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87-524: Olszewski ( feminine Olszewska , plural Olszewscy , alternative Olszowski ) is a Polish surname . The Russian-language version is Olshevsky , feminine: Olshevskaya . The Lithuanian language forms are Olšauskas and Alšauskas , feminine: Olšauskienė/Alšauskienė (married), and Olšauskaitė/Alšauskaitė (unmarried). Belarusian form: Альшэўскі (Alsheuski or Alshewski). Origin could be derived from Polish word olsza or olcha, which means alder tree. Feminine Femininity (also called womanliness )
174-598: A character that was a symbol of sexual ambiguity when he launched the album The Rise and Fall of Ziggy Stardust and Spiders from Mars . Marc Bolan , the other pioneer of glam rock , performed on the BBC's Top of the Pops in 1971 wearing glitter and satins, with The Independent stating his appearance "permitted a generation of teeny-boppers to begin playing with the idea of androgyny". The 1973 West End musical The Rocky Horror Show also depicted sexual fluidity. Continuing into
261-431: A chic bob, which gave women an androgynous look. Coco Chanel, who had a love for wearing trousers herself, created trouser designs for women such as beach pajamas and horse-riding attire. During the 1930s, glamorous actresses such as Marlene Dietrich fascinated and shocked many with their strong desire to wear trousers and adopt the androgynous style. Dietrich is remembered as one of the first actresses to wear trousers in
348-444: A culture or relationship is androgynous is to say that it lacks rigid gender roles , or has blurred lines between gender roles. The word genderqueer is often used by androgynous individuals to refer to themselves, but the terms genderqueer and androgynous are neither equivalent nor interchangeable. Genderqueer , by virtue of its ties with queer culture, carries sociopolitical connotations that androgyny does not carry. For
435-465: A display of frailty, fear and incompetence". Scientific efforts to measure femininity and masculinity were pioneered by psychologists Lewis Terman and Catherine Cox Miles in the 1930s. Their M–F model was adopted by other researchers and psychologists. The model posited that femininity and masculinity were innate and enduring qualities, not easily measured, opposite to one another, and that imbalances between them led to mental disorders. Alongside
522-523: A few parts of Africa and Asia, neck rings are worn in order to elongate the neck. In these cultures, a long neck characterizes feminine beauty. The Padaung of Burma and Tutsi women of Burundi , for instance, practice this form of body modification. Femininity as a social construct relies on a binary gender system that treats men and masculinity as different from, and opposite to, women and femininity. In patriarchal societies, including Western ones, conventional attitudes to femininity contribute to
609-672: A male form of dress, frowned upon for women. However, during the 19th century, female spies were introduced and Vivandières wore a certain uniform with a dress over trousers. Women activists during that time would also decide to wear trousers, for example Luisa Capetillo , a women's rights activist and the first woman in Puerto Rico to wear trousers in public. In the 20th century, starting around World War I traditional gender roles blurred and fashion pioneers such as Paul Poiret and Coco Chanel introduced trousers to women's fashion. The "flapper style" for women of this era included trousers and
696-687: A masculine culture and have a higher salary. Leadership is associated with masculinity in Western culture and women are perceived less favorably as potential leaders. However, some people have argued that feminine-style leadership, which is associated with leadership that focuses on help and cooperation, is advantageous over masculine leadership, which is associated with focusing on tasks and control. Female leaders are more often described by Western media using characteristics associated with femininity, such as emotion. Psychologist Deborah L. Best argues that primary sex characteristics of men and women, such as
783-435: A more attractive physical appearance. Occupational roles associated with these stereotypes include: midwife , teacher , accountant , data entry clerk , cashier , salesperson, receptionist , housekeeper , cook , maid , social worker , and nurse . Occupational segregation maintains gender inequality and the gender pay gap . Certain medical specializations, such as surgery and emergency medicine , are dominated by
870-424: A perfect merging of the sexes that predated the current corrupted world and/or was the utopia of the next – is also important in some strains of Rosicrucianism and in philosophical traditions such as Swedenborgianism and Theosophy . Twentieth century architect Claude Fayette Bragdon expressed the concept mathematically as a magic square , using it as building block in many of his most noted buildings . In
957-460: A person's gender identity can develop as early as three years of age. Money also argued that gender identity is formed during a child's first three years. People who exhibit a combination of both masculine and feminine characteristics are considered androgynous , and feminist philosophers have argued that gender ambiguity may blur gender classification. Modern conceptualizations of femininity also rely not just upon social constructions, but upon
