL, typically asymmetric digital subscriber line (ADSL), cable modem or Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN) (typically basic rate interface ). Using fiber-optics to end users
2375-580: A recording results in generation loss and degradation of signal quality, digital audio allows an infinite number of copies to be made without any degradation of signal quality. Digital audio technologies are used in the recording, manipulation, mass-production, and distribution of sound, including recordings of songs , instrumental pieces, podcasts , sound effects, and other sounds. Modern online music distribution depends on digital recording and data compression . The availability of music as data files, rather than as physical objects, has significantly reduced
2500-514: A region. ISPs may engage in peering , where multiple ISPs interconnect at peering points or Internet exchange points (IXPs), allowing routing of data between each network, without charging one another for the data transmitted—data that would otherwise have passed through a third upstream ISP, incurring charges from the upstream ISP. ISPs requiring no upstream and having only customers (end customers or peer ISPs) are called Tier 1 ISPs . Network hardware, software and specifications, as well as
2625-608: A result, these companies often became the dominant ISPs in their service areas, and what was once a highly competitive ISP market became effectively a monopoly or duopoly in countries with a commercial telecommunications market, such as the United States. In 1995, NSFNET was decommissioned removing the last restrictions on the use of the Internet to carry commercial traffic and network access points were created to allow peering arrangements between commercial ISPs. On 23 April 2014,
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#17329388025612750-515: A similar function with Hi8 tapes. Formats like ProDigi and DASH were referred to as SDAT (stationary-head digital audio tape) formats, as opposed to formats like the PCM adaptor-based systems and Digital Audio Tape (DAT), which were referred to as RDAT (rotating-head digital audio tape) formats, due to their helical-scan process of recording. Like the DAT cassette, ProDigi and DASH machines also accommodated
2875-496: A specialized type of law enforcement , or secret police . Other countries such as Russia, China, and North Korea also use similar tactics to Thailand to control the variety of internet media within their respective countries. In comparison to the United States or Canada for example, these countries have far more restrictive internet service providers. This approach is reminiscent of a closed platform system, as both ideas are highly similar. These systems all serve to hinder access to
3000-442: A specified sampling rate and converts at a known bit resolution. CD audio , for example, has a sampling rate of 44.1 kHz (44,100 samples per second), and has 16-bit resolution for each stereo channel. Analog signals that have not already been bandlimited must be passed through an anti-aliasing filter before conversion, to prevent the aliasing distortion that is caused by audio signals with frequencies higher than
3125-405: A stimulus of $ 2.88 billion for extending broadband services into certain areas of the United States. It was intended to make the internet more accessible for under-served areas, and aspects of net neutrality and open access were written into the grant. However, the bill never set any significant precedents for net neutrality or influenced future legislation relating to net neutrality. Until 2017,
3250-421: A third party. In contrast, a closed Internet refers to the opposite situation, wherein established persons, corporations, or governments favor certain uses, restrict access to necessary web standards , artificially degrade some services, or explicitly filter out content . Some countries such as Thailand block certain websites or types of sites, and monitor and/or censor Internet use using Internet police ,
3375-446: A tier 2 or tier 1 ISP usually has a larger network than the contracting ISP or is able to provide the contracting ISP with access to parts of the Internet the contracting ISP by itself has no access to. In the simplest case, a single connection is established to an upstream ISP and is used to transmit data to or from areas of the Internet beyond the home network; this mode of interconnection is often cascaded multiple times until reaching
3500-430: A type of software program whose maker allows users access to the code that runs the program, so that users can improve the software or fix bugs . Proponents of net neutrality see neutrality as an important component of an open Internet , wherein policies such as equal treatment of data and open web standards allow those using the Internet to easily communicate, and conduct business and activities without interference from
3625-401: A user connects to Netflix, Misplaced Pages, YouTube, or a family blog, their ISP must treat them all the same. Without net neutrality, an ISP can influence the quality that each experience offers to end users, which suggests a regime of pay-to-play , where content providers can be charged to improve the exposure of their own products versus those of their competitors. Under an open Internet system,
3750-503: A way for the country to control and restrict information rather than providing neutral internet content for those who use the internet. Net neutrality in the Philippines is not enforced. Mobile Internet providers like Globe Telecom and Smart Communications commonly offer data package promos tied to specific applications, games or websites like Facebook, Instagram , and TikTok . In the mid-2010s, Philippine telcos came under fire from
3875-451: A wide array of surveillance and packet sniffing equipment into their networks, which then feeds the data to law-enforcement/intelligence networks (such as DCSNet in the United States, or SORM in Russia) allowing monitoring of Internet traffic in real time. Digital audio Digital audio is a representation of sound recorded in, or converted into, digital form . In digital audio,
