141-599: Old Dutch Church can refer to two buildings in the Hudson Valley region of the U.S. state of New York, both designated National Historic Landmarks: Old Dutch Church (Kingston, New York) , formally known as the First Protestant Dutch Reformed Church of Kingston Old Dutch Church of Sleepy Hollow Topics referred to by the same term [REDACTED] This disambiguation page lists articles associated with
282-558: A .32-caliber Iver Johnson revolver. He had as yet no clear plan for the assassination of the President. The following day, William and Ida McKinley arrived in Buffalo by train. The cannon that fired a salute to the President on his arrival in the city had been set too close to the track, and the explosions blew out several windows in the train, unnerving the First Lady. About a dozen people on
423-410: A brief introduction by Milburn, began to speak. In his final speech, McKinley urged an end to American isolationism . He proposed trade arrangements which would allow U.S. manufacturers new markets. "The period of exclusiveness is past. The expansion of our trade and commerce is the pressing problem. Commercial wars are unprofitable." The crowd greeted his speech with loud applause; at its conclusion,
564-456: A broad aisle, running from the east doors through which the public would be admitted, to where McKinley would stand. Once members of the public shook hands with McKinley, they would continue on to exit the building. An American flag was draped behind the President, both to screen him from behind and for decoration – several potted plants were arrayed around his place to create an attractive scene. Besides its utility for other purposes,
705-462: A button and only grazed him; the other had penetrated his abdomen. The ambulance carrying McKinley reached the Exposition hospital at 4:25 p.m. Although it usually dealt only with the minor medical issues of fairgoers, the hospital did have an operating theatre. At the time of the shooting, no fully qualified doctor was at the hospital, only nurses and interns . The best surgeon in the city, and
846-443: A case with another Palladian motif and carvings similar to those in the pulpit, and also framed with fluted Corinthian pilasters. A large swan-necked broken pediment is atop the case. The church's box pews have hinged doors, scrolled armrests and seat cushions. They all face forward on the ground floor except for the two rows in the front. On the upstairs galleries they face the opposite wall. Metal and marble memorial plaques line
987-525: A clock and the next louvered round-arched vents. The uppermost stage, the conical steeple , has ribs defining its eight facts and is covered with diamond-shaped wooden shingles . Kingston's city ordinances prohibit the construction of any building taller than its base in the Stockade District. The lecture hall addition on the north is similar to the main church block. It is a two-story bluestone structure with slate roof, mostly shielded from view by
1128-522: A congregant's parents. Made from Favrile glass by one of Louis Comfort Tiffany 's artists, it depicts the Presentation of Christ at the Temple. It was lit at first by gas, and later electricity. It marks the last significant change to the church's interior. Four years later, in 1896, Sharpe's monument to his volunteers was added to the graveyard. The 16-foot (4.9 m) statue, the work of Byron M. Pickett,
1269-551: A few early renovations, and the collapse of the higher original steeple, it has remained largely intact since 1892, although there have been continuing issues with one of the walls. One of the congregation's previous churches is across neighboring Wall Street. The church grounds also include a small cemetery with most of the burials predating its construction. Among them is George Clinton , a former governor and U.S. vice president. The church has been active in Kingston's civic life. During
1410-562: A government devoted to prosperity". McKinley's original vice president, Garret Hobart , had died in 1899, and McKinley left the choice of a running mate to the 1900 Republican National Convention . In advance of the convention, New York's Republican political boss , Senator Thomas C. Platt , saw an opportunity to politically sideline his state's governor, former Assistant Secretary of the Navy Theodore Roosevelt , by pushing for his nomination as vice president. Roosevelt accepted
1551-583: A luncheon in her honor by the Exposition's Board of Lady Managers, and after dinner, the President and First Lady returned to the fairgrounds, pausing at the Triumphal Bridge to watch the fair illuminated by electricity as the sun set. They went by boat to the Life Saving Station to view the fireworks from there before returning to the Milburn House. Czolgosz, gun in his pocket, had arrived early at