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#17328525088651044-525: A personal basis rather than on the basis of masculinity, femininity, or androgyny. In agenderism , the division of people into women and men (in the psychical sense), is considered erroneous and artificial. Agendered individuals are those who reject gender labeling in conception of self-identity and other matters. They see their subjectivity through the term person instead of woman or man . According to E. O. Wright, genderless people can have traits, behaviors and dispositions that correspond to what
1131-545: A population of undergrad students. Similar to the BSRI, the PAQ labeled androgynous individuals as people who ranked highly in both the areas of masculinity and femininity. However, Spence and Helmreich considered androgyny to be a descriptor of high levels of masculinity and femininity as opposed to a category in and of itself. Historically, the word androgynous was applied to humans with a mixture of male and female sex characteristics, and
1218-542: A premiere. Throughout the 1960s and 1970s, the women's liberation movement is likely to have contributed to ideas and influenced fashion designers, such as Yves Saint Laurent . Yves Saint Laurent designed the Le Smoking suit and introduced it in 1966, while Helmut Newton 's erotized androgynous photographs of the suit made it iconic and a classic. Elvis Presley introduced an androgynous style in rock'n'roll. His pretty face and use of eye makeup often made people think he
1305-553: A single immortal – provided a frame of reference used in Western culture for centuries. Androgyny and homosexuality are also seen in Plato's Symposium , in a myth where humanity started as three sexes: male-male people that descended from the sun, female-female people who descended from Earth, and male-female people who came from the Moon. This is one of the earlier written references to androgyny - and
1392-452: A single individual, with fully developed sexual organs of both sexes, also called hermaphrodites. It also refers to intersex people, who are born with congenital variations that complicate assigning their sex at birth , but do not have fully developed sexual organs of both sexes. The term derives from Ancient Greek : ἀνδρόγυνος , from ἀνήρ , stem ἀνδρ - ( anér, andro- , meaning man) and γυνή ( gunē, gyné , meaning woman) through
1479-652: A smaller proportion, in the male half. The yin can be characterized as slow, soft, yielding, diffuse, cold, wet, and passive. Although the Abrahamic God is typically described in masculine terms—such as father or king —many theologians argue that this is not meant to indicate the gender of God . According to the Catechism of the Catholic Church , God "is neither man nor woman: he is God". Several recent writers, such as feminist theologian Sallie McFague , have explored
1566-680: A society, and rather focus on what behavior is most effective within the situational circumstance. Some non-Western cultures recognize additional androgynous gender identities, called third genders . Gender expression that includes a mixture of masculine and feminine characteristics can be described as androgynous. The categories of masculine and feminine in gender expression are socially constructed , and rely on shared conceptions of clothing, behavior, communication style, and other aspects of presentation. In some cultures, androgynous gender expression has been celebrated, while in others, androgynous expression has been limited or suppressed. To say that
1653-632: A t-shirt saying "Gender is Over," a riff on the John Lennon and Yoko Ono "War is Over" poster. Singer Billie Eilish has also openly called gender roles "ancient." Since her musical debut in 2016, Eilish has worn both traditionally masculine and feminine silhouettes, wearing a Marilyn Monroe inspired Oscar de la Renta gown to the Met Gala in 2021 to being referred to as a "hey mamas" lesbian after an appearance on Chicken Shop Date in 2024 where she wore an oversized tee, bandana, and backwards cap. In
1740-406: A world which is sometimes hostile to them. Androgyny Androgyny is the possession of both masculine and feminine characteristics. Androgyny may be expressed with regard to biological sex or gender expression . When androgyny refers to mixed biological sex characteristics in humans, it often refers to conditions in which characteristics of both sexes are clearly expressed in
1827-490: Is a man who wears flamboyant women's clothing and behaves in an exaggeratedly feminine manner for entertainment purposes. Feminist philosophers such as Judith Butler and Simone de Beauvoir contend that femininity and masculinity are created through repeated performances of gender; these performances reproduce and define the traditional categories of sex and/or gender. Many second-wave feminists reject what they regard as constricting standards of female beauty, created for
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#17328525088651914-423: Is a set of attributes, behaviors, and roles generally associated with women and girls . Femininity can be understood as socially constructed , and there is also some evidence that some behaviors considered feminine are influenced by both cultural factors and biological factors. To what extent femininity is biologically or socially influenced is subject to debate. It is conceptually distinct from both