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4000-433: A wide variety of internet service, which is a stark contrast to the idea of an open Internet system. The term dumb pipe was coined in the early 1990s and refers to water pipes used in a city water supply system. In theory, these pipes provide a steady and reliable source of water to every household without discrimination. In other words, it connects the user with the source without any intelligence or decrement. Similarly,
4125-404: Is a net neutrality issue. In the first quarter of 2014, streaming website Netflix reached an arrangement with ISP Comcast to improve the quality of its service to Netflix clients. This arrangement was made in response to increasingly slow connection speeds through Comcast over the course of 2013, where average speeds dropped by over 25% of their values a year before to an all-time low. After the deal
4250-498: Is already significant competition among ISPs with few competitive issues. The term was coined by Columbia University media law professor Tim Wu in 2003 as an extension of the longstanding concept of a common carrier which was used to describe the role of telephone systems . Net neutrality regulations may be referred to as common carrier regulations. Net neutrality does not block all abilities that ISPs have to impact their customers' services. Opt-in and opt-out services exist on
4375-530: Is an operation that purchases services from another ISP, sometimes called a wholesale ISP in this context, which allow the VISP's customers to access the Internet using services and infrastructure owned and operated by the wholesale ISP. VISPs resemble mobile virtual network operators and competitive local exchange carriers for voice communications. Free ISPs are Internet service providers that provide service free of charge. Many free ISPs display advertisements while
4500-451: Is another option, including cellular and satellite Internet access . Access providers may have an MPLS ( Multiprotocol label switching ) or formerly a SONET backbone network , and have a ring or mesh network topology in their core network. The networks run by access providers can be considered wide area networks . ISPs can have access networks , aggregation networks/aggregation layers/distribution layers/edge routers/metro networks and
4625-482: Is any action on a set of packets (often called a stream or a flow) that imposes additional delay on those packets such that they conform to some predetermined constraint (a contract or traffic profile). Traffic shaping provides a means to control the volume of traffic being sent into a network in a specified period ( bandwidth throttling ), or the maximum rate at which the traffic is sent ( rate limiting ), or more complex criteria such as generic cell rate algorithm . If
4750-434: Is called Fiber To The Home or similar names. Customers with more demanding requirements (such as medium-to-large businesses, or other ISPs) can use higher-speed DSL (such as single-pair high-speed digital subscriber line ), Ethernet , metropolitan Ethernet , gigabit Ethernet , Frame Relay , ISDN Primary Rate Interface , ATM (Asynchronous Transfer Mode) and synchronous optical networking (SONET). Wireless access
4875-479: Is done at IXPs, while private peering can be done with direct links between networks. Internet service providers in many countries are legally required (e.g., via Communications Assistance for Law Enforcement Act (CALEA) in the U.S.) to allow law enforcement agencies to monitor some or all of the information transmitted by the ISP, or even store the browsing history of users to allow government access if needed (e.g. via
5000-419: Is generally used as a way for ISPs to remove out-of-pocket costs from subscribers. One of the criticisms regarding discrimination is that the system set up by ISPs for this purpose is capable of not only discriminating but also scrutinizing the full-packet content of communications. For instance, deep packet inspection technology installs intelligence within the lower layers in the work to discover and identify
5125-473: Is often used for Internet censorship . In a practice called zero-rating , companies will not invoice data use related to certain IP addresses, favoring the use of those services. Examples include Facebook Zero , Misplaced Pages Zero , and Google Free Zone . These zero-rating practices are especially common in the developing world . Sometimes Internet Service Providers (ISPs) will charge some companies, but not others, for
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5250-439: Is reversed for reproduction: the electrical audio signal is amplified and then converted back into physical waveforms via a loudspeaker . Analog audio retains its fundamental wave-like characteristics throughout its storage, transformation, duplication, and amplification. Analog audio signals are susceptible to noise and distortion, due to the innate characteristics of electronic circuits and associated devices. Disturbances in
5375-459: Is that ISPs would be able to pick and choose who they offer a greater bandwidth to. If one website or company is able to afford more, they will go with them. This especially stifles private up-and-coming businesses. ISPs are able to encourage the use of specific services by using private networks to discriminate what data is counted against bandwidth caps. For example, Comcast struck a deal with Microsoft that allowed users to stream television through
5500-419: Is that there are literally too many ISPs and internet content providers around the world to reach an agreement on how to standardize that prioritization. A proposed solution would be to allow all online content to be accessed and transferred freely, while simultaneously offering a fast lane for a preferred service that does not discriminate on the content provider. There is disagreement about whether peering
5625-728: Is the concept that there could be multiple Internets , where some ISPs offer exclusive internet applications or services or make it more difficult to gain access to internet content that may be more easily viewable through other internet service providers. An example of a fragmented service would be television, where some cable providers offer exclusive media from certain content providers. However, in theory, allowing ISPs to favor certain content and private networks would overall improve internet services since they would be able to recognize packets of information that are more time-sensitive and prioritize that over packets that are not as sensitive to latency. The issue, as explained by Robin S. Lee and Tim Wu,
