106-548: The Ominous Decade (Castilian: Década Ominosa ) is a term for the last ten years of the reign of King Ferdinand VII of Spain , dating from the abolition of the Spanish Constitution of 1812 , on 1 October 1823, to his death on 29 September 1833. Ferdinand VII had become king after the victorious end of the Peninsular War , by which Spain defeated Napoleonic France. He returned to Spain on 24 March 1814 and his first act
212-854: A 1.2 kilometres ( 3 ⁄ 4 mi) land border with the Andalusian portion of the province of Cádiz at the eastern end of the Strait of Gibraltar. The main mountain ranges of Andalusia are the Sierra Morena and the Baetic System , consisting of the Subbaetic and Penibaetic Mountains, separated by the Intrabaetic Basin . In the north, the Sierra Morena separates Andalusia from the plains of Extremadura and Castile–La Mancha on Spain's Meseta Central . To
318-481: A "nationality" ( nacionalidad ). The national holiday, Andalusia Day , is celebrated on 28 February, commemorating the 1980 autonomy referendum. The honorific title of Hijo Predilecto de Andalucía ("Favourite Son of Andalusia") is granted by the Autonomous Government of Andalusia to those whose exceptional merits benefited Andalusia, for work or achievements in natural, social, or political science. It
424-555: A Gothic term, * landahlauts , and in 2002, Bossong suggested its derivation from a pre-Roman substrate. The Spanish place name Andalucía (immediate source of the English Andalusia ) was introduced into the Spanish languages in the 13th century under the form el Andalucía . The name was adopted to refer to those territories still under Moorish rule, and generally south of Castilla Nueva and Valencia , and corresponding with
530-577: A ceremony in Madrid on 10 March 1820. This began the so-called Trienio Liberal ("Liberal Triennium", or Constitutional Triennium), during which Ferdinand had to witness the fall of the main absolutist institutions and privileges, and the increasing shift towards radicalism of the Parliament's majority. Ferdinand, however, had not abandoned his reactionary goals, and appealed to the Holy Alliance established at
636-550: A daughter who lived only five months, and a stillborn daughter. On 20 October 1819, in Madrid , Ferdinand married the daughter of his father's first cousin Maximilian, Prince of Saxony and of his mother's first cousin Caroline of Parma , Princess Maria Josepha Amalia of Saxony (1803–1829). They had no children. Lastly, on 27 May 1829, Ferdinand married another niece, Maria Christina of
742-529: A far less hostile stance than Ferdinand VII. Others, instead, were ruthlessly eliminated, such as Del Riego, the main symbol of the revolution, who was hanged on 7 November 1823 in La Cebada Square of Madrid. Harsh censorship was re-established, while an archaic and totally reactionary organization of universities was introduced under the strict control of the Minister of Justice, Francisco Tadeo Calomarde , who
848-517: A government agency coordinates with the owner of the property for its management), all part of the European Union 's Natura 2000 network. Under the international ambit are the nine Biosphere Reserves , 20 Ramsar wetland sites, four Specially Protected Areas of Mediterranean Importance and two UNESCO Geoparks . In total, nearly 20 percent of the territory of Andalusia lies in one of these protected areas, which constitute roughly 30 percent of
954-519: A historical region of northern Valencia . In broad terms, the typical vegetation of Andalusia is Mediterranean woodland , characterized by leafy xerophilic perennials , adapted to the long, dry summers. The dominant species of the climax community is the holly oak ( Quercus ilex ). Also abundant are cork oak ( Quercus suber ), various pines , and Spanish fir ( Abies pinsapo ). Due to cultivation, olive ( Olea europaea ) and almond ( Prunus dulcis ) trees also abound. The dominant understory
1060-538: A latitude between 36° and 38° 44' N, in the warm-temperate region. In general, it experiences a hot-summer Mediterranean climate , with dry summers influenced by the Azores High , but subject to occasional torrential rains and extremely hot temperatures. In the winter, the tropical anticyclones move south, allowing cold polar fronts to penetrate the region. Still, within Andalusia there is considerable climatic variety. From
1166-466: A manner compatible with both conservation and economic exploitation, many of the most representative ecosystems have been given protected status. The various levels of protection are encompassed within the Network of Protected Natural Spaces of Andalusia (Red de Espacios Naturales Protegidos de Andalucía, RENPA) which integrates all protected natural spaces located in Andalusia, whether they are protected at
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#17328490329341272-403: A maximum of 47.6 °C (117.7 °F) recorded at La Rambla , Córdoba (14 August 2021). The mountains of Granada and Jaén have the coldest temperatures in southern Iberia, but do not reach continental extremes (and, indeed are surpassed by some mountains in northern Spain). In the cold snap of January 2005, Santiago de la Espada (Jaén) experienced a temperature of −21 °C (−6 °F) and
1378-641: A period of his reign known as "Ominous Decade", due to its marked stress on the suppression of his enemies. Most of the members of the Liberal Party fled abroad, to London (where some received monetary help by the British government for their role in the wars against Napoleon), Paris, Malta, the United States, or to newly proclaimed independent republics of South America, towards which the Spanish liberal government had held