2001-894: Is an individual who has a high degree of both feminine (expressive) and masculine (instrumental) traits. A feminine individual is ranked high on feminine (expressive) traits and ranked low on masculine (instrumental) traits. A masculine individual is ranked high on instrumental traits and ranked low on expressive traits. An undifferentiated person is low on both feminine and masculine traits. According to Sandra Bem, androgynous individuals are more flexible and more mentally healthy than either masculine or feminine individuals; undifferentiated individuals are less competent. More recent research has debunked this idea, at least to some extent, and Bem herself has found weaknesses in her original pioneering work. Now she prefers to work with gender schema theory . One study found that masculine and androgynous individuals had higher expectations for being able to control
2088-416: Is androgynous may engage freely in what is seen as masculine or feminine behaviors as well as tasks. They may have a balanced identity that includes the virtues of both men and women and may disassociate the task with what gender they may be socially or physically assigned to. People who identify as androgynous typically disregard which traits are culturally constructed specifically for males and females within
2175-934: Is consistent with the idea that maleness is more valued in contemporary culture than femaleness, whereas men being willing to give up masculinity in favour of femininity directly threatens the notion of male superiority as well as the idea that men and women should be opposites. To support her thesis, Serano cites the far greater public scrutiny and disdain experienced by male-to-female cross-dressers compared with that faced by women who dress in masculine clothes, as well as research showing that parents are likelier to respond negatively to sons who like Barbie dolls and ballet or wear nail polish than they are to daughters exhibiting comparably masculine behaviours. Serano notes that some behaviors, such as frequent smiling or avoiding eye contact with strangers, are considered feminine because they are practised disproportionately by women, and likely have resulted from women's attempts to negotiate through
2262-552: Is currently viewed as feminine and masculine, and the mix of these would vary across persons. Nevertheless, it does not suggest that everyone would be androgynous in their identities and practices in the absence of gendered relations. What disappears in the idea of genderlessness is any expectation that some characteristics and dispositions are strictly attributed to a person of any biological sex. Throughout most of twentieth century Western history, social rules have restricted people's dress according to gender. Trousers were traditionally
2349-886: Is described as feminine. In many books of the Old Testament, including Wisdom and Sirach , wisdom is personified and called she . According to David Winston, because wisdom is God's "creative agent," she must be intimately identified with God. The Wisdom of God is feminine in Hebrew : Chokmah , in Arabic : Hikmah , in Greek : Sophia , and in Latin : Sapientia . In Hebrew , both Shekhinah (the Holy Spirit and divine presence of God) and Ruach HaKodesh (divine inspiration) are feminine. In Christian Kabbalah , Chokmah (wisdom and intuition)
2436-404: Is described as transforming men into women. The 2nd century CE Mishnah , a foundational text of Rabbinic Judaism , mentions the term androgynos 32 times. In one mention, Rabbi Meir describes the androgynos as "a creation of its own type, which the sages could not decide whether is male or female". The ancient Greek myth of Hermaphroditus and Salmacis , two divinities who fused into
2523-487: Is no fine underwear, no pantyhose, no nice lingerie[']" and "Sometimes I think the real Iron Curtain is made of silky, shiny images of pretty women dressed in wonderful clothes, of pictures from women's magazines ... The images that cross the borders in magazines, movies or videos are therefore more dangerous than any secret weapon, because they make one desire that 'otherness' badly enough to risk one's life trying to escape." As communist countries such as Romania and
2610-428: Is normally associated with their given sex. Due to the possession of both masculine and feminine characteristics, androgynous individuals have access to a wider array of psychological competencies in regards to emotional regulation, communication styles, and situational adaptability. Androgynous individuals have also been associated with higher levels of creativity and mental health. The Bem Sex-Role Inventory (BSRI)
2697-547: Is not necessarily related to a man's sexual orientation. Because men are pressured to be masculine and heterosexual, feminine men are assumed to be gay or queer because of how they perform their gender. This assumption limits the way one is allowed to express one's gender and sexuality. Cross-dressing and drag are two public performances of femininity by men that have been popularly known and understood throughout many western cultures. Men who wear clothing associated with femininity are often called cross-dressers. A drag queen
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2784-897: Is related to women's and girls' sexual appeal to men and boys. Femininity is sometimes linked with sexual objectification . Sexual passiveness, or sexual receptivity, is sometimes considered feminine while sexual assertiveness and sexual desire are sometimes considered masculine. Scholars have debated the extent to which gender identity and gender-specific behaviors are due to socialization versus biological factors. Social and biological influences are thought to be mutually interacting during development. Studies of prenatal androgen exposure have provided some evidence that femininity and masculinity are partly biologically determined. Other possible biological influences include evolution , genetics , epigenetics , and hormones (both during development and in adulthood). In 1959, researchers such as John Money and Anke Ehrhardt proposed