5750-869: Is the principle that all Internet traffic should be treated equally. According to Columbia Law School professor Tim Wu , a public information network will be most useful when this is the case. Internet traffic consists of various types of digital data sent over the Internet between all kinds of devices (e.g., data center servers, personal computers, mobile devices , video game consoles , etc.), using hundreds of different transfer technologies. The data includes email messages; HTML , JSON , and all related web browser MIME content types; text, word processing, spreadsheet, database and other academic, business or personal documents in any conceivable format; audio and video files; streaming media content; and countless other formal, proprietary, or ad-hoc schematic formats —all transmitted via myriad transfer protocols . Indeed, while
5875-492: Is the principle that to ensure freedom of choice and freedom of communication for users of network-connected devices, it is not sufficient that network operators do not interfere with their choices and activities; users must be free to use applications of their choice and hence remove the applications they do not want. Device vendors can establish policies for managing applications, but they, too, must be applied neutrally. An unsuccessful bill to enforce network and device neutrality
6000-465: Is then modulated by a pseudo-noise (PN) sequence, then shaped within the frequency domain and put back in the original signal. The strength of the embedding determines the strength of the watermark on the audio data. Pulse-code modulation (PCM) was invented by British scientist Alec Reeves in 1937. In 1950, C. Chapin Cutler of Bell Labs filed the patent on differential pulse-code modulation (DPCM),
6125-576: Is used by routers to connect to other networks, which are identified by their autonomous system number. Tier 2 ISPs depend on Tier 1 ISPs and often have their own networks, but must pay for transit or internet access to Tier 1 ISPs, but may peer or send transit without paying, to other Tier 2 ISPs. Tier 3 ISPs do not engage in peering and only purchase transit from Tier 2 and Tier 1 ISPs, and often specialize in offering internet service to end customers such as businesses and individuals. Some organizations act as their own ISPs and purchase transit directly from
6250-452: Is used. To proponents of net neutrality, this suggests that prioritizing any one transfer protocol over another is generally unprincipled, or that doing so penalizes the free choices of some users. In sum, net neutrality is the principle that an ISP be required to provide access to all sites, content, and applications at the same speed, under the same conditions, without blocking or giving preference to any content. Under net neutrality, whether
6375-591: The Communications Act of 1934 and Section 706 in the Telecommunications Act of 1996 to the Internet. The FCC Chairman, Tom Wheeler , commented, "This is no more a plan to regulate the Internet than the First Amendment is a plan to regulate free speech. They both stand for the same concept." On 12 March 2015, the FCC released the specific details of the net neutrality rules. On 13 April 2015,
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#17329388025616500-647: The Department of Justice for throttling the bandwidth of subscribers of unlimited data plans if the subscribers exceeded arbitrary data caps imposed by the telcos under a supposed "fair use policy" on their "unlimited" plans. Certain adult sites like Pornhub , Redtube , and XTube have also been blocked by some Philippine ISPs at the request of the Philippine National Police to the National Telecommunications Commission , even without
6625-517: The Internet . ISPs can be organized in various forms, such as commercial, community-owned , non-profit , or otherwise privately owned . Internet services typically provided by ISPs can include internet access , internet transit , domain name registration, web hosting , and colocation . The Internet (originally ARPAnet ) was developed as a network between government research laboratories and participating departments of universities. Other companies and organizations joined by direct connection to
6750-697: The Investigatory Powers Act 2016 in the United Kingdom ). Furthermore, in some countries ISPs are subject to monitoring by intelligence agencies. In the U.S., a controversial National Security Agency program known as PRISM provides for broad monitoring of Internet users traffic and has raised concerns about potential violation of the privacy protections in the Fourth Amendment to the United States Constitution . Modern ISPs integrate
6875-547: The Nyquist frequency (half the sampling rate). A digital audio signal may be stored or transmitted. Digital audio can be stored on a CD, a digital audio player , a hard drive , a USB flash drive , or any other digital data storage device . The digital signal may be altered through digital signal processing , where it may be filtered or have effects applied. Sample-rate conversion including upsampling and downsampling may be used to change signals that have been encoded with
7000-700: The United States was made by Thomas Stockham at the Santa Fe Opera in 1976, on a Soundstream recorder. An improved version of the Soundstream system was used to produce several classical recordings by Telarc in 1978. The 3M digital multitrack recorder in development at the time was based on BBC technology. The first all-digital album recorded on this machine was Ry Cooder 's Bop till You Drop in 1979. British record label Decca began development of its own 2-track digital audio recorders in 1978 and released
7125-515: The backbone , or by arrangements through other connected companies, sometimes using dialup tools such as UUCP . By the late 1980s, a process was set in place towards public, commercial use of the Internet. Some restrictions were removed by 1991, shortly after the introduction of the World Wide Web . During the 1980s, online service providers such as CompuServe , Prodigy , and America Online (AOL) began to offer limited capabilities to access
