Misplaced Pages

#209790

56-571: It was characterised by the displacement of civilism as the predominant political force, the cult of personality surrounding Leguía, and a dictatorial and populist style of government. Economically, there was a great opening to foreign capital, especially that of the United States . Leguía strengthened the Peruvian State , began the modernisation of the country, and undertook a vast plan of public works, financed by loans, whose immediate purpose

112-584: A French appearance in its architecture. During this period, French architect Claude Sahut designed many of the construction projects of the era, including that of the new Government Palace. Each friendly nation made a gift to Peru, among the main ones, the National Stadium ( United Kingdom ); the Museum of Italian Art ( Italy ); the clock tower of the University Park ( Germany ); the water fountain in

168-586: A coup d'état , which was carried out in the early hours of July 4, 1919. With the support of the gendarmerie and the passivity of the Army , Leguía's forces attacked the Government Palace , arrested President Pardo, and took him to the Penitentiary before his deportation to the United States . Immediately afterward, Leguía proclaimed himself provisional president . Congress was dissolved. Leguía immediately called

224-556: A plebiscite to submit to the vote of the citizens a series of constitutional reforms that he considered necessary. Among them, it was contemplated to elect at the same time the President of the Republic and the Congress, both with five-year terms (until then, the presidential term was four years and the parliament was renewed by thirds every two years). He simultaneously called elections to elect

280-473: A countermeasure against the growing power of the military in Peru during the first half of the Republic, the party's sole purpose was to establish a civilian rule in the country. This, however, did not prevent them from creating political alliances with the military during its first years of existence. Founded in 1872, the party's first candidate was its founder, Manuel Pardo , who was elected on August 2, 1872. During

336-693: A new five-year presidential term. In 1929, as the end of his second consecutive government approached, Leguía proposed to reform the Constitution again, to allow his indefinite re-election. Congress made the amendment and Leguía was re-elected in another fraudulent election, for a third consecutive five-year period, but which would only last until 1930. The opposition against the regime gradually increased as rebellions broke out in several provinces, including Cuzco , Puno , Loreto , Apurímac , Huacho , Chicama , and especially in Cajamarca . Although Leguía founded

392-522: A policy of " Chileanisation " for many years. In fact, the American commissioners who came to supervise the plebiscite, Generals John J. Pershing and William Lassiter , verified that it was impracticable due to the lack of minimum conditions for a fair and objective popular consultation. Civilista Party The Civilista Party ( Spanish : Partido Civil , PC) was a political party in Peru . Founded as

448-549: A precedent of submission to U.S. interests that would give rise to nationalist protests for several decades. Another controversial agreement was the agreement signed with the Peruvian Corporation . Since 1890, this English company had been in charge of operating the national railways, which had to be for a specific period, as stipulated in the Grace Contract . In 1907, this period was extended until 1973. However, in 1928,

504-487: A series of inaugurations. One of the main events was the inauguration of the monument  [ es ] to José de San Martín , in the square that has since carried his name . In December 1924, lavish celebrations were held again in Lima and Ayacucho , this time on the occasion of the first centennial of the battle of Ayacucho , the same one that had sealed the independence of Peru and continental America. On that occasion,

560-540: Is divided into the following periods: His last period was interrupted by a coup d'état perpetrated by the Peruvian Army , led by commander Luis Miguel Sánchez Cerro . The overthrown Leguía was initially exiled to Panama , but his voyage was interrupted and he was ultimately imprisoned at the Panopticon , where his son voluntarily accompanied him. Inside, his health severely deteriorated, leading to his hospitalisation at

616-541: Is often called the Aristocratic Republic (coined by Peruvians referring to the social elite that governed them). Elections, however, were restricted, subject to strict property and literacy qualifications, and more often than not manipulated by the incumbent Civilista regime. The party, as a major political force, was disbanded during the so-called oncenio (11 years of power) of Augusto B. Leguía y Salcedo 's second term. Mariano H. Cornejo From Misplaced Pages,

