141-413: * indicates dates disputed by historians Under the reign of Philip II (359–336 BC), the ancient kingdom of Macedonia , initially at the periphery of classical Greek affairs, came to dominate Ancient Greece in the span of just 25 years, largely thanks to the character and policies of its king. In addition to utilising effective diplomacy and marriage alliances to achieve his political aims, Philip II
282-558: A Persian nobleman named Sisines , by receiving them for several years as exiles at the Macedonian court. This gave him a good knowledge of Persian issues, and may even have influenced some of his innovations in the management of the Macedonian state. Alexander was also acquainted with these Persian exiles during his youth. In 336 BC, Philip II sent Parmenion , with Amyntas , Andromenes and Attalus , and an army of 10,000 men into Asia Minor to make preparations for an invasion to free
423-444: A Persian subject, and it may be that the young Herodotus heard local eyewitness accounts of events within the empire and of Persian preparations for the invasion of Greece , including the movements of the local fleet under the command of Artemisia I of Caria . Inscriptions recently discovered at Halicarnassus indicate that Artemesia's grandson Lygdamis negotiated with a local assembly to settle disputes over seized property, which
564-493: A battle in which some 7,000 Illyrians died (357 BC). By this move, Philip established his authority inland as far as Lake Ohrid and earned the favour of the Epirotes . After securing the western and southern borders of Macedon, Philip went on to besiege Amphipolis in 357 BC. The Athenians had been unable to conquer Amphipolis, which commanded the gold mines of Mount Pangaion , so Philip reached an agreement with Athens to lease
705-473: A boy living on the island of Samos, to which he had fled with his family from the oppressions of Lygdamis, tyrant of Halicarnassus and grandson of Artemisia. Panyassis , the epic poet related to Herodotus, is reported to have taken part in a failed uprising. The Suda also states that Herodotus later returned home to lead the revolt that eventually overthrew the tyrant. Due to recent discoveries of inscriptions at Halicarnassus dated to about Herodotus's time, it
846-587: A colony there in the previous century, only to lose control of it during the Peloponnesian War. The Athenians were very keen to recover Amphipolis, partly because of its history, although the Amphipolitans were not inclined to return to Athenian control. However, the main reasons were because of the location of Amphipolis close to forests needed for shipbuilding, and because it controlled the gold and silver mines of Mount Pangaion . The importance of Amphipolis to
987-487: A direct assault on Athens in 346 BC, the Macedonian king was met with an Athenian embassy that arranged the Peace of Philocrates . As a result, Macedonia and Athens became allies, yet Athens was forced to relinquish its claims to the city of Amphipolis (in modern-day Central Macedonia ). The Peace of Philocrates eventually broke down as hostilities reignited between Athens and Macedonia. Demosthenes , an Athenian statesman who
1128-593: A formal alliance with Macedonia. The League of Corinth elected Philip as strategos (i.e. commander-in-chief ) for a planned invasion of the Achaemenid Empire of Persia . However, Philip was assassinated by his bodyguard Pausanias of Orestis before he could begin the campaign, a task that instead fell to his son and successor, Alexander the Great . Intact and relatively detailed histories of Greece, such as Herodotus 's The Histories , Thucydides 's History of
1269-646: A historical topic more in keeping with the Greek world-view: focused on the context of the polis or city-state. The interplay of civilizations was more relevant to Greeks living in Anatolia, such as Herodotus himself, for whom life within a foreign civilization was a recent memory. Before the Persian crisis, history had been represented among the Greeks only by local or family traditions. The "Wars of Liberation" had given to Herodotus
1410-481: A hole matching the penetrating wound and lameness suffered by Philip, the authors of the study identified the remains of Tomb I in Vergina as those of Philip II. Tomb II instead was identified in the study as that of King Arrhidaeus and his wife Eurydice II . The Greek Ministry of Culture replied that this claim was baseless, and that the archaeological evidence shows that the ankylotic knee belongs to another body which
1551-404: A literary critic of Augustan Rome , listed seven predecessors of Herodotus, describing their works as simple unadorned accounts of their own and other cities and people, Greek or foreign, including popular legends, sometimes melodramatic and naïve, often charming – all traits that can be found in the work of Herodotus himself. Modern historians regard the chronology as uncertain, but according to
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#17328440997871692-577: A military and diplomatic education from Epaminondas , and lived with Pammenes , who was an enthusiastic advocate of the Sacred Band of Thebes . In 364 BC, Philip returned to Macedon . In 359 BC, perhaps in May, Philip's other brother, King Perdiccas III , died in battle against the Illyrians . Before leaving, Perdiccas had appointed Philip as regent for his infant son Amyntas IV , but Philip succeeded in taking
1833-626: A new army and additional revenues. Nor could he wisely stand by and watch the tyrants of Pherae overwhelm the Thessalian confederacy. Jason of Pherae had given the Greek world a glimpse of the potential might of a united Thessaly, and no Macedonian king could afford to forget the lesson. Through his frenetic activity since coming to the throne, Philip had successfully shored up the Macedonian situation, defeating or making peace with Macedon's erstwhile enemies, whilst securing most of Macedon's borders, and revitalising and retraining his army. Philip's next aim
1974-473: A proponent of peace in 346 BC represents himself as part of the "war-party". The arguments made in the speeches therefore refer to the political situation in 343 BC and not the situation when the treaty was made, which makes teasing out the actual historical threads rather difficult. In the aftermath of the Peloponnesian War , the militaristic city-state of Sparta had been able to impose a hegemony over
2115-483: A public dinner and then raping him. When Pausanias complained to Philip, the king felt unable to chastise Attalus, as he was about to send him to Asia with Parmenion to establish a bridgehead for an invasion he was planning. Also, Philip had recently married Attalus' niece, Cleopatra Eurydice . Rather than offend Attalus, Philip tried to mollify Pausanias by elevating him within his personal bodyguard. Pausanias then seems to have redirected his desire for revenge towards
2256-527: A relevant support of the Macedonian army. To the northeast, the Thracian kingdom of Ketriporis was also a vassal. To the northwest, the defeated Grabaei were now a buffer state between Macedon and tribes non-subject to Philip, like the Taulantii . The victory against Grabos took place at the same time of the birth of Philip’s heir, Alexander, son of Myrtale (who changed her name to Olympias), which may also cemented
2397-595: A result of Persian intervention, which led to the so-called King's Peace . The fragility of Spartan dominance had been demonstrated however, and in the next decade, the Thebans would revolt against Sparta. The Spartans were unable to successfully quell the revolt, leading to de facto Theban independence. Then, after several years of desultory conflict, the Thebans finally met the Spartans in open battle at Leuctra (371 BC), and under
2538-474: A revenue of more than a thousand talents. And because from these mines he had soon amassed a fortune, with the abundance of money he raised the Macedonian kingdom higher and higher to a greatly superior position, for with the gold coins which he struck, which came to be known from his name as Philippeioi, he organized a large force of mercenaries, and by using these coins for bribes induced many Greeks to become betrayers of their native lands. The capture of Krinides