7250-616: The communications protocol that the computers are using to communicate. In the US, a complaint was filed with the Federal Communications Commission against the cable provider Comcast alleging they had illegally inhibited users of its high-speed Internet service from using the popular file-sharing software BitTorrent . Comcast admitted no wrongdoing in its proposed settlement of up to US$ 16 dollars per share in December 2009. However,
7375-446: The end-to-end principle , and that users would be intolerant of slow-loading websites. Opponents argue that it reduces investment, deters competition, increases taxes, imposes unnecessary regulations, prevents the Internet from being accessible to lower income individuals, and prevents Internet traffic from being allocated to the most needed users, that large ISPs already have a performance advantage over smaller providers, and that there
7500-431: The freedom of speech , political participation, investment, and innovation calls for complementary policies." Net neutrality is administered on a national or regional basis, though much of the world's focus has been on the conflict over net neutrality in the United States . Net neutrality in the US has been a topic since the early 1990s, as they were one of the world leaders in providing online services. However, they face
7625-477: The sound wave of the audio signal is typically encoded as numerical samples in a continuous sequence. For example, in CD audio , samples are taken 44,100 times per second , each with 16-bit resolution . Digital audio is also the name for the entire technology of sound recording and reproduction using audio signals that have been encoded in digital form. Following significant advances in digital audio technology during
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#17329388025617750-538: The 1970s and 1980s, it gradually replaced analog audio technology in many areas of audio engineering , record production and telecommunications in the 1990s and 2000s. In a digital audio system, an analog electrical signal representing the sound is converted with an analog-to-digital converter (ADC) into a digital signal, typically using pulse-code modulation (PCM). This digital signal can then be recorded, edited, modified, and copied using computers , audio playback machines, and other digital tools. For playback,
7875-434: The 1970s, Bishnu S. Atal and Manfred R. Schroeder at Bell Labs developed a form of LPC called adaptive predictive coding (APC), a perceptual coding algorithm that exploited the masking properties of the human ear, followed in the early 1980s with the code-excited linear prediction (CELP) algorithm. Discrete cosine transform (DCT) coding, a lossy compression method first proposed by Nasir Ahmed in 1972, provided
8000-665: The Canadian Association of Internet Providers (CAIP) demanding the Canadian Radio-Television and Telecommunications Commission (CRTC) to take action on preventing the throttling of third-party traffic. On 22 October 2009, the CRTC issued a ruling about internet traffic management, which favored adopting guidelines that were suggested by interest groups such as OpenMedia.ca and the Open Internet Coalition. However,
8125-496: The FCC decided to consider two options regarding Internet services: first, permit fast and slow broadband lanes, thereby compromising net neutrality; and second, reclassify broadband as a telecommunications service, thereby preserving net neutrality. On 10 November 2014, President Barack Obama recommended that the FCC reclassify broadband Internet service as a telecommunications service in order to preserve net neutrality. On 16 January 2015, Republicans presented legislation, in
8250-467: The FCC had generally been favorable towards net neutrality, treating ISPs under Title II common carrier. With the onset of the Presidency of Donald Trump in 2017, and the appointment of Ajit Pai , an opponent of net neutrality, to the chairman of the FCC, the FCC has reversed many previous net neutrality rulings and reclassified Internet services as Title I information services. The FCC's decisions have been
8375-412: The FCC published the final rule on its new " Net Neutrality " regulations. These rules went into effect on 12 June 2015. Upon becoming FCC chairman in April 2017, Ajit Pai proposed an end to net neutrality, awaiting votes from the commission. On 21 November 2017, Pai announced that a vote will be held by FCC members on 14 December 2017 on whether to repeal the policy. On 11 June 2018, the repeal of
8500-415: The FCC voted 3–2 to approve a Notice of Proposed Rulemaking (NPRM) that seeks comments on a plan to restore net neutrality rules and regulation of Internet service providers. On 25 April 2024, the FCC voted 3–2 to reinstate net neutrality in the United States by reclassifying the Internet under Title II. However, legal challenges immediately filed by ISPs resulted in an appeals court issuing an order that stays
8625-485: The FCC's network neutrality rules took effect. Since December 31, 2021, The Affordable Connectivity Program has given households in the U.S. at or below 200% of the Federal Poverty Guidelines or households which meet a number of other criteria an up to $ 30 per month discount toward internet service, or up to $ 75 per month on certain tribal lands. Access provider ISPs provide Internet access, employing
8750-477: The French telecommunications regulatory body revealed that the network was simply congested during peak hours. Aside from the zero-rating method, ISPs will also use certain strategies to reduce the costs of pricing plans such as the use of sponsored data. In a scenario where a sponsored data plan is used, a third party will step in and pay for all the content that it (or the carrier or consumer) does not want around. This
8875-458: The Internet in a vote expected on 26 February 2015. Adoption of this notion would reclassify Internet service from one of information to one of the telecommunications and, according to Tom Wheeler , chairman of the FCC, ensure net neutrality. The FCC was expected to enforce net neutrality in its vote, according to The New York Times . On 26 February 2015, the FCC ruled in favor of net neutrality by adopting Title II (common carrier) of