1484-580: A range of altitudes and slopes. Andalusia has the Iberian peninsula's highest mountains and nearly 15 percent of its terrain over 1,000 metres (3,300 ft). The picture is similar for areas under 100 metres (330 ft) (with the Baetic Depression), and for the variety of slopes. The Atlantic coast is overwhelmingly beach and gradually sloping coasts; the Mediterranean coast has many cliffs, above all in
1590-627: A result, at their mouths are estuaries and wetlands , such as the marshes of Doñana in the delta of the Guadalquivir, and wetlands of the Odiel. In contrast, the rivers of the Mediterranean Basin are shorter, more seasonal, and make a precipitous descent from the mountains of the Baetic Cordillera. Their estuaries are small, and their valleys are less suitable for agriculture. Also, being in
1696-478: A rich variety of birds. Some are of African origin, such as the red-knobbed coot ( Fulica cristata ), the purple swamphen ( Porphyrio porphyrio ), and the greater flamingo ( Phoenicopterus roseus ). Others originate in Northern Europe, such as the greylag goose ( Anser anser ). Birds of prey (raptors) include the Spanish imperial eagle ( Aquila adalberti ), the griffon vulture ( Gyps fulvus ), and both
1802-627: A statute of autonomy within Spain. The Parliament of Andalusia voted unanimously in 1983 that the preamble to the Statute of Autonomy recognise Blas Infante as the Father of the Andalusian Nation ( Padre de la Patria Andaluza ), which was reaffirmed in the reformed Statute of Autonomy submitted to popular referendum 18 February 2007. The preamble of the present 2007 Statute of Autonomy says that Article 2 of
1908-554: A unicameral body, instead of in three chambers representing the three estates : the clergy, the nobility and the cities.) Ferdinand initially promised to convene a traditional Cortes, but never did so, thereby reasserting the Bourbon doctrine that sovereign authority resided in his person only. Meanwhile, the wars of independence had broken out in the Americas, and although many of the republican rebels were divided and royalist sentiment
2014-564: Is Seville , while the seat of the its High Court of Justice is the city of Granada . Andalusia is immediately south of the autonomous communities of Extremadura and Castilla-La Mancha ; west of the autonomous community of Murcia and the Mediterranean Sea ; east of Portugal and the Atlantic Ocean ; and north of the Mediterranean Sea and the Strait of Gibraltar . Gibraltar shares
2120-516: Is January when Granada at the foot of the Sierra Nevada experiences an average temperature of 6.4 °C (43.5 °F). The hottest are July and August, with an average temperature of 28.5 °C (83.3 °F) for Andalusia as a whole. Córdoba is the hottest provincial capital, followed by Seville . The Guadalquivir valley has experienced some of the highest temperatures recorded in Europe, with
2226-415: Is composed of thorny and aromatic woody species, such as rosemary ( Rosmarinus officinalis ), thyme ( Thymus ), and Cistus . In the wettest areas with acidic soils , the most abundant species are the oak and cork oak, and the cultivated Eucalyptus . In the woodlands, leafy hardwoods of genus Populus (poplars, aspens, cottonwoods) and Ulmus (elms) are also abundant; poplars are cultivated in
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#17328490329342332-503: Is derived from the Arabic name for Muslim Iberia, "Al-Andalus". The etymology of the name "Al-Andalus" is disputed, and the extent of Iberian territory encompassed by the name has changed over the centuries. Traditionally it has been assumed to be derived from the name of the Vandals . Since the 1980s, a number of proposals have challenged this contention. Halm, in 1989, derived the name from
2438-471: Is first attested by inscriptions on coins minted in 716 by the new Muslim government of Iberia . These coins, called dinars , were inscribed in both Latin and Arabic . The region's history and culture have been influenced by the Tartessians , Iberians , Phoenicians , Carthaginians , Greeks , Romans , Vandals , Visigoths , Byzantines , Berbers , Arabs , Jews , Romanis and Castilians . During
2544-524: Is not a particularly high range, and its highest point, the 1,323-metre (4,341 ft) peak of La Bañuela in the Sierra Madrona , lies outside of Andalusia. Within the Sierra Morena, the gorge of Despeñaperros forms a natural frontier between Castile and Andalusia. The Baetic Cordillera consists of the parallel mountain ranges of the Cordillera Penibética near the Mediterranean coast and
2650-500: Is present, deeper soils allowed farming of cereals suitable for livestock. The more complicated morphology of the Baetic Cordillera makes it more heterogeneous, with the most heterogeneous soils in Andalusia. Very roughly, in contrast to the Sierra Morena, a predominance of basic (alkaline) materials in the Cordillera Subbética, combined with a hilly landscape, generates deeper soils with greater agricultural capacity, suitable to
2756-515: Is the highest distinction given by the Autonomous Community of Andalusia. The Sevillian historian Antonio Domínguez Ortiz wrote that: one must seek the essence of Andalusia in its geographic reality on the one hand, and on the other in the awareness of its inhabitants. From the geographic point of view, the whole of the southern lands is too vast and varied to be embraced as a single unit. In reality there are not two, but three Andalusias:
2862-511: Is the hottest area of Europe, with Córdoba and Seville averaging above 36 °C (97 °F) in summer high temperatures. These high temperatures, typical of the Guadalquivir valley are usually reached between 4 p.m. and 9 p.m. (local time), tempered by sea and mountain breezes afterwards. However, during heat waves late evening temperatures can locally stay around 35 °C (95 °F) until close to midnight, and daytime highs of over 40 °C (104 °F) are common. Its present form