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#17328516714931692-538: A main sanctuary building oriented north–south with an east–west lecture hall wing on the north end and attached multi-stage bell tower at the northwest corner. The gabled roof is clad in raised-seam metal, with a modillioned wooden cornice . It is pierced by skylights corresponding to the exterior windows, currently covered in plastic, just above the roofline. Fenestration on both side profiles consists of five large round-arched stained glass windows framed by molded limestone casings with bracketed sills. On
1833-424: A means to bring Czolgosz under federal law. Secretary of State John Hay had been closely associated with the two presidents to be assassinated: he had been Lincoln 's secretary , and a close friend of James A. Garfield . He arrived on September 10; met at the station by Babcock with an account of the President's recovery, Hay responded that the President would die. McKinley biographer H. Wayne Morgan wrote of
1974-496: A replacement for a taller but similar original that collapsed, makes it the tallest building in Kingston and a symbol of the city. Lafever's building was described by Calvert Vaux as "ideally perfect". It is unique among his work as his only Renaissance Revival church that largely retains the original design, and the only stone church he is known to have built. Its interior includes stained glass by Louis Comfort Tiffany 's company, and an extensive M.P. Moller pipe organ After
2115-432: A small piece of cloth which was embedded in the flesh. He probed with his finger and hand, finding damage to the digestive system – the stomach displayed both an entry and exit wound. Mann sewed up both holes in the organ, but could not find the bullet itself; he concluded it had lodged in the President's back muscles. He later wrote, "A bullet once it ceases to move does little harm." A primitive X-ray machine
2256-860: A speech on what had been designated as "President's Day". He met with rapturous receptions in the Far West, where many had never seen a president. In California , the First Lady became seriously ill, and for a time was thought to be dying. She recovered in San Francisco, but her husband canceled the remainder of the tour and the McKinleys returned to Washington. The speech at the Exposition was postponed until September 5, after McKinley spent some weeks in Washington and two months in Canton. He used his time in his Ohio home working on
2397-501: A symbol of oppression and was convinced that it was his duty as an anarchist to kill him. He was unable to get near the president during an earlier visit, but he shot him twice as McKinley reached to shake his hand in the reception line at the temple. One bullet grazed McKinley; the other entered his abdomen and was never found. McKinley initially appeared to be recovering, but his conditions deteriorated on September 13 as his wounds became gangrenous . He died at 2:15 am on September 14 and
2538-406: A tall, swarthy man who appeared restless as he walked towards the President, but he shook hands with McKinley without incident and began to move towards the exit. The usual rule that those who approached the President must do so with their hands open and empty was not being enforced, perhaps due to the heat of the day, as several people were using handkerchiefs to wipe their brows; the man who followed
2679-533: A threat. Among those deported in December 1919 was Goldman, who did not have United States citizenship. Leech believed the nation experienced a transition at McKinley's death: The new President was in office. The republic still lived. Yet, for a space, Americans turned from the challenge and the strangeness of the future. Entranced and regretful, they remembered McKinley's firm, unquestioning faith, his kindly, frock-coated dignity; his accessibility and dedication to
2820-467: A trained operator, was not used on orders of the doctors in charge of McKinley's case. Miller recounts that doctors attempted to test it on a man of about McKinley's size, but it proved to be missing a crucial part, much to Edison's embarrassment. McKinley had been given nutritive enemas; on September 11, he took some broth by mouth. When it seemed to do him good, the following morning they allowed him toast, coffee, and chicken broth. His subsequent pain
2961-662: A visit in Cleveland to an encampment of the Grand Army of the Republic ; he was a member as a Union veteran. The McKinleys stayed in Buffalo at the Milburn House, the large home of the Exposition's president, John G. Milburn . On Saturday, September 7, they were to travel to Cleveland and stay first at the home of businessman and future Ohio governor Myron Herrick , a friend of the President, and then with McKinley's close friend and adviser, Ohio Senator Mark Hanna . Upon arrival in Buffalo,