9000-432: The Internet with the understanding of the dumb pipe theory: The end-to-end principle of network design was first laid out in the 1981 paper End-to-end arguments in system design by Jerome H. Saltzer , David P. Reed , and David D. Clark . The principle states that, whenever possible, communications protocol operations should be defined to occur at the end-points of a communications system, or as close as possible to
9125-461: The Internet, such as e-mail interchange, but full access to the Internet was not readily available to the general public. In 1989, the first Internet service providers, companies offering the public direct access to the Internet for a monthly fee, were established in Australia and the United States. In Brookline, Massachusetts , The World became the first commercial ISP in the US. Its first customer
9250-416: The U.S. Federal Communications Commission (FCC) was reported to be considering a new rule permitting ISPs to offer content providers a faster track to send content, thus reversing their earlier net neutrality position. A possible solution to net neutrality concerns may be municipal broadband , according to Professor Susan Crawford , a legal and technology expert at Harvard Law School . On 15 May 2014,
9375-495: The UHF band (including the MMDS frequency band) and LMDS . It is hypothesized that the vast divide between broadband connection in rural and urban areas is partially caused by a lack of competition between ISPs in rural areas , where there exists a market typically controlled by just one provider. A lack of competition problematically causes subscription rates to rise disproportionately with
9500-485: The Xfinity app on their Xbox 360s without it affecting their bandwidth limit. However, using other television streaming apps, such as Netflix , HBO Go , and Hulu , counted towards the limit. Comcast denied that this infringed on net neutrality principles since "it runs its Xfinity for Xbox service on its own, private Internet protocol network." In 2009, when AT&T was bundling iPhone 3G with its 3G network service,
9625-487: The audio data being recorded to the tape using a multi-track stationary tape head. PCM adaptors allowed for stereo digital audio recording on a conventional NTSC or PAL video tape recorder . The 1982 introduction of the CD by Philips and Sony popularized digital audio with consumers. ADAT became available in the early 1990s, which allowed eight-track 44.1 or 48 kHz recording on S-VHS cassettes, and DTRS performed
9750-588: The authority of the Communications Act of 1934 . The FCC would have significant ability to regulate ISPs should Internet services be treated as a Title II " common carrier service", or otherwise the ISPs would be mostly unrestricted by the FCC if Internet services fell under Title I "information services". In 2009, the United States Congress passed the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act 2009, which granted
9875-466: The basis for the modified discrete cosine transform (MDCT), which was developed by J. P. Princen, A. W. Johnson and A. B. Bradley in 1987. The MDCT is the basis for most audio coding standards , such as Dolby Digital (AC-3), MP3 ( MPEG Layer III), AAC, Windows Media Audio (WMA), Opus and Vorbis ( Ogg ). PCM was used in telecommunications applications long before its first use in commercial broadcast and recording. Commercial digital recording
10000-639: The bill a hearing. Individual states have been trying to pass legislation to make net neutrality a requirement within their state, overriding the FCC's decision. California has successfully passed its own net neutrality act , which the United States Department of Justice challenged on a legal basis. On 8 February 2021, the U.S. Justice Department withdrew its challenge to California's data protection law. Federal Communications Commission Acting Chairwoman Jessica Rosenworcel voiced support for an open internet and restoring net neutrality. On 19 October 2023,
10125-423: The company placed restrictions on which iPhone applications could run on its network. According to proponents of net neutrality, this capitalization on which content producers ISPs can favor would ultimately lead to fragmentation, where some ISPs would have certain content that is not necessarily present in the networks offered by other ISPs. The danger behind fragmentation, as viewed by proponents of net neutrality,
10250-482: The computer can effectively run at a single time. Avid Audio and Steinberg released the first digital audio workstation software programs in 1989. Digital audio workstations make multitrack recording and mixing much easier for large projects which would otherwise be difficult with analog equipment. The rapid development and wide adoption of PCM digital telephony was enabled by metal–oxide–semiconductor (MOS) switched capacitor (SC) circuit technology, developed in
10375-430: The core of a network has more bandwidth than is permitted to enter at the edges, then good quality of service (QoS) can be obtained without policing or throttling. For example, telephone networks employ admission control to limit user demand on the network core by refusing to create a circuit for the requested connection. During a natural disaster , for example, most users will get a circuit busy signal if they try to make
10500-479: The costs of distribution as well as making it easier to share copies. Before digital audio, the music industry distributed and sold music by selling physical copies in the form of records and cassette tapes . With digital audio and online distribution systems such as iTunes , companies sell digital sound files to consumers, which the consumer receives over the Internet. Popular streaming services such as Apple Music , Spotify , or YouTube , offer temporary access to
10625-450: The data is being received ( HLS ), interacting with its playback from a remote server ( DASH ), by receiving it in an email message ( SMTP ), or by downloading it from either a website ( HTTP ), an FTP server, or via BitTorrent , among other means. Although all of these use the Internet for transport, and the content received locally is ultimately identical, the interim data traffic is dramatically different depending on which transfer method