SECTION 10

#1733114713210

672-704: The Amazon River . Previous Peruvian governments had refused to give in to Colombian claims, but Leguía, in his obsession to resolve the dispute once and for all, promoted the Salomón–Lozano Treaty , which was signed in Lima by the Peruvian Foreign Minister Alberto Salomón and the Colombian Minister Fabio Lozano Torrijos on March 24, 1922. This meant ceding to Colombia an extensive territorial portion between

728-563: The Americas , Europe , and Asia , with notable absences from Venezuela (whose government mistakenly believed that Simón Bolívar had been excluded from the tributes) and Chile (which was not invited because of its territorial conflict with Peru). Authorities spared no effort to magnificently celebrate the Centennial, despite the fire that devastated the Government Palace , among other difficulties. This fire occurred on July 3, 1921, destroying

784-614: The Gran Hotel Bolívar (in front of San Martín Square) and the monuments to Abel-Nicolas Bergasse du Petit-Thouars and Antonio José de Sucre were inaugurated, the latter in a square next to the Parque de la Reserva . Leguía faced the issue of La Brea y Pariñas . This was a lawsuit that consisted of the International Petroleum Company exploiting the oil fields of La Brea y Pariñas in northern Peru without contributing

840-448: The Liberal parties). The two main ones were: The world crisis of 1929 had very serious effects on the national economy of Peru. The working sectors, directly affected by the rise in the cost of living and the scarcity of subsistence, were the first to raise their protest. The army also showed its discontent. The evident administrative corruption, from which close associates or friends of

896-824: The Park of the Exhibition ( China ); the monument to Labour ( Belgium ); the Moorish Arch , which was built at the beginning of Avenida Leguía , a gift from the Spanish colony ; the monument to Manco Cápac , in the Plaza Leguía , a gift from the Japanese colony ; and others. There were sumptuous parties at the Government Palace, in the clubs, gala horse races, popular festivals, the great military parade , school parades, float parades, and

952-527: The Patronato de la Raza Indígena and showed his interest in legalising the communities, during his government there were many Indigenous rebellions, which were severely suppressed. One of the reasons for the discontent was the Road Conscription Law, which forced the population to work as labourers in road works. Another reason was the abuse of gamonalism  [ es ] , a system of exploitation of

1008-574: The Peruvian Socialist Party . Other exiles were former President and Colonel Óscar R. Benavides , Arturo Osores  [ es ] , Luis Fernán Cisneros  [ es ] and Víctor Andrés Belaúnde . The island of San Lorenzo , in front of Callao , was enabled as a public prison where opponents were confined, whether they were civil professionals, military personnel, or students. The island of Taquile , in Lake Titicaca , served

1064-573: The Rio Protocol , signed in 1942. The treaty was approved by the Congress submissive to Leguía in 1927 and was put into execution on August 17, 1930, a few days before Leguía's downfall. When the treaty was made public, it provoked great resistance among the Peruvians who lived in the affected areas, thus arising a conflictive state between both nations that would worsen in 1932 . It was said that Leguía signed this treaty with Colombia under pressure from

1120-478: The Sacred Heart of Jesus to the government on May 23, 1923, in which a worker and a student died. In exile, Haya founded APRA , a party with continental projection initially with anti-imperialist and anti-oligarchic ideology. Other opponents of the government, such as the young journalists José Carlos Mariátegui and César Falcón , were sent to Europe on scholarships. Mariátegui, upon returning to Peru, founded

1176-525: The article wizard to submit a draft for review, or request a new article . Search for " Mariano H. Cornejo " in existing articles. Look for pages within Misplaced Pages that link to this title . Other reasons this message may be displayed: If a page was recently created here, it may not be visible yet because of a delay in updating the database; wait a few minutes or try the purge function . Titles on Misplaced Pages are case sensitive except for

SECTION 20

#1733114713210

1232-430: The 1870s, economic growth and a certain degree of political stability had laid the conditions for creating the country's first political party. It was also a new era of international trade, business, and finance that Peru was benefiting from. Some believed that this era required the managerial skills that an educated and professional Elite could provide and believed Manuel Pardo was apt for this job. The Civilista Party