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#17328516714933102-423: A weakened heart, by afternoon they knew the case was hopeless. As yet unknown to the doctors, gangrene was growing on the walls of his stomach and toxins were passing into his blood. McKinley drifted in and out of consciousness all day; when awake he was the model patient. By evening, McKinley too knew he was dying, "It is useless, gentlemen. I think we ought to have prayer." His friends and family were admitted, and
3243-599: A worker at a park in Canton, stated that he had seen a man resembling Czolgosz in mid-1901, when the President was staying at home and sometimes visiting the park. The man was wearing two guns, and when Arntz reminded him that firearms were not permitted outside the park's shooting range, responded dismissively. Arntz sought the police, but the man was never found. Later in the summer, Czolgosz moved to Buffalo, though his reasons for doing so are not known. Author and journalist Scott Miller speculated that he may have chosen Buffalo because of its large Polish population. He boarded in
3384-615: The Church of San Giorgio Maggiore in Venice . Eclecticism was another aspect of the Picturesque that showed up in Lafever's design. The battered piers at the corners give the main block and front pavilion a slight Egyptian Revival feel, as well as adding mass. The interior of the church follows English Renaissance forms popularized by Christopher Wren and James Gibbs , particularly some aspects of
3525-581: The Dutch royal family , among other notables, have visited the church. It has also been the site of memorials to tragedy from the assassination of William McKinley in 1901 to the September 11 attacks in 2001. The church is located on a 1.4-acre (5,700 m ) lot at the east of uptown Kingston. It is a contributing property to the Stockade District . Main, Fair and Wall streets surround it on three sides;
3666-564: The First Reformed Protestant Dutch Church of Kingston , is located on Wall Street in Kingston , New York, United States. Formally organized in 1659, it is one of the oldest continuously existing congregations in the country. Its current building, the fifth, is an 1852 structure by Minard Lafever that was designated a National Historic Landmark in 2008, the only one in the city. The church's 225-foot (69 m) steeple ,
3807-702: The Panic of 1893 , he had defeated his Democratic rival, William Jennings Bryan . McKinley led the nation both to a return to prosperity and to victory in the Spanish–American War in 1898, taking possession of such Spanish colonies as Puerto Rico and the Philippines . Re-elected handily in a rematch against Bryan in 1900, according to historian Eric Rauchway , "it looked as if the McKinley Administration would continue peaceably unbroken for another four years,
3948-587: The Revolutionary War George Washington paid a visit due to the church's strong support for the Patriot cause, and wrote a thank-you note exhibited in the church today. An annual dinner is held to commemorate the visit. George H. Sharpe raised a Civil War regiment at the church, and later erected a monument in the churchyard to those volunteers. Franklin Delano Roosevelt and members of
4089-533: The Revolutionary War that mentions any religious institution. ) Across from the main entrance three round-arched doors corresponding to those on the outside lead into the main sanctuary. The sanctuary itself is painted off-white, with the stained glass windows, red carpeting, gilding and mahogany trim of the pews providing a contrast. Corinthian columns, creating lateral arcades , provide corbeled support to groin vaults . The arcading partially encloses
4230-720: The World Trade Center . After several years of restorations and maintenance, the church, with the help of the State Historic Preservation Office , applied to the National Park Service (NPS) for National Historic Landmark status. U.S. Representative Maurice Hinchey lobbied the NPS on the church's behalf, and in October 2008 his office made the first announcement of the designation. Several months later he
4371-509: The 1886 Haymarket bombing in Chicago. Two American presidents had been assassinated in the 19th century: Abraham Lincoln in 1865 and James A. Garfield in 1881 . Even considering this history, McKinley did not like security personnel to come between him and the people. When in his hometown, Canton, Ohio , he often walked to church or the business district without protection, and in Washington went on drives with his wife without any guard in
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4512-460: The Bible. The church did in this in the context of publicly saying that it looked forward to "the time when people of color will be entitled to the rights of citizenship". Burials in the church cemetery stopped in 1830. A cholera epidemic swept Kingston that year, and as the graveyard filled up quickly the consistory decided against allowing any more. One exception was a woman who died in 1832, possibly