10750-547: The debate arose. In Canada, Internet service providers (ISPs) generally provide Internet service in a neutral manner. Some notable incidents otherwise have included Bell Canada 's throttling of certain protocols and Telus 's censorship of a specific website supporting striking union members. In the case with Bell Canada, the debate for net neutrality became a more popular topic when it was revealed that they were throttling traffic by limiting people's accessibility to view Canada's Next Great Prime Minister , which eventually led to
10875-533: The difference in competition levels has potentially negatively affected the innovation and development of infrastructure in specific rural areas remains a question. The exploration and answers developed to the question could provide guidance for possible interventions and solutions meant to remedy the digital divide between rural and urban connectivity. Altnets (portmanteau of "alternative network provider") are localized broadband networks, typically formed as an alternative to monopolistic internet service providers within
11000-399: The digital file, and are now the most common form of music consumption. An analog audio system converts physical waveforms of sound into electrical representations of those waveforms by use of a transducer , such as a microphone . The sounds are then stored on an analog medium such as magnetic tape , or transmitted through an analog medium such as a telephone line or radio . The process
11125-570: The early 1970s. This led to the development of PCM codec-filter chips in the late 1970s. The silicon-gate CMOS (complementary MOS) PCM codec-filter chip, developed by David A. Hodges and W.C. Black in 1980, has since been the industry standard for digital telephony. By the 1990s, telecommunication networks such as the public switched telephone network (PSTN) had been largely digitized with VLSI (very large-scale integration ) CMOS PCM codec-filters, widely used in electronic switching systems for telephone exchanges , user-end modems and
11250-417: The end user side, and filtering can be done locally, as in the filtering of sensitive material for minors. Research suggests that a combination of policy instruments can help realize the range of valued political and economic objectives central to the network neutrality debate. Combined with public opinion, this has led some governments to regulate broadband Internet services as a public utility , similar to
11375-409: The end-points to operate correctly. They pointed out that most features in the lowest level of a communications system impose costs for all higher-layer clients, even if those clients do not need the features, and are redundant if the clients have to re-implement the features on an end-to-end basis. This leads to the model of a minimal dumb network with smart terminals, a completely different model from
11500-522: The equal treatment of internet traffic. Notable participants included Netflix and Reddit. Internet service provider Merging the networks and creating the Internet: Commercialization, privatization, broader access leads to the modern Internet: Examples of Internet services: An Internet service provider ( ISP ) is an organization that provides myriad services related to accessing, using, managing, or participating in
11625-400: The expertise of network management personnel are important in ensuring that data follows the most efficient route, and upstream connections work reliably. A tradeoff between cost and efficiency is possible. Tier 1 ISPs are also interconnected with a mesh network topology. Internet Exchange Points (IXPs) are public locations where several networks are connected to each other. Public peering
11750-399: The first European digital recording in 1979. Popular professional digital multitrack recorders produced by Sony/Studer ( DASH ) and Mitsubishi ( ProDigi ) in the early 1980s helped to bring about digital recording's acceptance by the major record companies. Machines for these formats had their own transports built-in as well, using reel-to-reel tape in either 1/4", 1/2", or 1" widths, with
11875-406: The focus is often on the type of digital content being transferred, network neutrality includes the idea that if all such types are to be treated equally, then it follows that any ostensibly arbitrary choice of protocol —that is, the technical details of the actual communications transaction itself—must be as well. For example, the same digital video file could be accessed by viewing it live while
12000-404: The form of a U.S. Congress H.R. discussion draft bill , that makes concessions to net neutrality but prohibits the FCC from accomplishing the goal or enacting any further regulation affecting Internet service providers. On 31 January 2015, AP News reported that the FCC will present the notion of applying ("with some caveats") Title II (common carrier) of the Communications Act of 1934 to
12125-468: The full resources of the Internet and means to operate on it should be easily accessible to all individuals, companies, and organizations. Applicable concepts include: net neutrality, open standards , transparency , lack of Internet censorship , and low barriers to entry . The concept of the open Internet is sometimes expressed as an expectation of decentralized technological power , and is seen by some observers as closely related to open-source software ,
12250-519: The guidelines set in place require citizens to file formal complaints proving that their internet traffic is being throttled, and as a result, some ISPs still continue to throttle the internet traffic of their users. In the year 2018, the Indian Government unanimously approved new regulations supporting net neutrality. The regulations are considered to be the "world's strongest" net neutrality rules, guaranteeing free and open Internet for nearly half
12375-592: The internet. There are several ISPs filtering and blocking content at the national level, preventing domestic internet users from accessing certain sites or services or foreign internet users from gaining access to domestic web content. This filtering technology is referred to as the Great Firewall , or GFW. In an article published by the Cambridge University Press, they observed the political environment with net neutrality in China. Chinese ISPs have become