1288-582: The Caquetá and Putumayo rivers (a disputed area) and the so-called Amazon Trapeze , where the Peruvian population of Leticia was located, along the Amazon River. In this way, Colombia gained access to this river, which until then was only shared by Peru and Brazil . In compensation, Peru received the so-called Sucumbíos Triangle , which in practice it did not occupy and which would eventually cede to Ecuador through

1344-690: The English representative A. C. Grant Duff . This transactional agreement was presented to the Arbitration Court, which met in Paris and was made up of the president of the Swiss Federal Court and the representatives of the Peruvian and English governments. On April 24 of that year, 1922, without further discussion, they approved the Transactional Agreement, which they granted the status of Award,

1400-471: The Leguía government signed a new exchange contract with the corporation, by which it transferred the national railways in perpetuity in exchange for some compensation. In the 1970s, under the so-called revolutionary government , this situation came to an end with the nationalisation of the railways and their exploitation through the state company Enafer Perú . As the end of his term approached in 1924, Leguía had

1456-458: The Municipalities elected by popular vote to replace them with personnel appointed by the government (the so-called Juntas de Notables ). Opponents of the government were persecuted, imprisoned, deported, and even shot. Prominent among the exiles was the then young student leader Víctor Raúl Haya de la Torre , who led the leftist mass protest against the consecration  [ es ] of

1512-565: The Naval Hospital of Callao , where he died in 1932. In the 1919 elections , called by the then president José Pardo , Ántero Aspíllaga  [ es ] (president of the Civilista Party ) and Augusto B. Leguía presented themselves as the official and opposition candidates, respectively. The elections were held in a calm atmosphere, and the trend was that Leguía would be the winner. But there were complaints of vices and defects on

1568-567: The Pacific . As the years passed, the plebiscite initially agreed upon in the 1883 Treaty of Ancón to decide the fate of the Peruvian provinces, became unattainable. When the dispute was submitted to the arbitration of U.S. President Calvin Coolidge , he gave his ruling (award) on March 4, 1925, resolving to hold the plebiscite. This award was not well received by Peruvian public opinion, too aware of Chile's behaviour towards these provinces, subjected to

1624-642: The United States, which wanted to somehow compensate Colombia for Panama's independence . But geopolitical calculations must also have taken precedence in Leguía: with the treaty, Colombia was gained as an ally, which until then had been close to Ecuador in its claim to the Peruvian Amazon . In fact, upon learning of the signing of the treaty, Ecuador broke relations with Colombia. And a Colombian–Ecuadorian alliance against Peru would have had disastrous consequences for

1680-407: The article of the Constitution that prohibited immediate presidential re-election reformed, with the support of a submissive Congress. Even Germán Leguía y Martínez  [ es ] , his cousin and Minister of Government, opposed said re-election plan, for which he suffered prison and exile. All opposition swept aside, Leguía was re-elected in elections that had no guarantees and was sworn in for

1736-569: The bandits have generally been marginalised by historians, with writers having been in charge of preserving their memory, as can be seen in the works of Enrique López Albújar and Ciro Alegría . During this period, the first modern political parties in Peru emerged, replacing the old or traditional ones that were already extinct or in decline (such as the Civil , the Democratic , the Constitutional and

History of Peru (1919–1930) - Misplaced Pages Continue

1792-409: The capital by plane. Notable support was given to the development of agriculture and livestock. Various measures were taken to improve mining activity in the country. Special attention was given to the development of communications, the maintenance of public order and the improvement of police services. Following the trend of the advancement of the rights of workers and employees worldwide, Leguía

1848-403: The comprehensive renewal of parliament parallel to the presidential renewal; the regional congresses in the north, centre, and south; the semi-parliamentary regime; the responsibility of the cabinet before each of the chambers; the recognition of indigenous communities; the impossibility of suspending individual guarantees, among other things. One of the most important features of the Constitution

1904-426: The conditions of which were binding on the high contracting parties as a solution to the controversy. The agreements of the so-called Paris Award were as follows: This arbitration award was adverse to Peruvian interests since it established a tax exception regime for the owners and exploiters of La Brea y Pariñas. The Treasury thus stopped receiving substantial amounts of money as taxes. The Leguía government thus set