4653-474: The Buffalo police announced soon after the shooting that they believed Czolgosz had not acted alone, and several anarchists were arrested on suspicion of involvement in the attack. Czolgosz mentioned his contacts with Emma Goldman during the interrogation; authorities arrested her family to give her incentive to turn herself in, which she did on September 10. She spent nearly three weeks in jail; she, like all other arrestees thought to have conspired with Czolgosz,
4794-662: The Buffalo speech and in supervising improvements to his house. He intended to remain based in Canton until October. Czolgosz had lived on his parents' farm near Cleveland beginning in 1898, working little – he may have suffered a nervous breakdown. He is known to have attended a speech by anarchist Emma Goldman in May 1901 in Cleveland: he approached her before the speech and asked her to recommend books on anarchism; she obliged. The talk, in which Goldman did not advocate violence but expressed understanding for those driven to it,
4935-574: The Exposition's medical director, Roswell Park , was in Niagara Falls, performing a delicate neck operation. When interrupted during the procedure on September 6 to be told he was needed in Buffalo, he responded that he could not leave, even for the President of the United States. He was then told who had been shot. Park, two weeks later, would save the life of a woman who suffered injuries almost identical to McKinley's. The first physician to arrive at
5076-455: The Exposition, regarded the building as ideal for the purpose. The large auditorium was located close to the Esplanade, in the heart of the fair, and had doorways on each of its four sides. In addition to rows of chairs on the floor of the hall, it had spacious galleries. Babcock spent the morning of September 6 making some physical arrangements for the reception. Floor seating was removed to create
5217-514: The First Lady sobbed over him, "I want to go, too. I want to go, too." Her husband replied, "We are all going, we are all going. God's will be done, not ours" and with final strength put an arm around her. He may also have sung part of his favorite hymn, " Nearer, My God, to Thee ", although other accounts have her singing it softly to him. Ida McKinley was led away, her place briefly taken by Senator Hanna. Morgan recounts their final encounter, "Sometime that terrible evening, Mark Hanna had approached
5358-731: The Holy Scriptures of the Old and New Testaments to be our rule in faith and practice; we celebrate the Sacraments of Holy Baptism and Communion as living sign and seal of Christ's presence among us. We confess our faith using the Apostle's Creed , the Nicene Creed and the Heidelberg Catechism . Assassination of William McKinley William McKinley , the 25th president of the United States ,
5499-550: The President escorted Ida McKinley back to her carriage as she was to return to the Milburn House while he saw the sights at the fair. McKinley toured the pavilions of other Western Hemisphere nations, attracting crowds and applause wherever he went. He presided over a luncheon at the New York State Building (now The Buffalo History Museum), and attended a by-invitation-only reception at the Government Building. He
5640-421: The President to alter his schedule, Cortelyou telegraphed to authorities in Buffalo, asking them to arrange extra security. On the morning of Thursday, September 5, the fair gates were opened at 6:00 a.m. to allow the crowds to enter early and seek good spots to witness the President's speech. The Esplanade, the large space near the Triumphal Bridge where the President was to speak, was filled with fairgoers;
5781-486: The Sabbath day, liquor consumption, discharge of firearms and beating of drums were forbidden, with steadily escalating penalties starting at one Flemish pound . The church itself was unheated, due to fears of fire. Some congregants brought small stoves to warm their feet in winter. They sat in seats on either side of the sanctuary. A Vorleser (reader) and Vorsanger (music leader) assisted the minister. There were no books for
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5922-621: The Treasury) was protecting President Theodore Roosevelt full-time. This did not settle the debate. Some in Congress recommended the United States Army be charged with protecting the President. In 1906, Congress passed legislation officially designating the Secret Service as the agency in charge of presidential security. The aftermath of the assassination saw a backlash against anarchists;