2968-573: Is the southernmost autonomous community in Peninsular Spain , located in the south of the Iberian Peninsula , in southwestern Europe. It is the most populous and the second-largest autonomous community in the country. It is officially recognised as a historical nationality and a national reality . The territory is divided into eight provinces : Almería , Cádiz , Córdoba , Granada , Huelva , Jaén , Málaga , and Seville . Its capital city
3074-585: The Estoria de España (also known as the Primera Crónica General ) of Alfonso X of Castile , written in the second half of the 13th century, the term Andalucía is used with three different meanings: From an administrative point of view, Granada remained separate for many years even after the completion of the Reconquista due, above all, to its emblematic character as the last territory regained, and as
3180-676: The Arbonaida , meaning white-and-green in Mozarabic , a Romance language that was spoken in the region in Muslim times. Nowadays, the Andalusian government states that the colours of the flag evoke the Andalusian landscape as well as values of purity and hope for the future. The anthem of Andalusia was composed by José del Castillo Díaz (director of the Municipal Band of Seville, commonly known as Maestro Castillo) with lyrics by Blas Infante. The music
3286-646: The Baetic Depression , the basin of the Guadalquivir, lies between these two mountainous areas. It is a nearly flat territory, open to the Gulf of Cádiz in the southwest. Throughout history, this has been the most populous part of Andalusia. Andalusia has rivers that flow into both the Atlantic and the Mediterranean. Flowing to the Atlantic are the Guadiana , Odiel - Tinto , Guadalquivir , Guadalete , and Barbate . Flowing to
Ominous Decade - Misplaced Pages Continue
3392-547: The Barbary sheep ( Ammotragus lervia ), an invasive species from Africa, introduced for hunting in the 1970s. Among the small herbivores are rabbits—especially the European rabbit ( Oryctolagus cuniculus )—which form the most important part of the diet of the carnivorous species of the Mediterranean woodlands. The large carnivores such as the Iberian wolf ( Canis lupus signatus ) and
3498-731: The British forces on the peninsula , the first Protestant member of the order. During the aftermath of the Mexican War of Independence , the general of the Army of the Three Guarantees , Agustín de Iturbide , and Jefe Superior Juan O'Donojú , signed the Treaty of Córdoba , which concluded the war of independence and established the First Mexican Empire . The imperial constitution contemplated that
3604-537: The Congress of Vienna in 1814, by which the main absolutist monarchies of Europe had agreed to help each other in case one of them had to suffer a democratic revolution. On 7 April 1823, France launched an expedition, by which a military corps, known as the One Hundred Thousand Sons of St. Louis (Los Cien Mil Hijos de San Luis) and led by Louis Antoine, Duke of Angoulême , invaded the Spanish territory. Louis
3710-797: The Cordillera Subbética inland, separated by the Surco Intrabético . The Cordillera Subbética is quite discontinuous, offering many passes that facilitate transportation, but the Penibético forms a strong barrier between the Mediterranean coast and the interior. The Sierra Nevada, part of the Cordillera Penibética in the province of Granada, has the highest peaks in Iberia: El Mulhacén at 3,478 metres (11,411 ft) and El Veleta at 3,392 metres (11,129 ft). Lower Andalusia,
3816-542: The European polecat ( Mustela putorius ), the least weasel ( Mustela nivalis ), the European wildcat ( Felis silvestris ), the common genet ( Genetta genetta ), and the Egyptian mongoose ( Herpestes ichneumon ). Other notable species are Acherontia atropos (a variety of death's-head hawkmoth ), Vipera latasti (a venomous snake ), and the endemic (and endangered) fish Aphanius baeticus . Andalusia has many unique ecosystems. In order to preserve these areas in
3922-531: The Gulf of Cádiz ( Atlantic Ocean ); to the north the Sierra Morena constitutes the border with the Meseta Central ; to the south, the self-governing British overseas territory of Gibraltar and the Strait of Gibraltar separate it from Morocco . Andalusia is home to the hottest and driest climates in Spain, with yearly average rainfall around 150 millimetres (5.9 in) in Cabo de Gata , as well as some of
4028-473: The Iberian lynx ( Lynx pardinus ) are quite threatened, and are limited to the Sierra de Andújar, inside of Sierra Morena, Doñana and Despeñaperros. Stocks of the wild boar ( Sus scrofa ), on the other hand, have been well preserved because they are popular with hunters. More abundant and in varied situations of conservation are such smaller carnivores as otters , dogs, foxes, the European badger ( Meles meles ),
4134-579: The Islamic Golden Age , Córdoba surpassed Constantinople to be Europe 's biggest city, and became the capital of Al-Andalus and a prominent center of education and learning in the world, producing numerous philosophers and scientists. The Crown of Castile conquered and settled the Guadalquivir Valley in the 13th century. The mountainous eastern part of the region (the Emirate of Granada )
4240-535: The Jesuits upon his return, but now they had become identified with repression and absolutism among the liberals, who attacked them: twenty-five Jesuits were slain in Madrid in 1822. For the rest of the 19th century, liberal political regimes expelled the Jesuits, and authoritarian regimes reinstated them. Ferdinand VII was an ardent opponent of Freemasonry in Spain , seeing it as a vehicle for liberal revolutions, an enemy of