1960-556: The fact that the gamonales made every effort to take away their lands and reduce the Indian to the status of serf. In 1921 there were massacres of indigenous people in Layo and Tocroyoc, Cuzco . Between 1922 and 1927 there were a series of uprisings in Ayacucho , La Mar , Tayacaja , Huancané , Azángaro and Quispicanchis . A consequence of this discontent was the banditry that proliferated in

2016-472: The first tasks of said assembly was to count the votes in the presidential elections, after which it ratified Leguía as the winner, who was proclaimed constitutional president on October 12, 1919. The new constitution was approved in the National Assembly, which replaced that of 1860 . It established a presidential term of five years (although at the moment it did not contemplate immediate re-election);

2072-913: The 💕 Look for Mariano H. Cornejo on one of Misplaced Pages's sister projects : [REDACTED] Wiktionary (dictionary) [REDACTED] Wikibooks (textbooks) [REDACTED] Wikiquote (quotations) [REDACTED] Wikisource (library) [REDACTED] Wikiversity (learning resources) [REDACTED] Commons (media) [REDACTED] Wikivoyage (travel guide) [REDACTED] Wikinews (news source) [REDACTED] Wikidata (linked database) [REDACTED] Wikispecies (species directory) Misplaced Pages does not have an article with this exact name. Please search for Mariano H. Cornejo in Misplaced Pages to check for alternative titles or spellings. You need to log in or create an account and be autoconfirmed to create new articles. Alternatively, you can use

2128-459: The ground floor of the Palace, although, by order of Leguía, it was rebuilt in the following weeks, leaving the premises ready to receive the delegations and special guests to the celebrations. Alongside the palace, citywide renovation works also took place. Consequently, the city that had once been called the "most Spanish in the world" by writer Felipe Sassone during the early 1920s instead adopted

2184-428: The latter, without a doubt. Peruvian historians such as Jorge Basadre and Gustavo Pons Muzzo  [ es ] agree that the treaty was a mistake, considering that Colombia came out with a greater advantage in the territorial cession and that Peru renounced a policy of defense of its territory that had remained unchanged until then. This interpretation is the one that has been perpetuated in Peruvian teaching and

2240-494: The military from power once again), the Party played a key role in the reconstruction of the country. Reviving its antimilitary and pro-export program, they secured the support of its constituents. Most of its members were part of the economic and social elite established in Lima . Between 1899 and 1920, most Peruvian presidents had been members of this Party. This period of Peruvian history

2296-501: The one that has originated the black legend of Leguía. On the other hand, in Colombia it is considered that it was a transactional agreement, that is, that both parties renounced their maximum claims, made mutual concessions and reached a balanced agreement. Leguía also proposed to definitively resolve the problem regarding the question of Tacna and Arica , controlled by Chile since the War of

History of Peru (1919–1930) - Misplaced Pages Continue

2352-463: The opposition had taken refuge, was confiscated. In this way, freedom of expression was practically subjugated. The opposition in Congress was also swept away, which was subject to the Executive. The deputies Jorge  [ es ] and Manuel Prado Ugarteche , the first for the province of Dos de Mayo , and the second for that of Huamachuco , were arrested and exiled. On the other hand, it ended

2408-567: The part of both candidates, and the matter went to the Supreme Court , which annulled thousands of votes for Leguía. There was a risk that the elections would be annulled by Congress , which would then be in charge of electing the new president. The outlook was not very encouraging for Leguía, since his political adversaries dominated Congress. Another concern of Leguía was facing an opposition majority in parliament, as had happened during his first government . All of this pushed Leguía to carry out

2464-548: The peasants of the haciendas, characterised by its productivity and profitability, the waste of labour force and the cultural exclusion of its agricultural labourers. The gamonales held considerable local power and were the firmest propagators of the thesis of the racial inferiority of the Indians, accusing the race of vices that they themselves tried to maintain, such as ignorance and the consumption of alcohol and coca . The indigenous communities continued, however, to subsist despite

2520-504: The president benefited throughout the regime, as well as the signing of treaties with Colombia and Chile with territorial transfer, further accentuated opposition to the government. Subversive actions and assassination attempts on the president were rumoured. On August 22, 1930, Commander Luis Miguel Sánchez Cerro , in command of the Arequipa garrison, carried out a revolt against the government. The revolutionary movement spread quickly through