2679-792: A series of campaigns stretching from 356 to 340 BC, Philip II managed to ultimately subjugate Kersebleptes as a tributary vassal, conquering much of Thrace in the process. Philip II also fought against the Illyrian king Bardylis , who threatened Macedonia proper, and against Grabos II and Pleuratus in Illyria (centred in modern-day Albania ). In his newly conquered territories, he founded new cities such as Philippi , Philippopolis (modern Plovdiv , Bulgaria ), Herakleia Sintike ( Pirin Macedonia , Bulgaria), and Herakleia Lynkestis (modern Bitola , North Macedonia ). Philip II eventually campaigned against
2820-522: A sister named Eurynoe. Amyntas later married another woman, Gygaea, with whom he had three sons, Philip's half-brothers Archelaus , Arrhidaeus, and Menelaus . After the assassination of Alexander II , Philip was sent as a hostage to Illyria by Ptolemy of Aloros . Philip was later held in Thebes ( c. 368 –365 BC), which at the time was the leading city of Greece . While in Thebes, Philip received
2961-432: A title conferred on him by the ancient Roman orator Cicero , and the " Father of Lies " by others. The Histories primarily cover the lives of prominent kings and famous battles such as Marathon , Thermopylae , Artemisium , Salamis , Plataea , and Mycale . His work deviates from the main topics to provide a cultural, ethnographical , geographical, and historiographical background that forms an essential part of
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#17328440997873102-505: A treaty with the victorious Illyrian king Bardylis , possibly surrendering large parts of Macedon in exchange for peace. Although no evidence remains of such a treaty, the fact that Illyrians did not follow up their victory despite Macedon's weakness is suggestive that some agreement was reached. Philip also married Bardylis's daughter (or niece), which may have formed part of the treaty. At any rate, Philip's diplomacy gave Macedon some breathing space and time for recovery. Philip realized that
3243-627: A version of the Histories written by "Herodotus of Thurium", and some passages in the Histories have been interpreted as proof that he wrote about Magna Graecia from personal experience there (IV, 15,99; VI, 127). According to Ptolemaeus Chennus , a late source summarized in the Library of Photius , Plesirrhous the Thessalian, the hymnographer, was the eromenos of Herodotus and his heir. This account has also led some historians to assume Herodotus died childless. Intimate knowledge of some events in
3384-510: A young Thucydides happened to be in the assembly with his father, and burst into tears during the recital. Herodotus observed prophetically to the boy's father: "Your son's soul yearns for knowledge." Eventually, Thucydides and Herodotus became close enough for both to be interred in Thucydides's tomb in Athens. Such at least was the opinion of Marcellinus in his Life of Thucydides . According to
3525-430: Is a strong possibility that these events all took place in 355 BC. It is not entirely clear what occasioned this meeting between Philip and Kersebleptes; Buckler suggests that Philip and Kersebleptes agreed to divide Thrace between them, leaving Kersebleptes free to attack the other Thracian kings (to try to reunite the Thracian kingdom), and leaving Philip free to campaign elsewhere. Conversely, Cawkwell and Sealey suggest
3666-618: Is consistent with a tyrant under pressure. His name is not mentioned later in the tribute list of the Athenian Delian League , indicating that there might well have been a successful uprising against him some time before 454 BC. Herodotus wrote his Histories in the Ionian dialect , in spite of being born in a Dorian settlement. According to the Suda , Herodotus learned the Ionian dialect as
3807-486: Is generally assumed that he died not long afterwards, possibly before his sixtieth year. Herodotus would have made his researches known to the larger world through oral recitations to a public crowd. John Marincola writes in his introduction to the Penguin edition of the Histories that there are certain identifiable pieces in the early books of Herodotus's work which could be labeled as "performance pieces". These portions of
3948-794: Is now known that the Ionic dialect was used in Halicarnassus in some official documents, so there is no need to assume (like the Suda ) that he must have learned the dialect elsewhere. The Suda is the only source placing Herodotus as the heroic liberator of his birthplace, casting doubt upon the veracity of that romantic account. As Herodotus himself reveals, Halicarnassus, though a Dorian city, had ended its close relations with its Dorian neighbours after an unseemly quarrel (I, 144), and it had helped pioneer Greek trade with Egypt (II, 178). It was, therefore, an outward-looking, international-minded port within
4089-602: Is on account of the many strange stories and the folk-tales he reported that his critics have branded him "The Father of Lies". Even his own contemporaries found reason to scoff at his achievement. In fact, one modern scholar has wondered whether Herodotus left his home in Greek Anatolia , migrating westwards to Athens and beyond, because his own countrymen had ridiculed his work, a circumstance possibly hinted at in an epitaph said to have been dedicated to Herodotus at one of his three supposed resting places, Thuria : Herodotus
4230-581: Is suggestive of a negotiated settlement; certainly, as Buckler says, "Philip came away from Thessaly with a foot in both camps". Philip appears to have had a strong interest in Thessaly from the start of his reign, even despite his problems elsewhere. There are several probable reasons for this interest. Firstly, and most pressingly, Philip probably wanted to take control of the border region of Perrhaebia (traditionally part of Thessaly), in order to secure Macedon's southern border. Secondly, since Larissa controlled
4371-458: Is that of Aristotle , who states simply that Philip was killed because Pausanias had been offended by Attalus (Philip's uncle-in-law) and his friends. Attalus was the uncle of Philip's wife Cleopatra (renamed Eurydice upon marriage). Fifty years later, the historian Cleitarchus expanded and embellished the story. Centuries afterwards, this version was propagated by Diodorus Siculus and other historians who relied on Cleitarchus. According to
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4512-493: The Achaemenid Empire of Persia . However, his assassination by a royal bodyguard, Pausanias of Orestis , led to the immediate succession of his son Alexander, who would go on to invade the Achaemenid Empire in his father's stead. Philip was born in either 383 or 382 BC, and was the youngest son of King Amyntas III and Eurydice of Lynkestis . He had two older brothers, Alexander II and Perdiccas III , as well as
4653-524: The Alcmaeonids , a clan whose history is featured frequently in his writing. According to Plutarch , Herodotus was granted a financial reward by the Athenian assembly in recognition of his work. Plutarch, using Diyllus as a source, says this was 10 talents . In 443 BC or shortly afterwards, he migrated to Thurii , in modern Calabria , as part of an Athenian-sponsored colony . Aristotle refers to
4794-562: The Byzantine Suda , an 11th-century encyclopedia which possibly took its information from traditional accounts. Still, the challenge is great: The data are so few – they rest upon such late and slight authority; they are so improbable or so contradictory, that to compile them into a biography is like building a house of cards, which the first breath of criticism will blow to the ground. Still, certain points may be approximately fixed ... Herodotus was, according to his own statement, at