4346-618: The Latin words Dominator Hercules Fundator (Lord Hercules is the Founder) superimposed. The official flag of Andalusia consists of three equal horizontal stripes, coloured green, white, and green respectively; the Andalusian coat of arms is superimposed on the central stripe. Its design was overseen by Blas Infante and approved in the Assembly of Ronda (a 1918 gathering of Andalusian nationalists at Ronda ). Blas Infante considered these to have been
Ominous Decade - Misplaced Pages Continue
4452-627: The Ominous Decade ) saw the restoration of absolutism, the re-establishment of traditional university programs and the suppression of any opposition, both by the Liberal Party and by the reactionary revolt (known as " War of the Agraviados ") which broke out in 1827 in Catalonia and other regions. In May 1830, Ferdinand VII published the Pragmatic Sanction , again allowing daughters to succeed to
4558-504: The Sierra Morena , the Valley [of the Guadalquivir ] and the [Cordillera] Penibética Andalusia has a surface area of 87,597 square kilometres (33,821 sq mi), 17.3% of the territory of Spain. Andalusia alone is comparable in extent and in the variety of its terrain to any of several of the smaller European countries. To the east is the Mediterranean Sea ; to the west Portugal and
4664-482: The Sierra de Grazalema Natural Park in the province of Cádiz, which experiences one of highest rainfall in Spain. Annual rainfall in the Sierra de Grazalema has been measured as high as 4,346 millimetres (171.1 in) in 1963, the highest ever recorded for any location in Iberia. Andalusia is also home to the driest place in Europe , the Cabo de Gata , with only 156 millimetres (6.1 in) of rain per year. In general, as one goes from west to east, away from
4770-405: The basin of the Segura . The soils of Andalusia can be divided into three large areas: the Sierra Morena , Cordillera Subbética , and the Baetic Depression and the Surco Intrabético . The Sierra Morena, due to its morphology and the acidic content of its rocks, developed principally relatively poor, shallow soils, suitable only for forests. In the valleys and in some areas where limestone
4876-441: The black and red kite ( Milvus migrans and Milvus milvus ). Among the herbivores , are several deer (Cervidae) species, notably the fallow deer ( Dama dama ) and roe deer ( Capreolus capreolus ); the European mouflon ( Ovis aries musimon ), a feral sheep; and the Spanish ibex ( Capra pyrenaica , which despite its scientific name is no longer found in the Pyrenees ). The Spanish ibex has recently been losing ground to
4982-491: The liberal constitution of 1812 . A revolt in 1820 led by Rafael del Riego forced him to restore the constitution, starting the Liberal Triennium , a three-year period of liberal rule. In 1823 the Congress of Verona authorized a successful French intervention , restoring him to absolute power for the second time. He suppressed the liberal press from 1814 to 1833, jailing many of its editors and writers. Under his rule, Spain lost nearly all of its American possessions , and
5088-411: The rain shadow of the Baetic Cordillera means that they receive a lesser volume of water. The following hydrographic basins can be distinguished in Andalusia. On the Atlantic side are the Guadalquivir basin; the Andalusian Atlantic Basin with the sub-basins Guadalete-Barbate and Tinto-Odiel; and the Guadiana basin. On the Mediterranean side is the Andalusian Mediterranean Basin and the upper portion of
5194-486: The ski resort at Sierra Nevada National Park —the southernmost ski resort in Europe—dropped to −18 °C (0 °F). Sierra Nevada Natural Park has Iberia's lowest average annual temperature, (3.9 °C or 39.0 °F at Pradollano) and its peaks remain snowy practically year-round. Mountain ranges affect climate, the network of rivers, soils and their erosion, bioregions, and even human economies insofar as they rely on natural resources. The Andalusian terrain offers
5300-415: The Arabic term al-Andalus , in historical contexts the Spanish term Andalucía or the English term Andalusia do not necessarily refer to the exact territory designated by these terms today. Initially, the term referred exclusively to territories under Muslim control. Later, it was applied to some of the last Iberian territories to be regained from the Muslims, though not always to exactly the same ones. In
5406-449: The Atlantic, there is less precipitation. "Wet Andalusia" includes most of the highest points in the region, above all the Sierra de Grazalema but also the Serranía de Ronda in western Málaga. The valley of the Guadalquivir has moderate rainfall. The Tabernas Desert in Almería has less than 300 millimetres (12 in) annually. Much of "dry Andalusia" has more than 300 sunny days a year. The average temperature in Andalusia throughout
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#17328490329345512-418: The British government acknowledged Ferdinand VII as king of Spain. Five years later after experiencing serious setbacks on many fronts, Napoleon agreed on 11 December 1813 to acknowledge Ferdinand VII as king of Spain, and signed the Treaty of Valençay so that the king could return to Spain. The Spanish people, blaming the policies of the Francophiles ( afrancesados ) for causing the Napoleonic occupation and
5618-406: The Malagan Axarquía and in Granada and Almería. This asymmetry divides the region naturally into Upper Andalusia [ es ] (two mountainous areas) and Lower Andalusia [ es ] (the broad basin of the Guadalquivir). The Sierra Morena separates Andalusia from the plains of Extremadura and Castile–La Mancha on Spain's Meseta Central . Although sparsely populated, this
5724-440: The Masonic Lodges suppressed. Ferdinand blamed Freemasonry for the 1820 coup, the Trienio Liberal , as well as for the loss of Spanish colonies in Latin America , with his return to the throne for the so-called " Ominous Decade ", the Anti-Masonic campaign stepped up and members who would not renounce Freemasonry were hanged. He had his police compile reports on Freemasons and former Freemasons active in Spanish society. In