2871-466: Is the deliberate altering of the human body for aesthetic or non-medical purpose. One such purpose has been to induce perceived feminine characteristics in women. For centuries in Imperial China , smaller feet were considered to be a more aristocratic characteristic in women. The practice of foot binding was intended to enhance this characteristic, though it made walking difficult and painful. In
2958-457: Is the force in the creative process that God used to create the heavens and the earth. Binah (understanding and perception) is the great mother, the feminine receiver of energy and giver of form. Binah receives the intuitive insight from Chokmah and dwells on it in the same way that a mother receives the seed from the father, and keeps it within her until it's time to give birth. The intuition, once received and contemplated with perception, leads to
3045-949: Is the result of how females must behave in order to maintain a patriarchal social system . In his 1998 book Masculinity and Femininity: the Taboo Dimension of National Cultures , Dutch psychologist and researcher Geert Hofstede wrote that only behaviors directly connected with procreation can, strictly speaking, be described as feminine or masculine, and yet every society worldwide recognizes many additional behaviors as more suitable to females than males, and vice versa. He describes these as relatively arbitrary choices mediated by cultural norms and traditions, identifying "masculinity versus femininity" as one of five basic dimensions in his theory of cultural dimensions . Hofstede describes as feminine behaviors including service, permissiveness, and benevolence, and describes as feminine those countries stressing equality, solidarity, quality of work-life , and
3132-599: The Latin : androgynus . Androgyny is attested from earliest history and across world cultures. In ancient Sumer , androgynous and intersex men were heavily involved in the cult of Inanna . A set of priests known as gala worked in Inanna's temples, where they performed elegies and lamentations. Gala took female names, spoke in the eme-sal dialect, which was traditionally reserved for women, and appear to have engaged in sexual acts with men . In later Mesopotamian cultures, kurgarrū and assinnu were servants of
3219-623: The Soviet Union began to liberalize, their official media began representing women in more conventionally feminine ways compared with the "rotund farm workers and plain-Jane factory hand" depictions they had previously been publishing. As perfumes, cosmetics, fashionable clothing, and footwear became available to ordinary women in the Soviet Union, East Germany , Poland, Yugoslavia and Hungary , they began to be presented not as bourgeois frivolities but as signs of socialist modernity. In China, with
3306-504: The creation of the Universe . Communist revolutionaries initially depicted idealized womanhood as muscular, plainly dressed and strong, with good female communists shown as undertaking hard manual labour, using guns, and eschewing self-adornment. Contemporary Western journalists portrayed communist states as the enemy of traditional femininity, describing women in communist countries as "mannish" perversions. In revolutionary China in
3393-414: The female biological sex and from womanhood, as all humans can exhibit feminine and masculine traits, regardless of sex and gender . Traits traditionally cited as feminine include gracefulness, gentleness , empathy , humility , and sensitivity , though traits associated with femininity vary across societies and individuals, and are influenced by a variety of social and cultural factors. Despite
3480-798: The neuter gender , lately started up among us. It is called a macaroni." An example is portrait artist Richard Cosway , referred to as "the Macaroni artist." In psychological study, various measures have been used to characterize gender, such as the Bem Sex Role Inventory and the Personal Attributes Questionnaire . Masculine traits are categorized as agentic and instrumental, dealing with assertiveness and analytical skill. Feminine traits are categorized as communal and expressive, dealing with empathy and subjectivity. Androgynous individuals exhibit behavior that extends beyond what
3567-451: The planet Mercury and the botanical sign for hermaphrodite. That sign is now sometimes used for transgender people. Another common androgyny icon in the medieval and early modern period was the Rebis , a conjoined male and female figure, often with solar and lunar motifs. Still another symbol was what is today called sun cross , which united the cross (or saltire ) symbol for male with
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3654-643: The women's movement of the 1970s, researchers began to move away from the M–F model, developing an interest in androgyny . The Bem Sex Role Inventory and the Personal Attributes Questionnaire were developed to measure femininity and masculinity on separate scales. Using such tests, researchers found that the two dimensions varied independently of one another, casting doubt on the earlier view of femininity and masculinity as opposing qualities. Second-wave feminists , influenced by de Beauvoir, believed that although biological differences between females and males were innate,