4935-486: The Euphrates to Babylon . For some reason, possibly associated with local politics, he subsequently found himself unpopular in Halicarnassus, and sometime around 447 BC, migrated to Periclean Athens – a city whose people and democratic institutions he openly admired (V, 78). Athens was also the place where he came to know the local topography (VI, 137; VIII, 52–55), as well as leading citizens such as
5076-467: The Grabaei led by Grabos II becoming the main power after the defeat of the Illyrians of Bardylis. According to Diodorus, Philip marched on his enemies in this alliance before they had chance to combine, and forced them to ally to Macedon instead. However, other sources suggest that the picture was actually much more complex, and that Philip in turn defeated each of the powers over the next few years, with
5217-618: The Macedonian army under Perdiccas III had been defeated in battle by the Illyrians ; Perdiccas and 4,000 troops had been killed. The Illyrians prepared to invade Macedon ; meanwhile, the Paionians were ravaging Macedonian territory, the Thracians were preparing to invade in support of the pretender Pausanias , as were the Athenians, in support of a different pretender, Argeus . In short, Macedon
5358-538: The Macedonian phalanx , an infantry formation that consisted of soldiers all armed with a sarissa . Philip is credited for adding the sarissa to the Macedonian army, where it soon was the common weapon used by most soldiers. Philip had married Audata , daughter or granddaughter of the Illyrian king Bardylis . However, this marriage did not prevent him from marching against the Illyrians in 358 BC and defeating them in
5499-700: The Peloponnesian War on the abduction of some prostitutes – a mocking reference to Herodotus, who reported the Persians' account of their wars with Greece , beginning with the rapes of the mythical heroines Io , Europa , Medea , and Helen . Similarly, the Athenian historian Thucydides dismissed Herodotus as a story-teller. Thucydides, who had been trained in rhetoric , became the model for subsequent prose-writers as an author who seeks to appear firmly in control of his material, whereas with his frequent digressions Herodotus appeared to minimize (or possibly disguise) his authorial control. Moreover, Thucydides developed
5640-565: The Persian Empire , and the historian's family could well have had contacts in other countries under Persian rule, facilitating his travels and his researches. Herodotus's eyewitness accounts indicate that he traveled in Egypt in association with Athenians, probably sometime after 454 BC or possibly earlier, after an Athenian fleet had assisted the uprising against Persian rule in 460–454 BC. He probably traveled to Tyre next and then down
5781-680: The Philippeion was built. Isocrates once wrote to Philip that if he defeated Persia, there would be nothing left for him to do but to become a god, and Demades proposed that Philip be regarded as the thirteenth god; however, there is no clear evidence that Philip was raised to the divine status accorded his son Alexander . Philip is mentioned in the opening verse of the deutero-canonical First Book of Maccabees . Primary sources Secondary sources Herodotus Herodotus ( Ancient Greek : Ἡρόδοτος , romanized : Hēródotos ; c. 484 – c. 425 BC)
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5922-569: The Suda , he was buried in Macedonian Pella and in the agora in Thurii. Herodotus announced the purpose and scope of his work at the beginning of his Histories: Here are presented the results of the inquiry carried out by Herodotus of Halicarnassus. The purpose is to prevent the traces of human events from being erased by time, and to preserve the fame of the important and remarkable achievements produced by both Greeks and non-Greeks; among
6063-679: The Thracian coast (354–353 BC). Philip's involvement in the Third Sacred War (356–346 BC) began in 354 BC. At the request of the Thessalian League , Philip and his army traveled to Thessaly in order to capture Pagasae , resulting in an alliance with Thebes. A year later in 353 BC, Philip was once again asked to assist in battle, but this time against the tyrant Lycophron who was supported by Onomarchus . Philip and his forces invaded Thessaly, defeating 7,000 Phocians and forcing Phayllus,
6204-483: The greaves , one of which was shaped consistently to fit a leg with a misaligned tibia (Philip II was recorded as having broken his tibia). Also, the remains of the skull show damage to the right eye caused by the penetration of an object (historically recorded to be an arrow). Two scientists who studied some of the bones claimed in 2015 that Philip was buried in Tomb I, not Tomb II. On the basis of age, knee ankylosis , and
6345-453: The 2–3-metre spear ( doru ) used by Greek hoplites . At the same time, Philip engaged in a flurry of diplomatic activity. He bribed Berisades , son of the Thracian king Cotys , to withdraw Thracian support for Pausanias, and thereby prevented the Thracian invasion. Similarly, he bought off the Paionians with gifts in exchange for their withdrawal from Macedon. Philip may also have concluded
6486-509: The Athenian navy would be unable to send assistance to his enemies. The Athenians seem to have offered Philip Pydna in exchange for Amphipolis, perhaps during the later stages of the siege, but it is not clear whether Philip agreed to this. By this stage, the Social War of 357–355 BC had broken out between Athens and their erstwhile allies, and they would now have been unable to intervene to help Amphipolis. Philip eventually succeeded in breaching
6627-416: The Athenians during this period cannot be overstated; "their longing for it was constant and extreme". Philip began besieging Amphipolis in 357 BC; the Amphipolitans, abandoning their anti-Athenian policy, promptly appealed to Athens, offering to return to its control. However, during the siege, Philip sent a letter to Athens saying that he would hand over the city once he captured it (thus appearing to follow
6768-531: The Athenians still hoped to receive Amphipolis from Philip and so refused. Philip himself feared an alliance of the powerful Chalkidian League and Athens, so he moved to reassure the Olynthians by offering them an alliance on very advantageous terms. As part of the agreement with Olynthos, Philip was to capture the city of Potidea , located in the territory of the Chalkidian League. Potidea was at that time under
6909-630: The Crisaian plain which belonged to Delphi . These decisive victories led to Philip being recognized as the military leader of the League of Corinth , a Greek confederation allied against the Persian Empire , in 338/7 BC. Members of the league agreed never to wage war against each other, unless it was to suppress revolution . Philip II was involved quite early against the Achaemenid Empire. From around 352 BC, he supported several Persian opponents to Artaxerxes III , such as Artabazos II , Amminapes or
7050-545: The Great , and his diadochi successors during the Hellenistic period . These surviving histories are complemented by fragments of other histories, including Theopompus 's 58-volume history of Philip (which was the source for much of Trogus's Philippic History ) and by contemporary epigraphic sources. Outside the brief notices of Philip's exploits which occur in Diodorus and Justin, further details of his campaigns (and indeed
7191-553: The Great Tumulus at Aigai near modern Vergina , the capital and burial site of the kings of Macedon, and found that two of the four tombs in the tumulus were undisturbed since antiquity. Moreover, these two, and particularly Tomb II, contained fabulous treasures and objects of great quality and sophistication. Although there was much debate for some years, as suspected at the time of the discovery Tomb II has been shown to be that of Philip II as indicated by many features, including
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#17328440997877332-466: The Greeks living on the western coast and islands from Achaemenid rule. At first, all went well. The Greek cities on the western coast of Anatolia revolted until the news arrived that Philip had been assassinated and had been succeeded as king by his young son Alexander. The Macedonians were demoralized by Philip's death and were subsequently defeated near Magnesia by the Achaemenids under the command of