5830-401: The Mediterranean are the Guadiaro , Guadalhorce , Guadalmedina , Guadalfeo , Andarax (also known as the Almería) and Almanzora . Of these, the Guadalquivir is the longest in Andalusia and fifth longest on the Iberian peninsula, at 657 kilometres (408 mi). The rivers of the Atlantic basin are characteristically long, run through mostly flat terrain, and have broad river valleys. As
5936-467: The Mexican throne. The imperial crown was consequently given to Iturbide himself, but the Mexican Empire collapsed and was replaced by the First Mexican Republic a few years later. There were several pronunciamientos , or military uprisings, during the king's second reign. The first came in in September 1814, three months after the end of the Peninsular War , and was led by General Espoz y Mina in Pamplona. Juan Díaz Porlier revolted at La Coruña in
6042-415: The Peninsular War by allying Spain too closely to France, at first welcomed Fernando . Ferdinand soon found that in the intervening years a new world had been born of foreign invasion and domestic revolution. In his name Spain fought for its independence and in his name as well juntas had governed Spanish America. Spain was no longer the absolute monarchy he had relinquished six years earlier. Instead he
6148-677: The South American revolutions. The discontent of the Spanish military was further spurred by the formation of the Royalist Volunteers , a militia created by Ferdinand VII in 1823, a short time after the collapse of the constitutional cabinet, in order to provide the king a direct means of suppression against the liberal opposition. In 1826 the militia amounted to some 200,000 volunteers, half of which included in 486 infantry battalions, 20 artillery companies, 52 cavalry squadrons and some sapper companies. The decade saw an endless series of riots and attempts of revolutions, such as that of Torrijos, funded by English liberals, on 11 December 1831. Aside from
6254-456: The Spanish Crown and the Catholic faith, subordinated to foreign interests (the Grand Orient of France primarily). After reinstating the Spanish Inquisition and the Jesuits, on 4 May 1814 he publicly declared all Spanish freemasons to be traitors. The same year Pope Pius VII issued a decree against Freemasonry, approved by Ferdinand VII and became an edict of the Spanish Inquisition. Freemasons in high places in Spanish society were arrested and
6360-443: The Spanish throne as well as sons. This decree had originally been approved by the Cortes in 1789, but it had never been officially promulgated. On 10 October 1830, Ferdinand's wife gave birth to a daughter, Isabella , who thereupon displaced her uncle, Carlos, in the line of succession. After Ferdinand's death, Carlos revolted and said he was the legitimate king. Needing support, Maria Christina, as regent for her daughter, turned to
6466-624: The Two Sicilies (1806–1878), daughter of his younger sister Maria Isabella of Spain and of their first cousin Francis I of the Two Sicilies , who was also the brother of Ferdinand's first wife. They had two surviving daughters, the older of whom succeeded Ferdinand upon his death. Andalusia Andalusia ( UK : / ˌ æ n d ə ˈ l uː s i ə , - z i ə / AN -də- LOO -see-ə, -zee-ə , US : /- ʒ ( i ) ə , - ʃ ( i ) ə / -zh(ee-)ə, -sh(ee-)ə ; Spanish : Andalucía [andaluˈθi.a] , locally also [-ˈsi.a] )
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#17328490329346572-405: The Two Sicilies , took the regency. Since the other pretender, Don Carlos, was considered a champion of absolutism, Maria Christina decided to seek support from the liberal opposition. Her policy worsened the acrimony among Carlos's supporters. At Ferdinand's death, in 1833, his daughter Isabella II was declared Queen; Carlos opposed this and declared himself the legitimate heir to the throne with
6678-434: The Western Mediterranean subregion of the Mediterranean Basin , which falls within the Boreal Kingdom . Five floristic provinces lie, in whole or in part, within Andalusia: along much of the Atlantic coast, the Lusitanian-Andalusian littoral or Andalusian Atlantic littoral; in the north, the southern portion of the Luso-Extremaduran floristic province; covering roughly half of the region, the Baetic floristic province; and in
6784-446: The colours most used in regional symbols throughout the region's history. According to him, the green came in particular from the standard of the Umayyad Caliphate and represented the call for a gathering of the populace. The white symbolised pardon in the Almohad dynasty , interpreted in European heraldry as parliament or peace. Other writers have justified the colours differently, with some Andalusian nationalists referring to them as
6890-612: The commonwealth." Ferdinand VII married four times. His first wife died of tuberculosis , the second died in childbirth , and the third died of "a fever". His fourth wife outlived him by 45 years. In 1802, he married his first cousin Princess Maria Antonia of Naples and Sicily (1784–1806), daughter of Ferdinand I of the Two Sicilies and Marie Caroline of Austria . Her two pregnancies in 1804 and 1805 both ended in miscarriages . In 1816, Ferdinand married his niece Maria Isabel of Portugal (1797–1818), daughter of his older sister Carlota Joaquina and John VI of Portugal . They had
6996-430: The country entered into a large-scale civil war upon his death. His political legacy has remained contested since his death; some historians regard him as incompetent, despotic, and short-sighted. Ferdinand was the eldest surviving son of Charles IV of Spain and Maria Luisa of Parma . Ferdinand was born in the palace of El Escorial near Madrid . In his youth Ferdinand occupied the position of an heir apparent who