6063-404: The area in front of the President and obstruct the views of the detectives and Secret Service. At such events, Foster usually stood just to the left and behind McKinley. Milburn wished to stand to McKinley's left to be able to introduce anyone he knew in the line to the President, and Foster and another agent instead stood across the aisle from McKinley. Throughout the afternoon, crowds had filled
6204-482: The area. The cornerstone was laid in May. After a year and a half of construction work, costing $ 33,000 ($ 1,209,000 in contemporary dollars ), the church was dedicated in September 1852. The contractors were paid for work beyond the original scope. It is not known whether Lafever ever visited the site or modified his design while construction was underway. Two years later, its original steeple, at 239 feet (73 m)
6345-582: The audience since many were illiterate. The church did not have an organ since they were considered a work of the devil . After the Second Anglo-Dutch War , the 1667 Treaty of Breda turned New Netherland over to the English, and Wiltwyck became Kingston. The trustees of the Kingston Patent generously funded the church, by transferring to it a thousand acres (400 ha) in the north of the town, which
6486-404: The back muscles, though this is uncertain as it was never found. After four hours, Ida McKinley demanded that the autopsy end. A death mask was taken, and private services took place in the Milburn House before the body was moved to Buffalo City and County Hall for the start of five days of national mourning. McKinley's body was ceremoniously taken from Buffalo to Washington, and then to Canton. On
6627-401: The balcony. A simulated clerestory level is illuminated by the skylights supplemented by electric lighting in the original wall sconces . The walls themselves are plaster on lath with beaded wainscoting ending in a chair rail. A raised wooden platform supports the pulpit , carved with some classical motifs such as rectangular, rounded lozenges and foliation, some of it gilded, echoing
6768-403: The bedside, tears standing in his eyes, his hands and head shaking in disbelief that thirty years of friendship could end thus." When a tentative, formal greeting gained no coherent response, Hanna "cried out over the years of friendship, 'William, William, don't you know me?'" At 2:15 a.m. on Saturday, September 14, 1901, President McKinley died. At the time of McKinley's death, Roosevelt
6909-406: The building and shelter its cemetery. An iron fence with stone posts encircles most of the property. Flagstone walks lead to the primary entrance on the south side and around the building, where another one leads from the tower entrance to Wall Street. The building itself is faced in load-bearing locally quarried bluestone , set in a random ashlar pattern with limestone trim. It consists of
7050-481: The carriage. McKinley gave a short speech at his second inauguration on March 4, 1901. Having long been an advocate of protective tariffs , and believing the Dingley Tariff , passed during his first year in office, had helped the nation reach prosperity, McKinley planned to negotiate reciprocal trade agreements with other countries. This would open foreign markets to United States manufacturers that had dominated
7191-526: The centenary of the church building, Queen Juliana of the Netherlands and her consort , Bernhard , attended services. Her daughter, then-Princess Beatrix , followed her in 1959, during commemorations of Henry Hudson 's voyage up the river on the Halve Maen and the church's tercentenary. The later years of the 20th century would see more renovations. In the mid-1970s the east wall was shored up again, and
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#17328516714937332-438: The church subdivided and sold. In 1712 the church requested a royal charter; seven years later it was granted by King George I in exchange for a peppercorn in rent every year. Two years later, in 1721, it was expanded, early in the half-century tenure of Dominie Petrus Vas. A doop huys , a sort of chapel , was built to handle baptisms , meetings and other consistorial activities. Vas would, three decades later, oversee
7473-481: The church and adjacent buildings. A similar projecting gabled pavilion , with battered corners, on the Main Street side frames the main entrance. Two bluestone steps with iron railings lead up to a pair of slightly recessed paneled wooden doors topped by a fanlight with tracery. The limestone surround is topped with a keystone . Limestone is also used for the corner bases and courses at ground level and continuing
7614-506: The church building look older than it actually was. Lafever abandoned the classical symmetry he had used for earlier churches such as the Old Whaler's Church in Sag Harbor for the church's exterior, preferring the more Picturesque choice of putting the tower on the side. The projecting front pavilion on the Main Street side creates the appearance of superimposed gables, much like those on