7473-624: The League in 356 BC. In 357 BC, Philip married the Epirote princess Olympias , who was the daughter of the king of the Molossians . Alexander was born in 356 BC, the same year as Philip's racehorse won at the Olympic Games . During 356 BC, Philip conquered the town of Crenides and changed its name to Philippi . He then established a powerful garrison there to control its mines, which yielded much of
7614-462: The Macedonian army, and restore the morale of both the army and the people. He held a series of assemblies with the Macedonian people, and "exhorting them with eloquent speeches to be men, he built up their morale". He exhaustively re-trained his men with new tactics and equipment. In particular, he instigated the use of the phalanx formation by the Macedonian foot-soldiery, and equipped the troops with 6-metre long pikes (the sarissa ), in contrast to
7755-448: The Macedonian army. The cavalry, which were the primary source of the army's strength, went from a force of 600 to 4000 from the time of the battles with the Illyrians to 334 BC. The discipline and training of the soldiers increased as well, and the Macedonian soldiers under Philip were provided with the possibility of promotion through the ranks and rewards and bonus wages for exceptional service. In addition to these changes, Philip created
7896-553: The Macedonians. From 352 to 346 BC, Philip did not again travel south. He was active in completing the subjugation of the Balkan hill-country to the west and north, and in reducing the Greek cities of the coast as far as the Hebrus . To the chief of these coastal cities, Olynthus , Philip continued to profess friendship until its neighboring cities were in his hands. In 348 BC, Philip started
8037-469: The Maroneia campaign was in 353 BC (though without explicit justification). The Maroneia campaign might therefore have been part of the campaign that Philip fought against Cetriporis (probably 355 BC), or a campaign against Amadokos (probably 353 BC). Philip II of Macedon Philip II of Macedon ( Ancient Greek : Φίλιππος Philippos ; 382 BC – October 336 BC) was the king ( basileus ) of
8178-500: The Molossian kingdom and Epirus. All of them enjoyed under the Illyrian and Paionian threat an opportunity to defy the central power and many were now under Bardylis hegemony. Philip held an assembly of the army, gathered together a force of 10,000 men and 600 cavalry and marched into Illyria. Philip had also married Phila of Elimeia , ensuring an alliance with a principality of Upper Macedonia reputed by their cavalry. Bardylis, hearing of
8319-455: The Paionian king, Agis , had died. Taking advantage of their political disarray and transition of power, Philip marched his army into Paionia, where he defeated the Paionians. He then compelled the tribe to swear allegiance to Macedon. Philip was now able to turn to the Illyrians, who were still occupying much of upper Macedon (whether agreed by treaty or not). Elimea and Eordaea had probably been
8460-474: The Paionians at some point during this period, although there is no explicit record of this. There is no evidence that any of these allies received any substantial aid from Athens, which was still too preoccupied with the Social War. The victory consolidated Philip's control of Upper Macedon. The small, autonomous principalities like Elimiotis and Lynkestis seems to have been integrated the following year, with
8601-427: The Peloponnesian War , and Xenophon 's Hellenica cover the period from roughly 500–362 BC. No extant history specifically covers the relevant period of Greek history (359–336 BC), although it is included within various universal histories . The main source for the period is Diodorus Siculus's Bibliotheca historica , written in the 1st century BC, which is therefore a secondary source. Diodorus devotes Book XVI to
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#17328440997878742-577: The Peloponnesus , which reached its climax at the Battle of Mantinea , brought almost every state in Greece into the conflict, on one side or the other. Although the Thebans and their allies were victorious at Mantinea, Epaminondas was killed, and Theban losses were heavy. Xenophon, summing up his account of Mantinea, suggests that: When these things had taken place, the opposite of what all men believed would happen
8883-444: The Social War, and were unable to respond effectively to Philip's moves against Potidea and Pydna. In 356 BC, in response to King Philip's machinations, the Athenians allied with the kings of Illyria, Paionia and Thrace, to try to block his advance. Thrace was by now ruled by three kings, descendants of Cotys; in the west was Ketriporis , the son of Berisades (Cotys's second son); in the centre, Amadokos II (Cotys's third son), and in
9024-558: The Spartans from various parts. In 345 BC, Philip conducted a hard-fought campaign against the Ardiaioi ( Ardiaei ), under their king Pleuratus I , during which Philip was seriously wounded in the lower right leg by an Ardian soldier. In 342 BC, Philip led a military expedition north against the Scythians , conquering the Thracian fortified settlement Eumolpia to give it his name, Philippopolis (modern Plovdiv ). In 340 BC, Philip started
9165-506: The Spartans were unable to resist Epaminondas's invasion, and he marched into Messenia and liberated the helots, thereby permanently crippling Sparta. The Thebans then began to extend their influence over Greece, effectively replacing the Spartan hegemony with their own . The Theban generals Pelopidas and Epaminondas campaigned all over Greece for the next 9 years to further Theban power and influence. In 362 BC, Epaminondas's fourth invasion of
9306-528: The Theban general Pammenes , and came to an agreement with Philip; furthermore, he states that Amadokos was hostile to Philip at the time. Demosthenes says that the Athenian general Chares filed the report about the meeting between Philip, Pammenes and Kersebleptes; and Polyaenus says that after Philip's Maroneia campaign, Chares ambushed Philip's fleet off the coast of Neapolis . Since it is recorded that Neapolis appealed to Athens for aid against Philip in 355 BC, it
9447-456: The Thebans returned to their more traditional defensive policy, and within a few years, Athens had replaced them at the pinnacle of the Greek political system, and Theban influence faded quickly in the rest of Greece. It was the Athenians, and their second League , who would be Macedon's main rivals for control of the lands of the north Aegean, and a major theme during the period was the regular state of war between Macedon and Athens. In 360 BC,
9588-476: The Thebans were victorious over Alexander, and imposed a peace settlement on Thessaly. However, with the weakening of Thebes in the aftermath of Mantinea, on-off conflict within Thessaly continued. Alexander was himself assassinated in 358 BC, by his wife's brothers Tisiphonus , Lycophron and Peitholaus who became tyrants in his place. According to Diodorus, the Aleuadae , the noble family which dominated politics in
9729-493: The Upper Macedonia area. This allowed him to levy troops from a wider manpower pool during the rest of his reign. Some areas like Pelagonia were outright annexed whilst others like the loyal Elimea or the more distant valleys kept their autonomy as vassals. Philip reorganized the Macedonian administration into districts or ethne and established the companion system to keep the Macedonian nobility controlled. Under that scheme,
9870-651: The actual background to the assassination, it may have had an enormous effect on later world events, far beyond what any conspirators could have predicted. As asserted by some modern historians, had the older and more settled Philip been the one in charge of the war against Persia, he might have been content to make relatively moderate conquests, e.g., making Anatolia into a Macedonian province, and, unlike his son Alexander, not have wanted to push further into an overall conquest of Persia and further campaigns in India. In 1977, Greek archaeologist Manolis Andronikos started excavating