7102-452: The cultivation of olives. Finally, the Baetic Depression and the Surco Intrabético have deep, rich soils, with great agricultural capacity. In particular, the alluvial soils of the Guadalquivir valley and plain of Granada have a loamy texture and are particularly suitable for intensive irrigated crops. In the hilly areas of the countryside, there is a double dynamic: the depressions have filled with older lime-rich material, developing
7208-512: The deep, rich, dark clay soils the Spanish call bujeo , or tierras negras andaluzas , excellent for dryland farming. In other zones, the whiter albariza provides an excellent soil for vineyards . Despite their marginal quality, the poorly consolidated soils of the sandy coastline of Huelva and Almería have been successfully used in recent decades for hothouse cultivation under clear plastic of strawberries, raspberries, blueberries, and other fruits. Biogeographically, Andalusia forms part of
7314-413: The extensive coastal plains one may pass to the valley of the Guadalquivir, barely above sea level, then to the highest altitudes in the Iberian peninsula in the peaks of the Sierra Nevada . In a mere 50 km (31 mi) one can pass from the subtropical coast of the province of Granada to the snowy peaks of Mulhacén . Andalusia also includes both the dry Tabernas Desert in the province of Almería and
7420-442: The extreme east, the Almerian portion of the Almerian-Murcian floristic province and (coinciding roughly with the upper Segura basin) a small portion of the Castilian-Maestrazgan-Manchegan floristic province. These names derive primarily from past or present political geography: "Luso" and "Lusitanian" from Lusitania , one of three Roman provinces in Iberia, most of the others from present-day Spanish provinces, and Maestrazgo being
7526-409: The figure of Hercules and two lions between the two pillars of Hercules that tradition situates on either side of the Strait of Gibraltar. An inscription below, superimposed on an image of the flag of Andalusia reads Andalucía por sí, para España y la Humanidad ("Andalusia for herself, Spain and Humanity"). Over the two columns is a semicircular arch in the colours of the flag of Andalusia, with
7632-645: The following year. General Luis Lacy led an uprising in Barcelona in 1817, and General Juan Van Halen did the same in Valencia in 1818. In 1820 Rafael del Riego undertook the most successful pronunciamiento , leading to the Trienio Liberal . In 1820 a revolt broke out in favor of the Constitution of 1812 , beginning with a mutiny of the troops under Riego. The king was quickly taken prisoner. Ferdinand had restored
7738-539: The former Roman province hitherto called Baetica in Latin sources. This was a Castilianization of Al-Andalusiya , the adjectival form of the Arabic language al-Andalus , the name given by the Arabs to all of the Iberian territories under Muslim rule from 711 to 1492. The etymology of al-Andalus is itself somewhat debated (see al-Andalus ), but in fact it entered the Arabic language before this area came under Moorish rule. Like
7844-584: The houses of his prime ministers, arrests them, and hands them over to their cruel enemies;" and again, on 14 January 1815, "the king has so debased himself that he has become no more than the leading police agent and prison warden of his country." The king did recognize the efforts of foreign powers on his behalf. As the head of the Spanish Order of the Golden Fleece , Ferdinand made the Duke of Wellington , head of
7950-409: The level of the local community, the autonomous community of Andalusia, the Spanish state, or by international conventions. RENPA consists of 150 protected spaces, consisting of two national parks , 24 natural parks , 21 periurban parks (on the fringes of cities or towns), 32 natural sites, two protected countrysides, 37 natural monuments, 28 nature reserves, and four concerted nature reserves (in which
8056-670: The liberal side, Ferdinand's policies caused discontent also in the conservative party: in 1827 a revolt broke out in Catalonia , and later extended to Valencia , Aragon, the Basque Country and Andalusia , spurred by ultra-reactionaries according to whom Ferdinand's restoration had been too timid, failing in particular to reinstate the Inquisition . In what was called the War of the Agraviados , some 30,000 men controlled most of Catalonia and some of
8162-540: The liberals. She issued a decree of amnesty on 23 October 1833. Liberals who had been in exile returned and dominated Spanish politics for decades, leading to the Carlist Wars . Ferdinand VII's reign is typically criticized by historians, even in his own country. Historian Stanley G. Payne wrote that Ferdinand was "in many ways the basest king in Spanish history. Cowardly, selfish, grasping, suspicious, and vengeful, D. Fernando seemed almost incapable of any perception of
8268-521: The monarch would be "a Spanish prince," and Iturbide and O'Donojú intended to offer the Mexican Imperial Crown to Ferdinand VII himself to rule Mexico in personal union with Spain. However, Ferdinand, refusing to recognize Mexican independence or be bound by a constitution, decreed that the Mexican constitution was "void", declined the Mexican crown, and stated that no European prince could accede to
8374-415: The mountains. The biodiversity of Andalusia extends to its fauna as well. More than 400 of the 630 vertebrate species extant in Spain can be found in Andalusia. Spanning the Mediterranean and Atlantic basins, and adjacent to the Strait of Gibraltar, Andalusia is on the migratory route of many of the numerous flocks of birds that travel annually from Europe to Africa and back. The Andalusian wetlands host