7755-404: The church started another building campaign to address this and other issues. Not only had the wall shifted, the ceiling had suffered. It was replastered, and the exterior buttress was built. Lafever's original tin was restored to the roof. A small stone chapel was built on the north side. At the beginning of 1892, the church dedicated the new stained glass window, a gift in remembrance of
7896-464: The church, like many other buildings in the city, was damaged by fires set by British forces retaliating against the recently proclaimed capital of the independent state of New York after the Battle of Saratoga . It was gutted, but the walls still stood. The congregation strongly supported the Patriot cause throughout the war. In 1782, George Washington , garrisoned near Newburgh to the south, visited
8037-490: The church. He enjoyed his visit enough that he wrote the congregation the letter of thanks currently displayed in its museum. By 1790 repairs to the church were complete. The tower was rebuilt with a cupola and clocks on all sides. The first decade of the new century brought change to the church and its community. In 1803 the trustees of the patent decided to sell all their remaining landholdings and dissolve . Upon completing this task two years later, they disbursed £3,000 to
8178-489: The church. That same year Kingston was formally incorporated as a village . In 1808 the village surveyed the property on which the church proper stood and formally conveyed it to the church. The next year, the church began to break with its cultural roots, holding its last services in Dutch . In 1816 the church established the first Sunday school in Ulster County . Its goal was to teach local African-Americans to read
8319-431: The city's history from the building's facade and stored them in the church's basement. They were returned to city hall when it was restored in 2000. As with the century just past, the first major event of the new century at the church was an observance of national grief. On the evening of September 11, 2001, it was opened to all members of the community for impromptu services in the wake of that day's terrorist attacks on
8460-494: The construction of a second church building. Surviving prints show a gambrel-roofed meetinghouse two bays wide with a tower on the front. Its siding seems to have been limestone rubble, although the first print shows a material that could be either in a coursed ashlar pattern or parging to mimic coursed stone. Fenestration consisted of three round-arched windows along the sides. It was dedicated on November 29, 1752, by Georg Wilhelm Mancius, Vas's assistant. In October 1777,
8601-404: The cornice line at that level. Similarly appointed but smaller doors flank the main entrance. In the narthex a small display case contains items of significance from the church's history: the first communicants' tablet, and a letter from George Washington thanking the congregation for its hospitality to him on a 1782 visit (This is reportedly his only writing during the entire eight years of
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#17328516714938742-562: The crisis seemed to have passed, dignitaries started to leave on September 9, confident of the President's recovery. Roosevelt left for a vacation in the Adirondack Mountains after expressing outrage that Czolgosz might serve only a few years under New York State law for attempted murder, the maximum penalty for attempted murder in New York at that time being ten years. Attorney General Philander Knox went to Washington, searching for
8883-452: The crowd overflowed into the nearby Court of the Fountains. Of the 116,000 fairgoers that day, about 50,000 are believed to have attended McKinley's speech. The route between the Milburn House and the site of the speech was packed with spectators; McKinley's progress by carriage to the fair with his wife was accompanied by loud cheering. He ascended to a stand overlooking the Esplanade, and after
9024-494: The day of his shooting were allayed by reassuring bulletins issued by Cortelyou based on information from the doctors. Large, threatening crowds assembled outside Buffalo police headquarters where Czolgosz was brought. Word that he had admitted to being an anarchist led to attacks on others of that belief: one was nearly lynched in Pittsburgh. At the Milburn House, McKinley seemed to be recovering. On Saturday, September 7, McKinley
9165-401: The day of the funeral, September 19, as McKinley was taken from his home on North Market Street for the last time, all activity ceased in the nation for five minutes. Trains came to a halt, telephone and telegraph service was stopped. Leech stated, "the people bowed in homage to the President who was gone". In addition to the damage done by the bullet, the autopsy also found that the President