10011-513: The alliance with Epirus in the southwest. In the following years Olympias' brother, also named Alexander , took refuge in Philip's court and the Macedonian influence increased from 351. Some scholars date from 350 the Macedonian direct control of Tymphaea , another border area between Epirus and Macedon. In 356 BC, whilst Parmenion campaigned against the Illyrians, Philip campaigned in Thrace, and captured
10152-407: The ancient account, these predecessors included Dionysius of Miletus , Charon of Lampsacus, Hellanicus of Lesbos , Xanthus of Lydia and, the best attested of them all, Hecataeus of Miletus . Of these, only fragments of Hecataeus's works survived, and the authenticity of these is debatable, but they provide a glimpse into the kind of tradition within which Herodotus wrote his own Histories . It
10293-407: The ancient capital of the kingdom of Macedon. Philip and his royal court were gathered in order to celebrate the marriage of Alexander I of Epirus and Cleopatra of Macedon , Philip's daughter by his fourth wife Olympias . While the king was entering into the town's theatre, he was unprotected in order to appear approachable to the Greek diplomats and dignitaries who were present at that time. Philip
10434-500: The ancient kingdom of Macedonia from 359 BC until his death in 336 BC. He was a member of the Argead dynasty , founders of the ancient kingdom, and the father of Alexander the Great . The rise of Macedon , including its conquest and political consolidation of most of Classical Greece during his reign, was achieved by his reformation of the army (the establishment of the Macedonian phalanx that proved critical in securing victories on
10575-429: The armies approached each other and with a great outcry clashed in the battle, Philip, commanding the right wing, which consisted of the flower of the Macedonians serving under him, ordered his cavalry to ride past the ranks of the barbarians and attack them on the flank, while he himself falling on the enemy in a frontal assault began a bitter combat. But the Illyrians, forming themselves into a square, courageously entered
10716-524: The audience. It was conventional in Herodotus's day for authors to "publish" their works by reciting them at popular festivals. According to Lucian , Herodotus took his finished work straight from Anatolia to the Olympic Games and read the entire Histories to the assembled spectators in one sitting, receiving rapturous applause at the end of it. According to a very different account by an ancient grammarian, Herodotus refused to begin reading his work at
10857-467: The battlefield), his extensive use of siege engines, and his use of effective diplomacy and marriage alliances. After defeating the Greek city-states of Athens and Thebes at the Battle of Chaeronea in 338 BC, Philip II led the effort to establish a federation of Greek states known as the League of Corinth , with him as the elected hegemon and commander-in-chief of Greece for a planned invasion of
10998-453: The beginning of his work, a native of Halicarnassus in Anatolia , and it is generally accepted that he was born there around 485 BC. The Suda says his family was influential, that he was the son of Lyxes and Dryo and the brother of Theodorus, and that he was also related to Panyassis – an epic poet of the time. Halicarnassus was then within the Persian Empire , making Herodotus
11139-399: The beginning of true hostilities with Athens. As promised, he handed Potidea over to the Olynthians, and let the Athenian garrison depart freely back to Athens, since he did not want to cause undue offence to the Athenians ("he was particularly solicitous toward the people of Athens on account of the importance and repute of their city"). The Athenians were by this time fully engaged in fighting
11280-417: The bodyguards. The three sons of Aeropus of Lyncestis were also suspected of taking part in the plot, acting as accomplices of Pausanias. Arrhabaeus and Heromenes were put to death, while the third brother, Alexander of Lyncestis , was pardoned. The reasons for the assassination are difficult to ascertain. There was controversy even among ancient historians; the only known surviving contemporary account
11421-447: The brother of Onomarchus, to leave. That same year, Onomarchus and his army defeated Philip in two succeeding battles. Philip returned to Thessaly the next summer, this time with an army of 20,000 infantry, 3,000 cavalry, and the additional support of the Thessalian League's forces. At the Battle of Crocus Field , 6,000 Phocians fell and 3,000 were taken as prisoners and later drowned. This battle earned Philip immense prestige as well as
11562-577: The city to the ground. The same fate was inflicted on other cities of the Chalcidian peninsula, resulting in the Chalcidian League dissolving. Macedon and the regions adjoining it having now been securely consolidated, Philip celebrated his Olympic Games at Dium . In 347 BC, Philip advanced to the conquest of the eastern districts about Hebrus, and compelled the submission of the Thracian prince Cersobleptes . In 346 BC, he intervened effectively in
11703-405: The city to them after his conquest, in exchange for Pydna (which was lost by Macedon in 363 BC). However, after conquering Amphipolis, Philip captured Pydna for himself and kept both cities (357 BC). Athens soon declared war against him, and as a result, Philip allied Macedon with the Chalcidian League of Olynthus . He subsequently conquered Potidaea , this time keeping his word and ceding it to
11844-655: The city-state of Athens and her allies in the Aegean region , as well as Thebes after the decline of its hegemony in mainland Greece . In the defence of the Amphictyonic League of Delphi and in conjunction with the Thessalian League , Macedonia became a key player in the Third Sacred War (356–346 BC), defeating the Phocians , commanded by Onomarchus , at the Battle of Crocus Field in 352 BC. While poised to launch
11985-605: The control of Athens, and represented a threat to the stability of the league. Philip had no intention of handing over Amphipolis to the Athenians, but acted as if he was just delaying the transfer of the city. He seems to have gone straight on to besiege Pydna after capturing Amphipolis. The Athenians, perhaps still hoping to receive Amphipolis if they allowed Philip to take Pydna, do not seem to have tried to intervene (and may not have been able to). Pydna seems to have fallen to Philip by treachery, in either 357 or 356 BC. In 356 BC, Philip then besieged and captured Potidea, thus marking
12126-444: The crime itself, regardless of how sympathetic they might have seemed afterward. Scholar Daniel Ogden has noted that if there was a sexual side to the murder, "then it can be contextualized in this regard against known homosexual relationships in and around the Macedonian court" and that according to Aristotle, the regicide of Archelaus I of Macedon was by his former eromenoi , Crateuas and Hellenocrates of Larissa. Whatever
12267-430: The east Kersebleptes (Cotys's first son). Whether Athens allied to all three Thracian kings is a matter of conjecture; certainly at least Ketriporis joined the alliance. If Kersebleptes did ally with Athens, he appears to have relatively quickly cast off this allegiance, in favour of extending his realm at the expense of Amadokos and Ketriporis. In Illyria, Bardylis' defeat meant a shift in the hegemony among tribes, with
12408-544: The eastern regions of Macedonia, while the Athenians had landed at Methoni on the coast with a contingent under the Macedonian pretender Argaeus II . Philip pushed back the Paeonians and Thracians promising tributes, and defeated the 3,000 Athenian hoplites (359 BC). Momentarily free from his opponents, he concentrated on strengthening his internal position and, above all, his army. Philip II made many notable contributions to