8480-685: The name of Charles V. This was the beginning of the First Carlist War . Ferdinand VII of Spain Ferdinand VII ( Spanish : Fernando VII ; 14 October 1784 – 29 September 1833) was King of Spain during the early 19th century. He reigned briefly in 1808 and then again from 1813 to his death in 1833. Before 1813 he was known as el Deseado (the Desired), and after, as el Rey Felón (the Criminal King). Born in Madrid at El Escorial , Ferdinand
8586-570: The new French king. After the Battle of Bailén proved that the Spanish could resist the French, the Council of Castile reversed itself and declared null and void the abdications of Bayonne on 11 August 1808. On 24 August, Ferdinand VII was proclaimed king of Spain again, and negotiations between the council and the provincial juntas for the establishment of a Supreme Central Junta were completed. On 14 January 1809
8692-477: The northern regions, and even established an autonomous government. Ferdinand intervened personally, moving to Tarragona to quench the revolt: he promised an amnesty, but once the rioters had surrendered, he had their leaders executed and others exiled to France. Further instability came when, on 31 March 1830, Ferdinand issued the Pragmatic Sanction , which had been approved by his father Charles IV as early as 1789, but not published till then. The decree allowed
8798-415: The owner of the château, for his lack of interest in Spanish affairs. While the upper echelons of the Spanish government accepted his abdication and Napoleon's choice of his brother Joseph Bonaparte as king of Spain, the Spanish people did not. Uprisings broke out throughout the country, marking the beginning of the Peninsular War . Provincial juntas were established to control regions in opposition to
8904-413: The plains of Granada. The Andalusian woodlands have been much altered by human settlement, the use of nearly all of the best land for farming, and frequent wildfires . The degraded forests become shrubby and combustible garrigue . Extensive areas have been planted with non- climax trees such as pines. There is now a clear conservation policy for the remaining forests, which survive almost exclusively in
9010-435: The present Spanish Constitution of 1978 recognises Andalusia as a nationality . Later, in its articulation, it speaks of Andalusia as a "historic nationality" (Spanish: nacionalidad histórica ). It also cites the 1919 Andalusianist Manifesto of Córdoba describing Andalusia as a "national reality" ( realidad nacional ), but does not endorse that formulation. Article 1 of the earlier 1981 Statute of Autonomy defined it simply as
9116-734: The protected territory of Spain. Among these many spaces, some of the most notable are the Sierras de Cazorla, Segura y Las Villas Natural Park , Spain's largest natural park and the second largest in Europe, the Sierra Nevada National Park , Doñana National Park and Natural Park , the Tabernas Desert , and the Cabo de Gata-Níjar Natural Park , the largest terrestrial-maritime reserve in the European Western Mediterranean Sea. The geostrategic position of Andalusia, at
9222-602: The rest of Europe. Still, the growth of the community in the sectors of industry and services was above average in Spain and higher than many communities in the Eurozone . The region has a rich culture and a strong identity. Many cultural phenomena that are seen internationally as distinctively Spanish are largely or entirely Andalusian in origin. These include flamenco and, to a lesser extent, bullfighting and Hispano-Moorish architectural styles , both of which are also prevalent in some other regions of Spain. Andalusia's hinterland
9328-439: The seat of the important Real Chancillería de Granada , a court of last resort . Still, the reconquest and repopulation of Granada was accomplished largely by people from the three preexisting Christian kingdoms of Andalusia, and Granada came to be considered a fourth kingdom of Andalusia. The often-used expression " Four Kingdoms of Andalusia " dates back in Spanish at least to the mid-18th century. The Andalusian emblem shows
9434-582: The south, the geographic subregion of Upper Andalusia [ es ] lies mostly within the Baetic System , while Lower Andalusia [ es ] is in the Baetic Depression of the valley of the Guadalquivir . The name Andalusia is derived from the Arabic word Al-Andalus ( الأندلس ), which in turn may be derived from the Vandals , the Goths or pre-Roman Iberian tribes. The toponym al-Andalus
9540-621: The southernmost tip of Europe , between Europe and Africa and between the Atlantic Ocean and the Mediterranean Sea , has made it a hub for various civilizations since the Metal Ages . Its wealth of minerals and fertile land, combined with its large surface area, attracted settlers from the Phoenicians to the Greeks , who influenced the development of early cultures like Los Millares , El Argar , and Tartessos . These early Andalusian societies played
9646-456: The spring of 1823, the restored Bourbon French King Louis XVIII of France invaded Spain , "invoking the God of St. Louis , for the sake of preserving the throne of Spain to a fellow descendant of Henry IV of France , and of reconciling that fine kingdom with Europe." In May 1823 the revolutionary party moved Ferdinand to Cádiz , where he continued to make promises of constitutional amendment until he
9752-509: The succession to the Spanish throne also to female heirs, in case a male one was not available. Ferdinand would have only two children, both daughters, the eldest being the future queen Isabella II , who was born in October 1830. The Sanction excluded from the succession Ferdinand's brother, Carlos, Count of Molina . In his later years, Ferdinand fell severely ill, and he lost the ability to direct his own affairs. His young wife, Maria Christina of