3741-426: The "androgynous" look, with several current celebrities being hailed as creative trendsetters. The rise of the metrosexual in the first decade of the 2000s has also been described as a related phenomenon associated with this trend. Traditional gender stereotypes have been challenged and changed since the 1960s, which included the hippie movement and flower power . Artists in film such as Leonardo DiCaprio sported
3828-429: The "skinny" look in the 1990s, a departure from traditional masculinity, which resulted in the fad "Leo Mania". Musical stars such as Kurt Cobain of Nirvana , Andre 3000 , and the band Placebo have used clothing and makeup to popularize androgynous and genderqueer aesthetics throughout the 1990s and the first decade of the 2000s. While the 1990s unrolled and fashion developed an affinity for unisex clothes, there
3915-742: The 1300s. Women in the Early Middle Ages were referred to simply within their traditional roles of maiden , wife , or widow . After the Black Death in England wiped out approximately half the population, traditional gender roles of wife and mother changed, and opportunities opened up for women in society. The words femininity and womanhood are first recorded in Chaucer around 1380. In 1949, French intellectual Simone de Beauvoir wrote that "no biological, psychological or economic fate determines
4002-472: The 1950s, Western journalists described Chinese women as "drably dressed, usually in sloppy slacks and without makeup, hair waves or nail polish " and wrote that "Glamour was communism's earliest victim in China. You can stroll the cheerless streets of Peking all day, without seeing a skirt or a sign of lipstick; without thrilling to the faintest breath of perfume; without hearing the click of high heels, or catching
4089-402: The 1980s, as seen in the work of Yohji Yamamoto and Rei Kawakubo , who brought in a distinct Japanese style that adopted distinctively gender ambiguous theme. These two designers consider themselves a part of the avant-garde, reinvigorating Japanism. Yamamoto has expressed the lack of necessity behind gender distinctions, stating "I always wonder who decided that there should be a difference in
4176-406: The 1980s, the rise of avant-garde fashion designers like Yohji Yamamoto , challenged the social constructs around gender. They reinvigorated androgyny in fashion, addressing gender issues. This was also reflected within pop culture icons during the 1980s, such as Grace Jones , Prince , Annie Lennox and Boy George . Power dressing for women became even more prominent within the 1980s which
4263-523: The ability to bear children, caused a historical sexual division of labor and that gender stereotypes evolved culturally to perpetuate this division. The practice of bearing children tends to interrupt the continuity of employment. According to human capital theory, this retracts from the female investment in higher education and employment training. Richard Anker of the International Labour Office argues human capital theory does not explain
4350-428: The ancient and medieval worlds, androgynous people and/or hermaphrodites were represented in art by the caduceus , a wand of transformative power in ancient Greco-Roman mythology. The caduceus was created by Tiresias and represents his transformation into a woman by Juno in punishment for striking at mating snakes. The caduceus was later carried by Hermes / Mercury and was the basis for the astronomical symbol for
4437-653: The appearance of secondary sex characteristics. An individual's gender identity, a personal sense of one's own gender, may be described as androgynous if they feel that they have both masculine and feminine aspects. The word androgyne can refer to a person who does not fit neatly into one of the typical masculine or feminine gender roles of their society, or to a person whose gender is a mixture of male and female, not necessarily half-and-half. Many androgynous individuals identify as being mentally or emotionally both masculine and feminine. They may also identify as " gender-neutral ", " genderqueer ", or " non-binary ". A person who
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#17328525088654524-471: The ascension of power dressing as a popular style for women. Women begin to find through fashion they can incite men to pay more attention to the seduction of their mental prowess rather, than the physical attraction of their appearance. This influence in the fashion world quickly makes its way to the world of film, with movies like "Working Girl" using power dressing women as their main subject matter. Japanese designers began popularizing androgynous fashion in
4611-418: The association with homosexuality , some androgynes may find the label genderqueer inaccurate, inapplicable, or offensive. Androgyneity is considered by some to be a viable alternative to androgyn for differentiating internal (psychological) factors from external (visual) factors. An alternative to androgyny is gender-role transcendence : the view that individual competence should be conceptualized on
4698-443: The clothes of men and women" Also during the 1980s, Grace Jones , a singer and fashion model, gender-thwarted appearance in the 1980s, which startled the public. Her androgynous style inspired many and she became an androgynous style icon for modern celebrities. Androgyny has been gaining more prominence in popular culture in the early 21st century. Both the fashion industry and pop culture have accepted and even popularized