12549-431: The exception of Athens. According to Plutarch, an army under Parmenion defeated the Illyrian king Grabos II in 356 BC, shortly after the conclusion of the siege of Potidea. Grabos then became a subject ally of Macedon. The following year, Philip seems to have defeated Ketriporis , and reduced him to the status of a subject ally, although information for this campaign is very limited. He is also presumed to have defeated
12690-439: The festival of Olympia until some clouds offered him a bit of shade – by which time the assembly had dispersed. (Hence the proverbial expression "Herodotus and his shade" to describe someone who misses an opportunity through delay.) Herodotus's recitation at Olympia was a favourite theme among ancient writers, and there is another interesting variation on the story to be found in the Suda : that of Photius and Tzetzes , in which
12831-422: The first genuinely historical inspiration felt by a Greek. These wars showed him that there was a corporate life, higher than that of the city, of which the story might be told; and they offered to him as a subject the drama of the collision between East and West. With him, the spirit of history was born into Greece; and his work, called after the nine Muses, was indeed the first utterance of Clio . Though Herodotus
12972-500: The first years of the Peloponnesian War (VI, 91; VII, 133, 233; IX, 73) suggests that he returned to Athens, in which case it is possible that he died there during an outbreak of the plague. It is also possible he died in Macedonia instead, after obtaining the patronage of the court there; or else he died back in Thurii. There is nothing in the Histories that can be dated to later than 430 BC with any certainty, and it
13113-494: The former kings being stripped of their titles and reduced to part of Phillip's court. Philip also founded Heraclea Lyncestis as a new urban center in the area. Philip II surrounded Macedon with vassals or subjects allies to replace the coalition he defeated. North of Macedon, the Paionians of the king Lycceius were vassals. The Thracian tribe of the agrianes , neighbors of Paioia, and their king, Langarus , also appear from 352 as allies of Philip and were and from that moment on
13254-431: The fray. And at first for a long while the battle was evenly poised because of the exceeding gallantry displayed on both sides, and as many were slain and still more wounded, the fortune of battle vacillated first one way then the other, being constantly swayed by the valorous deeds of the combatants; but later as the horsemen pressed on from the flank and rear and Philip with the flower of his troops fought with true heroism,
13395-408: The free acquisition of Pherae . He was made the leader ( archon ) of the Thessalian League and was able to claim Magnesia and Perrhaebia, which expanded his territory to Pagasae. Philip did not attempt to advance into Central Greece because the Athenians, unable to arrive in time to defend Pagasae, had occupied Thermopylae . There were no hostilities with Athens yet, but Athens was threatened by
13536-749: The frontier area between Macedon and Epirus, Orestis , under Philip's sphere of influence as part of her dowry. To the northwest, Illyrians tribes like the Taulantii or the Dardanians had been expelled but not subjugated. To the north, the Strymon or the Nestus were the limits of Macedonia proper and the extent of control over Paionia was weaker. Sources and coins shows the Paionian had their own kings but most likely under some vassal or tributary status. Justin and Diodorus both say that Philip also invaded Thessaly in 358 BC. In
13677-474: The gold he later used for his campaigns. In the meantime, his general Parmenion defeated the Illyrians again. In 355–354 BC he besieged Methone , the last city on the Thermaic Gulf controlled by Athens. During the siege, Philip was injured in his right eye, which was later removed surgically. Despite the arrival of two Athenian fleets, the city fell in 354 BC. Philip also attacked Abdera and Maronea, on
13818-525: The heartland of Classical Greece (the Peloponessus and mainland Greece south of Thessaly ), the states of this area having been severely weakened by the war. This state of affairs was resented by many of the Greek city-states, which had traditionally been ferociously independent, and led directly to the Corinthian War of 395–387 BC. Sparta emerged from this conflict with its hegemony intact, though only as
13959-416: The kingdom for himself. Philip's military skills and expansionist vision of Macedonia brought him early success. He first had to remedy the woes over Macedonian territory faced by his throne's government. This was a predicament that had greatly worsened through Macedonia's defeat by the Illyrians , a struggle in which King Perdiccas himself had died. The Paeonians and the Thracians had sacked and invaded
14100-596: The leadership of Epaminondas inflicted an unprecedented defeat on the Spartan army, killing the Spartan king Cleombrotus I in the process. Following up on this victory, Epaminondas invaded Peloponnesus in 370 BC and began dismantling the basis of Spartan dominance. Spartan power rested on the forced labour of the helots of Messenia , which allowed the entire male Spartan population to dedicate themselves to warfare. This focused military training system had previously enabled Sparta to exert power out of proportion to its small population. However, after their losses at Leuctra,
14241-546: The main north–south routes between Macedon and Thessaly, friendly relations with the Aleuadae would help protect Macedon and give Philip access to the rest of Greece. Thirdly, Thessaly had plentiful resources that Philip could see the long-term potential of exploiting: Thessaly was rich in land, produce, cities and men. Thessalian cavalry was the best in Greece, and the mountainous country surrounding Thessaly supplied numerous peltasts. Success in Thessaly would provide Philip with
14382-557: The man who had failed to avenge his damaged honour, and accordingly to plan to kill Philip. Some time after the alleged rape, while Attalus was away in Asia fighting the Persians, he put his plan into action. Other historians (e.g., Justin 9.7) suggested that Alexander and/or his mother Olympias were at least privy to the intrigue, if not themselves instigators. Olympias seems to have been anything but discreet in manifesting her gratitude to Pausanias, according to Justin's report: He writes that
14523-416: The mass of the Illyrians was compelled to take hastily to flight. According to Diodorus, some 7,000 Illyrians died in the battle. The Illyrians withdrew from Macedon and sued for peace. After this campaign Philip had established his authority inland as far as Lake Ohrid . Not only were the Illyrians expelled, but also the king Menelaus of Pelagonia was exiled to Athens, leaving Philip as the sole overlord of
14664-424: The matters covered is, in particular, the cause of the hostilities between Greeks and non-Greeks. His record of the achievements of others was an achievement in itself, though the extent of it has been debated. Herodotus's place in history and his significance may be understood according to the traditions within which he worked. His work is the earliest Greek prose to have survived intact. Dionysius of Halicarnassus ,
14805-514: The mercenary Memnon of Rhodes . The kings of Macedon practiced polygamy . Philip II had seven wives throughout his life, all members of royalty from foreign dynasties, and all of which were considered queens, making their children royalty as well. The dates of Philip's multiple marriages and the names of some of his wives are contested. Below is the order of marriages: King Philip was assassinated in October 336 BC (perhaps 25 October) at Aegae ,