12500-495: The introduction of device neutrality in Europe. The principle has been incorporated in the EU's Digital Markets Act (Articles 6.3 an 6.4) ISPs have the possibility to choose a balance between a base subscription tariff (monthly bundle) and a pay-per-use (pay by MB metering). The ISP sets an upper monthly threshold on data usage, just to be able to provide an equal share among customers, and
12625-526: The means to fund faster Internet speeds. On the other hand, smaller competitors have less financial capabilities making it harder for them to succeed in the online world. Legal enforcement of net neutrality principles takes a variety of forms, from provisions that outlaw anti-competitive blocking and throttling of Internet services, all the way to legal enforcement that prevents companies from subsidizing Internet use on particular sites. Contrary to popular rhetoric and statements by various individuals involved in
12750-785: The necessary court orders required by the Supreme Court of the Philippines . Proponents of net neutrality regulations include consumer advocates , human rights organizations such as Article 19 , online companies and some technology companies. Net neutrality tends to be supported by those on the political left , while opposed by those on the political right . Many major Internet application companies are advocates of neutrality, such as eBay , Amazon , Netflix , Reddit , Microsoft , Twitter, Etsy , IAC Inc. , Yahoo! , Vonage , and Cogent Communications . In September 2014, an online protest known as Internet Slowdown Day took place to advocate for
12875-462: The net neutrality rules until the court makes a final ruling, while issuing the opinion that the ISPs will likely prevail over the FCC on the merits. Net neutrality in Canada is a debated issue in that nation, but not to the degree of partisanship in other nations such as the United States in part because of its federal regulatory structure and pre-existing supportive laws that were enacted decades before
13000-578: The obligatory 44.1 kHz sampling rate, but also 48 kHz on all machines, and eventually a 96 kHz sampling rate. They overcame the problems that made typical analog recorders unable to meet the bandwidth (frequency range) demands of digital recording by a combination of higher tape speeds, narrower head gaps used in combination with metal-formulation tapes, and the spreading of data across multiple parallel tracks. Unlike analog systems, modern digital audio workstations and audio interfaces allow as many channels in as many different sampling rates as
13125-435: The ongoing academic debate, research suggests that a single policy instrument (such as a no-blocking policy or a quality of service tiering policy) cannot achieve the range of valued political and economic objectives central to the debate. As Bauer and Obar suggest, "safeguarding multiple goals requires a combination of instruments that will likely involve government and nongovernment measures. Furthermore, promoting goals such as
13250-407: The previous paradigm of the smart network with dumb terminals . Because the end-to-end principle is one of the central design principles of the Internet, and because the practical means for implementing data discrimination violate the end-to-end principle, the principle often enters discussions about net neutrality. The end-to-end principle is closely related and sometimes seen as a direct precursor to
13375-450: The principle of net neutrality. Traffic shaping is the control of computer network traffic to optimize or guarantee performance, improve latency (i.e., decrease Internet response times), or increase usable bandwidth by delaying packets that meet certain criteria. In practice, traffic shaping is often accomplished by throttling certain types of data, such as streaming video or P2P file sharing. More specifically, traffic shaping
13500-415: The quality of service in rural areas, causing broadband connection to be unaffordable for some, even when the infrastructure supports service in a given area. In contrast, consumers in urban areas typically benefit from lower rates and higher quality of broadband services, not only due to more advanced infrastructure but also the healthy economic competition caused by having several ISPs in a given area. How
13625-755: The relevant department of companies, universities, organizations, groups, and individuals that manage their mail servers themselves. The task is typically accomplished by implementing Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) and possibly providing access to messages through Internet Message Access Protocol (IMAP), the Post Office Protocol , Webmail , or a proprietary protocol. Internet hosting services provide email, web-hosting, or online storage services. Other services include virtual server , cloud services, or physical server operation. Just as their customers pay them for Internet access, ISPs themselves pay upstream ISPs for Internet access. An upstream ISP such as
13750-461: The resources being controlled. According to the end-to-end principle, protocol features are only justified in the lower layers of a system if they are a performance optimization; hence, TCP retransmission for reliability is still justified, but efforts to improve TCP reliability should stop after peak performance has been reached. They argued that, in addition to any processing in the intermediate systems, reliable systems tend to require processing in
13875-589: The ruling in favor of Comcast, a study by Measurement Lab in October 2011 verified that Comcast had virtually stopped its BitTorrent throttling practices. During the 1990s, creating a non-neutral Internet was technically infeasible. Originally developed to filter harmful malware , the Internet security company NetScreen Technologies released network firewalls in 2003 with so-called deep packet inspection capabilities. Deep packet inspection helped make real-time discrimination between different kinds of data possible, and
14000-492: The ruling, until the FCC voted to reinstate them in 2024. Governments of countries that comment on net neutrality usually support the concept. Net neutrality in the United States has been a point of conflict between network users and service providers since the 1990s. Much of the conflict over net neutrality arises from how Internet services are classified by the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) under