4785-438: The concepts of femininity and masculinity had been culturally constructed, with traits such as passivity and tenderness assigned to women and aggression and intelligence assigned to men. Girls, second-wave feminists said, were then socialized with toys, games, television, and school into conforming to feminine values and behaviors. In her significant 1963 book The Feminine Mystique , American feminist Betty Friedan wrote that
4872-533: The earliest known shamans were female, and contemporary shamanic roles such as the Korean mudang continue to be filled primarily by women. In Hindu traditions, Devi is the female aspect of the divine. Shakti is the divine feminine creative power, the sacred force that moves through the entire universe and the agent of change. She is the female counterpart without whom the male aspect, which represents consciousness or discrimination, remains impotent and void. As
4959-466: The economic liberation started by Deng Xiaoping in the 1980s, the state stopped discouraging women from expressing conventional femininity, and gender stereotypes and commercialized sexualization of women which had been suppressed under communist ideology began to rise. In many cultures, men who display qualities considered feminine are often stigmatized and labeled as weak. Effeminate men are often associated with homosexuality , although femininity
5046-502: The empirical evidence that gender discrimination exists in areas traditionally associated with one gender or the other. It is sometimes used to explain why people have a tendency to evaluate behavior that fulfills the prescriptions of a leader role less favorably when it is enacted by a woman. Shamanism may have originated as early as the Paleolithic period, predating all organized religions. Archeological finds have suggested that
5133-402: The fashion industry. The 21st century additionally saw global conversations around gender identity which helped further the presence of androgyny in fashion. In the mid-2010s, online searches for the word "nonbinary" skyrocketed, and young people began to see themselves as nonbinary or gender nonconforming. Actor Lachlan Watson , who uses they/them pronouns, posted a photo on Instagram wearing
5220-453: The female manifestation of the supreme lord, she is also called Prakriti , the basic nature of intelligence by which the Universe exists and functions. In Hinduism , the universal creative force Yoni is feminine , with inspiration being the life force of creation. In Taoism , the concept of yin represents the primary force of the female half of yin and yang . The yin is also present, to
5307-546: The feminine principle (Luna) producing the "Divine Androgyne," a representation of alchemical Hermetic beliefs in dualism, transformation, and the transcendental perfection of the union of opposites. The symbolism and meaning of androgyny was a central preoccupation of the German mystic Jakob Böhme and the Swedish philosopher Emanuel Swedenborg . The philosophical concept of the "Universal Androgyne" (or "Universal Hermaphrodite") –
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#17328525088655394-641: The figure that the human female presents in society" and "one is not born, but rather becomes, a woman". The idea was picked up in 1959 by Canadian-American sociologist Erving Goffman and in 1990 by American philosopher Judith Butler , who theorized that gender is not fixed or inherent but is rather a socially defined set of practices and traits that have, over time, grown to become labelled as feminine or masculine. Goffman argued that women are socialized to present themselves as "precious, ornamental and fragile, uninstructed in and ill-suited for anything requiring muscular exertion" and to project "shyness, reserve and
5481-1243: The glint of legs sheathed in nylon." In communist Poland , changing from high heels to worker's boots symbolized women's shift from the bourgeois to socialism ." Later, the initial state portrayals of idealized femininity as strong and hard-working began to also include more traditional notions such as gentleness, caring and nurturing behaviour, softness, modesty and moral virtue, requiring good communist women to become "superheroes who excelled in all spheres", including working at jobs not traditionally regarded as feminine in nature. Communist ideology explicitly rejected some aspects of traditional femininity that it viewed as bourgeois and consumerist, such as helplessness, idleness and self-adornment. In Communist countries, some women resented not having access to cosmetics and fashionable clothes. In her 1993 book of essays How We Survived Communism & Even Laughed , Croatian journalist and novelist Slavenka Drakulic wrote about "a complaint I heard repeatedly from women in Warsaw, Budapest, Prague, Sofia, East Berlin: 'Look at us – we don't even look like women. There are no deodorants, perfumes, sometimes even no soap or toothpaste. There
5568-467: The goddess Ishtar (Inanna's East Semitic equivalent), who dressed in female clothing and performed war dances in Ishtar's temples. Several Akkadian proverbs seem to suggest that they may have also engaged in sexual activity with men. Gwendolyn Leick, an anthropologist known for her writings on Mesopotamia, has compared these individuals to the contemporary Indian hijra . In one Akkadian hymn, Ishtar