2576-446: The progressive constitutional innovations were not implemented and remained only on paper. Although, in theory, Leguía, wanted to adhere to the Constitution and run a government with respect for democratic principles, in practice, his government restricted public liberties. In September 1919, the printing presses of the newspapers El Comercio and La Prensa were attacked by mobs with obvious government leadership. La Prensa , where

2632-542: The provinces. There was no province that did not have its famous bandit. Many of them even confronted each other, when they were not fleeing from law enforcement. A bandit was, properly speaking, a highway robber, but he could also have a political ideology and be a kind of Montonero who supported a leader or a political tendency. Famous bandits were Luis Pardo  [ es ] , who acted in Huaylas ; and Eleodoro Benel, who had his radius of action in Cajamarca . The actions of

2688-425: The real amount of taxes to the treasury, to which it was obliged according to Peruvian law, taking advantage of an old administrative error. Congress in 1918 had agreed that the matter be submitted to international arbitration, but Leguía, under pressure from the U.S. government , preferred to reach a transactional agreement. This was signed on March 2, 1922, between the Peruvian Foreign Minister Alberto Salomón and

2744-421: The representatives of a National Assembly, which during its first 30 days would be in charge of ratifying the constitutional reforms, that is, it would act as a Constituent Congress , and then assume the function of an ordinary Congress. The National Assembly  [ es ] was installed on September 24, 1919, and was chaired by the sociologist and jurist Mariano H. Cornejo  [ es ] . One of

2800-451: The same purpose. The modernisation of the country had already been tested by previous governments, but under Leguía, it received its definitive impetus. The main bases of this modernising leap were the following: The most resonant event of this period was the apotheotic celebration of the Centennial of Independence on July 28, 1921. Twenty-nine foreign delegations arrived from countries in

2856-471: The south of the country, while the atmosphere in Lima toward it was favourable. To dominate the situation, Leguía attempted to form a military cabinet, but in the early hours of the morning of August 25, the Lima garrison requested his resignation. Leguía accepted and resigned command, which remained in the hands of a Military Government Junta chaired by General Manuel María Ponce Brousset . Two days later he would hand over power to Sánchez Cerro, who arrived in

SECTION 50

#1733114713210

2912-547: Was accused of gratuitously handing over territory. Leguía began talks with Colombia to definitively resolve the border issue, which was reaching a 100-year mark, since it dated back to the time of independence. Colombia aspired to legitimise its border from the Caquetá River to the Putumayo River (a territorial strip that Peru actually occupied thanks to the actions of the Peruvian rubber tappers), as well as obtain access to

2968-451: Was concerned with promoting laws in this regard. In this field, war material was acquired, administration services were improved and the armed force was modernised in line with advances in military technology worldwide. Leguía, continuing his policy of defining international borders initiated in his first government (1908–1912), promoted the definitive border treaties with Colombia and Chile . These treaties proved controversial, as Leguía

3024-486: Was first primarily composed of the newly rich merchants, planters, and businesspeople in Peru (especially those who benefited themselves with the Guano Boom exportations ). The members of the party believed that the military was corrupt and no longer capable of ruling the country and that it was more apt to serve it militarily than to rule it politically. After the War of the Pacific and a successful revolution (that removed

3080-501: Was the protection of indigenous peoples and communities. Thus, article 58 established that: The state protects the indigenous state and will dictate special laws for its development and culture in harmony with its needs. The nation recognises the legal existence of Indigenous communities and the law declared the rights that correspond to them. In turn, article 41 stated that the assets of indigenous communities are imprescriptible, thus protecting communally owned lands. Nevertheless, many of

3136-485: Was to grandly celebrate the Centennial of the Independence of Peru in 1921. In the ideological aspect, there was the collapse of the traditional parties and the emergence of new currents, such as aprismo and socialism . Leguía, who had already been constitutional president between 1908 and 1912, extended his government to a total of 11 years after two constitutional reforms, where he was re-elected in 1924 and 1929. It

#209790