14946-474: The morale of the Macedonian army, and gave the soldiers encouragement for the battles to come. Having defeated the last immediate threat to Macedon, Philip returned to diplomacy. He released the Athenian prisoners immediately, and sent ambassadors to Athens. He was prepared to abandon all claim to Amphipolis, and this, coupled with his treatment of the Athenian prisoners, persuaded the Athenians to make peace with him. The following year (358 BC), Philip heard that
15087-612: The narrative and provides readers with a wellspring of additional information. Herodotus was criticized in ancient times for his inclusion of "legends and fanciful accounts" in his work. The contemporaneous historian Thucydides accused him of making up stories for entertainment. He retorted that he reported what he could see and was told. A sizable portion of the Histories has since been confirmed by modern historians and archaeologists . Modern scholars generally turn to Herodotus's own writing for reliable information about his life, supplemented with ancient yet much later sources, such as
15228-492: The northern Thessalian city of Larissa , were opposed to these new tyrants, and requested aid from Philip. Although Diodorus says that Philip defeated the new tyrants, Buckler considers it more likely that Philip's appearance on the scene allowed the Aleuadae to negotiate a peace settlement with Pherae from a position of greater strength. Philip seems to have come away from the expedition with new wives from both Larissa ( Philinna ) and Pherae ( Nicesipolis , Jason's niece), which
15369-403: The only principalities loyal to the Macedonian kingdom during the Illyrian invasion. On the other hand, Lynkestis was ruled by a competing dynasty related the Macedonian throne (and probably to Philip's mother, Eurydice ) and other Upper Macedonia districts had links to foreign powers. Pelagonia was a traditional Athenian ally in Upper Macedonia whilst Lynkestis, Orestis and Tymphaea had links with
15510-420: The period in general) can be found in the orations of Athenian statesmen, primarily Demosthenes and Aeschines , which have survived intact. Since these speeches were never intended to be historical material, they must be treated with great circumspection, particularly given the identity of the authors. Demosthenes and Aeschines have been described as "a couple of liars, neither of whom can be trusted to have told
15651-487: The period of Philip's reign, but the action is much compressed, and due to the scope of the work, this book also contains details of happenings during the same period elsewhere in the ancient world. Diodorus is often derided by modern historians for his style and inaccuracies, but he preserves many details of the ancient period found nowhere else. Diodorus worked primarily by epitomising the works of other historians, omitting many details where they did not suit his purpose, which
15792-442: The plot seems specious, to act as they did would have required them to act with an improbable degree of brazen effrontery in the face of a military whose members were personally loyal to Philip. What seems to have been recorded, rather, are simply suspicions that were naturally directed towards the chief beneficiaries of the assassination; however, their actions in response to the murder are hardly evidence of their guilt with respect to
15933-527: The preexisting balance of power. Polyaenus recounts that Philip attacked and sacked the cities of Abdera and Maroneia along the coast of Thrace. This occurred during a single campaign, but does not say when. Diodorus does not mention this campaign, making its position within the overall chronology difficult to place. Buckler suggests the following: According to the Athenian politician Demosthenes , Kersebleptes met Philip at Maroneia (in Thrace), together with
16074-424: The preparations, sent ambassadors to Philip, proposing peace on the basis of the status quo. Philip rejected this, insisting that the Illyrians must withdraw completely from Macedonia, so Bardylis instead prepared for battle, raising 10,000 men and 500 cavalry, according to Diodorus. Diodorus preserves the only account of the battle, which Beloch suggested may have taken place near Monastir . He says that: When
16215-468: The research seem independent and "almost detachable", so that they might have been set aside by the author for the purposes of an oral performance. The intellectual matrix of the 5th century, Marincola suggests, comprised many oral performances in which philosophers would dramatically recite such detachable pieces of their work. The idea was to criticize previous arguments on a topic and emphatically and enthusiastically insert their own in order to win over
16356-444: The same night of her return from exile, she placed a crown on the assassin's corpse, and later erected a tumulus over his grave and ordered that annual sacrifices be made to the memory of Pausanias. Some modern historians have claimed that none of the accounts are probable: They say that in the case of Pausanias, the purported motive for the crime hardly seems adequate. Furthermore they claim that implicating Alexander and Olympias in
16497-510: The same policy as he had in 359 BC). The Athenians, thus lulled, waited to see whether he would. The Athenians may also have been unable to send help to Amphipolis. During the summer months, strong northerly winds blew into the Aegean Sea, making it difficult for the Athenians to send ships north. Philip was to make repeated use of the Etesian winds, campaigning during those months (or in winter), when
16638-414: The siege of Perinthus , and in 339 BC, began another siege against the city of Byzantium . As both sieges failed, Philip's influence over Greece was compromised. He successfully reasserted his authority in the Aegean by defeating an alliance of Thebans and Athenians at the Battle of Chaeronea in 338 BC, and in the same year, destroyed Amfissa because the residents had illegally cultivated part of
16779-463: The siege of Olynthus, which, apart from its strategic position, housed his half-brothers, Arrhidaeus and Menelaus , pretenders to the Macedonian throne. Olynthus had at first allied itself with Philip, but later shifted its allegiance to Athens. The latter, however, did nothing to help the city because its expeditions were held back by a revolt in Euboea . The Macedonian king took Olynthus in 348 BC and razed
16920-420: The sixteenth book of Diodorus' history, Pausanias of Orestis had been a lover of Philip, but became jealous when Philip turned his attention to a younger man, also called Pausanias. The elder Pausanias' taunting of the new lover caused the younger Pausanias to throw away his life in battle, which turned his friend Attalus against the elder Pausanias. Attalus took his revenge by getting Pausanias of Orestis drunk at
17061-485: The sole intention of the Athenian support for Argeus was to recover Amphipolis (see below), which they hoped to do by placing Argeus on the throne. Philip therefore withdrew the Macedonian garrison from Amphipolis and declared it autonomous, to undermine the purpose of Athenian support for Argeus. The Athenian expedition, led by Mantias, still landed at Methone on the Macedonian coast, with 3,000 mercenary troops. Mantias now declined to leave Methone, so Argeus instead led
17202-470: The son of Sphynx lies; in Ionic history without peer; a Dorian born, who fled from slander's brand and made in Thuria his new native land. Yet it was in Athens where his most formidable contemporary critics could be found. In 425 BC, which is about the time that Herodotus is thought by many scholars to have died, the Athenian comic dramatist Aristophanes created The Acharnians , in which he blames
17343-454: The sons of the Macedonian nobility were included in the king's household rather than autonomous lords. Many of Philip's and Alexander's more famous generals in the years to come were from the Upper Macedonia nobility. Philip also gained the favour of the Epirotes , his southwestern neighbors, who had also been at war with the Illyrians. The following year, Philip married the niece of the Molossian king of Epirus, Myrtale , which may have brought