5655-455: The idea of "God as mother", examining the feminine qualities attributed to God. For example, in the Book of Isaiah , God is compared to a mother comforting her child, while in the Book of Deuteronomy , God is said to have given birth to Israel. The Book of Genesis describes the divine creation of the world out of nothing or ex nihilo . In Wisdom literature and in the wisdom tradition , wisdom
5742-404: The individualized choices made by women. Philosopher Mary Vetterling-Braggin argues that all characteristics associated with femininity arose from early human sexual encounters which were mainly male-forced and female-unwilling, because of male and female anatomical differences. Others, such as Carole Pateman , Ria Kloppenborg, and Wouter J. Hanegraaff , argue that the definition of femininity
5829-701: The key to women's subjugation lay in the social construction of femininity as childlike, passive, and dependent, and called for a "drastic reshaping of the cultural image of femininity." Traits such as nurturance, sensitivity, sweetness, supportiveness, gentleness, warmth, passivity, cooperativeness, expressiveness, modesty, humility, empathy, affection, tenderness, and being emotional, kind, helpful, devoted, and understanding have been cited as stereotypically feminine. The defining characteristics of femininity vary between and even within societies. The relationship between feminine socialization and heterosexual relationships has been studied by scholars, as femininity
5916-446: The male, it finds expression as a feminine inner personality: anima; equivalently, in the unconscious of the female, it is expressed as a masculine inner personality: animus. In Western cultures, the ideal of feminine appearance has traditionally included long, flowing hair, clear skin, a narrow waist, and little or no body hair or facial hair. In other cultures, however, some expectations are different. For example, in many parts of
6003-459: The mid-18th century, the macaronis of Georgian-era England were a wealthy subculture of young men, known for androgynous gender expression . Their unusually large wigs , lavish fashion , and sentimental behavior prompted backlash from conservative generations of the time. In 1770, the Oxford Dictionary declared, "There is indeed a kind of animal, neither male nor female, a thing of
6090-694: The modern feminine ideal of thinness. In many Muslim countries, women are required to cover their heads with a hijab (veil). It is considered a symbol of feminine modesty and morality. Some, however, see it as a symbol of objectification and oppression. Cultural standards vary on what is considered feminine. For example, in 16th century France, high heels were considered a distinctly masculine type of shoe, though they are currently considered feminine. In Ancient Egypt , sheath and beaded net dresses were considered female clothing, while wraparound dresses, perfumes , cosmetics, and elaborate jewelry were worn by both men and women. In Ancient Persia , clothing
6177-554: The only case in classical Greek texts that female homosexuality (lesbianism) is ever mentioned. Philosophers such as Philo of Alexandria , and early Christian leaders such as Origen and Gregory of Nyssa , continued to promote the idea of androgyny as humans' original and perfect state during late antiquity ." In medieval Europe , the concept of androgyny played an important role in both Christian theological debate and alchemical theory. Influential theologians such as John of Damascus and John Scotus Eriugena continued to promote
6264-517: The outcomes of their academic efforts than feminine or undifferentiated individuals. The Personal Attributes Questionnaire (PAQ) was developed in the 70s by Janet Spence, Robert Helmreich, and Joy Stapp. This test asked subjects to complete a survey consisting of three sets of scales relating to masculinity, femininity, and masculinity-femininity. These scales had sets of adjectives commonly associated with males, females, and both. These descriptors were chosen based on typical characteristics as rated by
6351-488: The pre-fall androgyny proposed by the early Church Fathers , while other clergy expounded and debated the proper view and treatment of contemporary hermaphrodites. Western esotericism 's embrace of androgyny continued into the modern period . A 1550 anthology of alchemical thought, De Alchemia , included the influential Rosary of the Philosophers , which depicts the sacred marriage of the masculine principle (Sol) with
6438-563: The prenatal hormone theory. Their research argues that sexual organs bathe the embryo with hormones in the womb, resulting in the birth of an individual with a distinctively male or female brain; this was suggested by some to "predict future behavioral development in a masculine or feminine direction". This theory, however, has been criticized on theoretical and empirical grounds and remains controversial. In 2005, scientific research investigating sex differences in psychology showed that gender expectations and stereotype threat affect behavior, and
6525-400: The resolution of conflicts by compromise and negotiation. In Carl Jung 's school of analytical psychology , the anima and animus are the two primary anthropomorphic archetypes of the unconscious mind. The anima and animus are described by Jung as elements of his theory of the collective unconscious , a domain of the unconscious that transcends the personal psyche. In the unconscious of