9858-405: The wettest ones, with yearly average rainfall above 2,000 millimetres (79 in) in inland Cádiz . In the west, weather systems sweeping in from the Atlantic ensure that it is relatively wet and humid in the winter, with some areas receiving copious amounts. Contrary to what many people think, as a whole, the region enjoys above-average yearly rainfall in the context of Spain. Andalusia sits at
9964-533: The year is over 16 °C (61 °F). Averages in the cities range from 15.1 °C (59.2 °F) in Baeza to 19.2 °C (66.6 °F) in Seville . However, a small region on the Mediterranean coast of Almeria and Granada provinces have average annual temperature over 20 °C (68 °F). Much of the Guadalquivir valley and the Mediterranean coast has an average of about 18 °C (64 °F). The coldest month
10070-457: Was heir apparent to the Spanish throne in his youth. Following the 1808 Tumult of Aranjuez , he ascended the throne. That year Napoleon overthrew him; he linked his monarchy to counter-revolution and reactionary policies that produced a deep rift in Spain between his forces on the right and liberals on the left. Back in power in December 1813, he re-established the absolutist monarchy and rejected
10176-614: Was discovered, Ferdinand submitted to his parents. Following a popular riot at Aranjuez Charles IV abdicated in March 1808. Ferdinand ascended the throne and turned to Napoleon for support. He abdicated on 6 May 1808, and thereafter Napoleon kept Ferdinand under guard in France for six years at the Château de Valençay . Historian Charles Oman records that the choice of Valençay was a practical joke by Napoleon on his former foreign minister Talleyrand ,
10282-448: Was encouraged by conservatives and the Church hierarchy to reject the constitution. On 4 May he ordered its abolition, and on 10 May had the liberal leaders responsible for the constitution arrested. Ferdinand justified his actions by claiming that the constitution had been made by a Cortes illegally assembled in his absence, without his consent and without the traditional form. (It had met as
10388-530: Was excluded from any participation in government by his parents and their favourite advisor and Prime Minister, Manuel Godoy . National discontent with the government produced a rebellion in 1805. In October 1807, Ferdinand was arrested for his complicity in the El Escorial Conspiracy in which the rebels aimed at securing foreign support from the French Emperor Napoleon . When the conspiracy
10494-410: Was free. When Ferdinand was freed after the Battle of Trocadero and the fall of Cádiz, reprisals followed. The Duc d'Angoulême made known his protest against Ferdinand's actions by refusing the Spanish decorations Ferdinand offered him for his military services. During his last years, Ferdinand's political appointments became more stable. The last ten years of his reign (sometimes referred to as
10600-468: Was inspired by Santo Dios , a popular religious song sung at harvest time by peasants and day labourers in the provinces of Málaga, Seville, and Huelva. Blas Infante brought the song to Maestro Castillo's attention; Maestro Castillo adapted and harmonized the traditional melody. The lyrics appeal to the Andalusians to mobilise and demand tierra y libertad ("land and liberty") by way of agrarian reform and
10706-526: Was now asked to rule under the liberal Constitution of 1812 . Before being allowed onto Spanish soil, Ferdinand had to guarantee the liberals that he would govern on the basis of the constitution, but only gave lukewarm indications he would do so. On 24 March the French handed him over to the Spanish Army in Girona , and thus began his procession towards Madrid. During this process and in the following months, he
10812-478: Was strong in many areas, the Spanish treasure fleets – carrying tax revenues from the Spanish Empire – were interrupted. Spain was all but bankrupt. Ferdinand's restored autocracy was guided by a small camarilla of his favorites, although his government seemed unstable. Whimsical and ferocious by turns, he changed his ministers every few months. "The king," wrote Friedrich von Gentz in 1814, "himself enters
10918-468: Was subdued in the late 15th century. Atlantic-facing harbors prospered upon trade with the New World. Chronic inequalities in the social structure caused by uneven distribution of land property in large estates induced recurring episodes of upheaval and social unrest in the agrarian sector in the 19th and 20th centuries. Andalusia has historically been an agricultural region, compared to the rest of Spain and
11024-526: Was the abolition of the 1812 liberal constitution; this was followed by the dissolution of the two chambers of the Spanish Parliament on 10 May. These were only the first moves towards a severe anti-liberal reaction, which caused a series of military riots, started in January 1820 by General Rafael del Riego . The monarch was forced to reintroduce the Spanish Constitution of 1812 , with a solemn oath during
11130-481: Was the mastermind of the suppression of opposition and of the restoration of former institutions, such as the Jesuits (outlawed by the Bourbons in the late 18th century), monasteries and others. The French corps remained in Spain, with the de facto role of an occupation force: however, its heavy cost of supply caused further damage to the Spanish treasury, which had been depleted under the liberal government, also due to
11236-426: Was welcomed on 24 May in Madrid, after the liberals had abandoned the city and taken refuge in the commercial city of Cádiz, where Ferdinand was kept as prisoner. Here the democratic Cortes met to declare the king's deposition. The French troops besieged the city, until 31 August, when the Battle of Trocadero marked the liberals' defeat and the capitulation of the city. After his restoration, Ferdinand VII started
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