17484-439: The town of Krinides , which had been founded by Thasos in 360 BC. He changed the name to Philippi , after himself, and greatly increased the population. He also greatly improved the gold mines in the surrounding area, the effects of which are described by Diodorus: Turning to the gold mines in its territory, which were very scanty and insignificant, he increased their output so much by his improvements that they could bring him
17625-403: The troops to the ancient Macedonian capital of Aegae , hoping that the populace would declare him king. However, the people of Aegae showed no interest in doing so, and Argeus therefore marched back to Methone. On the way, he was attacked and defeated in battle by Philip, many of the Athenian mercenaries being slain and the rest taken captive. According to Diodorus, this victory did much to restore
17766-514: The truth in any matter in which it was remotely in his interest to lie". For instance, the Peace of Philocrates (made in 346 BC) is known primarily from their speeches (both called On the False Embassy ), made in 343 BC, when Demosthenes prosecuted Aeschines for his involvement in making the peace treaty. In his speech, Aeschines poses as the champion of the peace treaty, when he had in fact opposed making peace; conversely, Demosthenes, who had been
17907-552: The walls of Amphipolis, through the use of siege engines and battering rams; his forces then stormed and captured the city. Philip expelled those who were hostile to him but, according to Diodorus, treated the rest of the population considerately. During the siege of Amphipolis, the Chalkidian League , led by Olynthos , began to fear Philip's territorial ambitions (since Amphipolis also controlled access to Chalkidiki ), and therefore sought to ally with Athens against him. However,
18048-503: The war between Thebes and the Phocians, but his wars with Athens continued intermittently. However, Athens had made overtures for peace, and when Philip again moved south, peace was sworn in Thessaly. With key Greek city-states in submission, Philip II turned to Sparta , warning them "If I invade Laconia, I shall turn you out." The Spartans' laconic reply was one word: "If." Philip proceeded to invade Laconia, devastate much of it and eject
18189-409: The worship of the family of Alexander the Great and may have housed the cult statue of Philip. It is probable that he was regarded as a hero or deified on his death. Though the Macedonians did not consider Philip a god, he did receive other forms of recognition from the Greeks, e.g. at Eresos (altar to Zeus Philippeios), Ephesos (his statue was placed in the temple of Artemis ), and at Olympia, where
18330-547: The years up to 370 BC, Thessaly had enjoyed a brief ascendancy in the Greek world, after being unified under Jason of Pherae , who was appointed Tagus (chief magistrate) of Thessaly. However, Jason was assassinated in 370 BC, and his son Alexander became Tagus. Alexander ruled harshly, and other states of the Thessalian League therefore withdrew their support for him, resulting in a desultory conflict in which both Macedon (under Alexander II) and eventually Thebes became embroiled. This conflict eventually ended in 364 BC when
18471-511: Was a Greek historian and geographer from the Greek city of Halicarnassus , part of the Persian Empire (now Bodrum , Turkey) and a later citizen of Thurii in modern Calabria , Italy. He wrote the Histories , a detailed account of the Greco-Persian Wars , and was the first writer to apply a scientific method to historical events. He has been described as " The Father of History ",
18612-439: Was brought to pass. For since well-nigh all the people of Greece had come together and formed themselves in opposing lines, there was no one who did not suppose that if a battle were fought, those who proved victorious would be the rulers and those who were defeated would be their subjects; but the deity so ordered ... that while each party claimed to be victorious, neither was found to be any better off ... but [that] there
18753-432: Was even more confusion and disorder in Greece after the battle than before. The years of conflict which resulted from the Theban attempts to reorganise Greece had left much of the country war-weary and exhausted; a general peace (excluding only a recalcitrant Sparta) was therefore concluded between all the states of Greece in the aftermath of Mantinea. With the death of Epaminondas and significant loss of manpower at Mantinea,
18894-593: Was in another of its periodic crises. The nominal heir of Perdiccas, his son Amyntas IV , was at this time still an infant. Philip, the oldest surviving son of Amyntas III , was the obvious candidate to rule Macedon and was acclaimed by the army, probably as king. It is also possible that he was initially acclaimed as regent for his nephew Amyntas IV, and later usurped the throne, although if so, he did not harm Amyntas. Either way, Philip II became king by 359 BC, and began energetically attempting to save Macedon from destruction. Philip's first priorities were to reconstruct
19035-464: Was partially responsible for engineering the peace treaty, delivered a series of speeches encouraging his fellow Athenians to oppose Philip II. The Macedonian hegemony over Greece was secured by their victory over a Greek coalition army led by Athens and Thebes, at the Battle of Chaeronea in 338 BC. In the aftermath the federation of Greek states known as the League of Corinth was established, which brought these former Greek adversaries and others into
19176-418: Was responsible for reforming the ancient Macedonian army into an effective fighting force. The Macedonian phalanx became the hallmark of the Macedonian army during his reign and the subsequent Hellenistic period . His army and engineers also made extensive use of siege engines . Chief among Philip's Thracian enemies was the ruler Kersebleptes , who may have coordinated a temporary alliance with Athens . In
19317-426: Was suddenly approached by Pausanias of Orestis , one of his seven bodyguards, and was stabbed in his ribs. After Philip was killed, the assassin immediately tried to escape and reach his getaway associates, who were waiting for him with horses at the entrance to Aegae. The assassin was pursued by three of Philip's other bodyguards, and during the chase, his horse tripped on a vine. He was subsequently stabbed to death by
19458-407: Was thrown or put into Tomb I after this had been looted, and probably between 276/5 and 250 BC. Besides this, the theory that Tomb I belonged to Philip II had previously been shown to be false. More recent research gives further evidence that Tomb II contains the remains of Philip II. The heroon at Vergina in Macedonia (the ancient city of Aegae – Αἰγαί) is thought to have been dedicated to
19599-409: Was thus, in the long term, a very significant event in Philip's rise to power. Among its effects, it is noteworthy that Philip pioneered the use of archers (both mercenary Cretan archers and locally trained Macedonians) and siege engineers in the Macedonia army. Those army corps were expensive but critical for the takeover of fortified cities. Before 350 BC, Philip was already in use of them, changing
19740-416: Was to illustrate moral lessons from history; his account of the period therefore contains many gaps. Another surviving work for the period is Justin 's epitome of Pompeius Trogus 's Philippic History . Justin's epitomised history is also much condensed from the no-longer-extant original and covers not only Philip's reign, but also the history of Macedon before him, the exploits of Philip's son, Alexander
19881-463: Was to secure Macedon's eastern flank, which bordered Thrace, and in particular the city of Amphipolis. Amphipolis was a major strategic point, situated on the Strymon River , where it controlled the only crossing point on the lower reaches of the river, and therefore access to and from Thrace. Eastwards expansion of his kingdom therefore required that Philip control Amphipolis. The Athenians had founded
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