6612-458: The sexual division of labor because many occupations tied to feminine roles, such as administrative assistance, require more knowledge, experience, and continuity of employment than low-skilled masculinized occupations, such as truck driving . Anker argues the feminization of certain occupations limits employment options for women. Role congruity theory proposes that people tend to view deviations from expected gender roles negatively. It supports
6699-630: The subordination and objectifying of women and self-perpetuated by reproductive competition and women's own aesthetics. Others, such as lipstick feminists and some other third-wave feminists , argue that feminism should not devalue feminine culture and identity, and that symbols of feminine identity such as make-up, suggestive clothing and having a sexual allure can be valid and empowering personal choices for both sexes. Julia Serano notes that masculine girls and women face much less social disapproval than feminine boys and men, which she attributes to sexism. Serano argues that women wanting to be like men
6786-425: The subordination of women, as women are seen as more compliant, vulnerable, and less prone to violence. Gender stereotypes influence traditional feminine occupations, resulting in microaggression toward women who break traditional gender roles. These stereotypes include that women have a caring nature, have skill at household-related work, have greater manual dexterity than men, are more honest than men, and have
6873-458: The terms femininity and masculinity being in common usage, there is little scientific agreement about what femininity and masculinity are. Among scholars, the concept of femininity has varying meanings. Professor of English Tara Williams has suggested that modern notions of femininity in English-speaking society began during the medieval period at the time of the bubonic plague in
6960-408: The word androgynous is rarely used to formally describe mixed biological sex characteristics in humans. In modern English, the word intersex is used to more precisely describe individuals with mixed or ambiguous sex characteristics. However, both intersex and non-intersex people can exhibit a mixture of male and female sex traits such as hormone levels, type of internal and external genitalia, and
7047-425: The world, underarm hair is not considered unfeminine. Today, the color pink is strongly associated with femininity, whereas in the early 1900s pink was associated with boys and blue with girls. These feminine ideals of beauty have been criticized as restrictive, unhealthy, and even racist. In particular, the prevalence of anorexia and other eating disorders in Western countries has frequently been blamed on
7134-635: Was a rather " effeminate guy", When the Rolling Stones played London's Hyde Park in 1969, Mick Jagger wore a white "man's dress" designed by Michael Fish . Fish was the most fashionable shirt-maker in London, the inventor of the Kipper tie , and a principal taste-maker of the peacock revolution in men's fashion. His creation for Mick Jagger was considered to be the epitome of the swinging 60s . In 1972, David Bowie presented his alter ego Ziggy Stardust ,
7221-547: Was a rise of designers who favored that look, including Helmut Lang , Giorgio Armani , and Pierre Cardin . Men in catalogues started wearing jewellery , make up , visual kei , and designer stubble. These styles have become a significant mainstream trend of the 21st century, both in the Western world and in Asia. Japanese and Korean cultures have featured the androgynous look as a positive attribute in society, as depicted in both K-pop , J-pop , in anime and manga , as well as
7308-497: Was constructed by the early leading proponent of androgyny, Sandra Bem (1977). The BSRI is one of the most widely used gender measures. Based on an individual's responses to the items in the BSRI, they are classified as having one of four gender role orientations: masculine, feminine, androgynous, or undifferentiated. Bem understood that both masculine and feminine characteristics could be expressed by anyone and it would determine those gender role orientations. An androgynous person
7395-575: Was generally unisex , though women wore veils and headscarves . Women in Ancient Greece wore himations ; and in Ancient Rome women wore the palla , a rectangular mantle, and the maphorion. The typical feminine outfit of aristocratic women of the Renaissance was an undershirt with a gown and a high-waisted overgown, and a plucked forehead and beehive or turban-style hairdo. Body alteration
7482-430: Was previously only something done by men in order to look structured and powerful. However, during the 1980s this began to take a turn as women were entering jobs with equal roles to the men. In the article "The Menswear Phenomenon" by Kathleen Beckett written for Vogue in 1984 the concept of power dressing is explored as women entered these jobs they had no choice but to tailor their wardrobes accordingly, eventually leading
7569-513: Was sometimes used synonymously with the term hermaphrodite . In some disciplines, such as botany, androgynous and hermaphroditic are still used interchangeably. When androgyny is used to refer to physical traits, it often refers to a person whose biological sex is difficult to discern at a glance because of their mixture of male and female characteristics. Because androgyny encompasses additional meanings related to gender identity and gender expression that are distinct from biological sex, today
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