14125-696: The same problems as the rest of the world. In 2019, the Save the Internet Act to "guarantee broadband internet users equal access to online content" was passed by the US House of Representatives but not by the US Senate. Finding an appropriate solution by creating more regulations for ISPs has been a major work in progress. Net neutrality rules were repealed in the US in 2017 during the Trump administration and subsequent appeals upheld
14250-595: The source, type, and destination of packets, revealing information about packets traveling in the physical infrastructure so it can dictate the quality of transport such packets will receive. This is seen as an architecture of surveillance , one that can be shared with intelligence agencies , copyrighted content owners, and civil litigants, exposing the users' secrets in the process. Proponents of net neutrality argue that without new regulations, Internet service providers would be able to profit from and favor their own private protocols over others. The argument for net neutrality
14375-400: The storage or transmission of the signal. This technique, known as channel coding , is essential for broadcast or recorded digital systems to maintain bit accuracy. Eight-to-fourteen modulation is the channel code used for the audio compact disc (CD). If an audio signal is analog, a digital audio system starts with an ADC that converts an analog signal to a digital signal. The ADC runs at
14500-458: The traffic they cause on the ISP's network. French telecom operator Orange, complaining that traffic from YouTube and other Google sites consist of roughly 50% of total traffic on the Orange network, made a deal with Google, in which they charge Google for the traffic incurred on the Orange network. Some also thought that Orange's rival ISP Free throttled YouTube traffic. However, an investigation done by
14625-442: The two companies that led to Verizon's obtaining a cease and desist order on 5 June 2014, that forced Netflix to stop displaying this message. Pro-net neutrality arguments have also noted that regulations are necessary due to research showing low tolerance to slow-loading content providers. In a 2009 research study conducted by Forrester Research, online shoppers expected the web pages they visited to download content instantly. When
14750-627: The user is connected; like commercial television , in a sense they are selling the user's attention to the advertiser. Other free ISPs, sometimes called freenets , are run on a nonprofit basis, usually with volunteer staff. A wireless Internet service provider (WISP) is an Internet service provider with a network based on wireless networking. Technology may include commonplace Wi-Fi wireless mesh networking, or proprietary equipment designed to operate over open 900 MHz, 2.4 GHz, 4.9, 5.2, 5.4, 5.7, and 5.8 GHz bands or licensed frequencies such as 2.5 GHz (EBS/BRS), 3.65 GHz (NN) and in
14875-503: The way electricity, gas, and the water supply are regulated, along with limiting providers and regulating the options those providers can offer. Proponents of net neutrality, which include computer science experts, consumer advocates , human rights organizations , and Internet content providers, assert that net neutrality helps to provide freedom of information exchange, promotes competition and innovation for Internet services, and upholds standardization of Internet data transmission which
15000-604: Was advocated for in the 1990s by the presidential administration of Bill Clinton in the United States. Clinton's signing of the Telecommunications Act of 1996 , an amendment to the Communications Act of 1934 , set a worldwide example for net neutrality laws and the regulation of ISPs. Supporters of net neutrality argue that it prevents ISPs from filtering Internet content without a court order, fosters freedom of speech and democratic participation, promotes competition and innovation, prevents dubious services, and maintains
15125-436: Was essential for its growth. Opponents of net neutrality, which include ISPs, computer hardware manufacturers, economists, technologists and telecommunications equipment manufacturers , argue that net neutrality requirements would reduce their incentive to build out the Internet and reduce competition in the marketplace, and may raise their operating costs, which they would have to pass along to their users. Network neutrality
15250-766: Was introduced in Italy in 2015 by Stefano Quintarelli . The law gained formal support at the European Commission from BEUC, the European Consumer Organisation , the Electronic Frontier Foundation and the Hermes Center for Transparency and Digital Human Rights . A similar law was enacted in South Korea. Similar principles were proposed in China. The French telecoms regulator ARCEP has called for
15375-495: Was pioneered in Japan by NHK and Nippon Columbia and their Denon brand, in the 1960s. The first commercial digital recordings were released in 1971. The BBC also began to experiment with digital audio in the 1960s. By the early 1970s, it had developed a 2-channel recorder, and in 1972 it deployed a digital audio transmission system that linked their broadcast center to their remote transmitters. The first 16-bit PCM recording in
15500-581: Was served in November 1989. These companies generally offered dial-up connections, using the public telephone network to provide last-mile connections to their customers. The barriers to entry for dial-up ISPs were low and many providers emerged. However, cable television companies and the telephone carriers already had wired connections to their customers and could offer Internet connections at much higher speeds than dial-up using broadband technology such as cable modems and digital subscriber line (DSL). As
15625-555: Was struck in January 2014, the Netflix speed index recorded a 66% increase in connection. Netflix agreed to a similar deal with Verizon in 2014, after Verizon DSL customers' connection speed dropped to less than 1 Mbit/s early in the year. Netflix spoke out against this deal with a controversial statement delivered to all Verizon customers experiencing low connection speeds, using the Netflix client. This sparked an internal debate between
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