9306-497: The doctors of his time. Czolgosz went on trial for the murder of McKinley in state court in Buffalo on September 23, 1901, nine days after the president died. Prosecution testimony took two days and consisted principally of the doctors who treated McKinley and various eyewitnesses to the shooting. Defense attorney Loran L. Lewis and his co-counsel called no witnesses, which Lewis in his closing argument attributed to Czolgosz's refusal to cooperate with them. In his 27-minute address to
9447-502: The domestic market thanks to the tariff, and who sought to expand. During a long trip planned for the months after his inauguration, he intended to make major speeches promoting this plan, culminating in a visit and address at the Pan-American Exposition in Buffalo on June 13. McKinley, his wife Ida , and their official party left Washington on April 29 for a tour of the nation by train, scheduled to conclude in Buffalo for
9588-465: The doors. As the reception continued, the organist played works by Johann Sebastian Bach . The procession of citizens shaking hands with their President was interrupted when 12-year-old Myrtle Ledger of Spring Brook, New York , who was accompanied by her mother, asked McKinley for the red carnation he always wore on his lapel. The President gave it to her, then resumed work without his trademark good-luck piece. The Secret Service men looked suspiciously on
9729-416: The east in the center is an engaged buttress added to shore up the wall. A three- bay projecting pavilion on the west supports the bell tower. Its entrance is a single door with round-arched window above and on the sides. Its lowest stage is a three-story masonry tower with wooden cornices separating the stories, topped by three frame ones above a curved cornice. The lower two are octagonal, one featuring
9870-680: The end of the year. Hinchey spoke at the church in 2010 to lobby for passage of a federal urban development bill which included a $ 350,000 grant to shore up the church, replacing steel girders which had done that since 2004. At that time the bill had passed the House but not the Senate. The structural problems have been attributed to the graves it was built on. The church and its congregation are "committed to providing worship, education, evangelism, social action, and fellowship", according to their mission statement . It professes its faith thus: We acknowledge
10011-413: The fading afternoon light the major source of illumination in the operating room, upon the arrival of another surgeon, Matthew D. Mann , the decision was made to operate at once to try to remove the remaining bullet. Mynter had given McKinley an injection of morphine and strychnine to ease his pain; Mann (a noted gynecologist without experience in abdominal wounds) administered ether to sedate McKinley as
10152-516: The fair (he agreed with its theme of hemispheric cooperation), enjoyed meeting people, and was not afraid of potential assassins. When Cortelyou asked McKinley a final time to remove the event from the schedule, the President responded, "Why should I? No one would wish to hurt me." Cortelyou warned McKinley that many would be disappointed since the President would not have time to shake hands with all who would line up to meet him. McKinley responded, "Well, they'll know I tried, anyhow." Unable to persuade
10293-411: The fair, and was quite close to the podium before McKinley arrived. He considered shooting the President during his speech, but felt he could not be certain of hitting his target; he was also being jostled by the crowd. Czolgosz had not made up his mind when McKinley concluded his speech and disappeared behind security guards. Nevertheless, he attempted to follow McKinley as the President began his tour of
10434-482: The fair, but was thrust back by officers. Czolgosz saw no further chance at getting close to the President that day, and he returned to his $ 2/week rented room above a saloon. On the morning of Friday, September 6, 1901, McKinley dressed formally as usual, then departed the Milburn House for a stroll through the neighborhood. The President nearly slipped away unguarded; when the police and soldiers noticed him leaving, they hurried after him. Czolgosz also rose early with
10575-505: The floor outside the blocked-off aisle, and the galleries as well, wanting to see the President, even if they could not greet him. McKinley arrived just on time, glanced at the arrangements, and walked over to his place, where he stood with Milburn on his left and Cortelyou on his right. The pipe organ began to play " The Star-Spangled Banner " as McKinley ordered the doors open to admit those who had waited to greet him. The police let them in, and McKinley prepared to perform his "favorite part of
10716-465: The hall, which was frustrated by others surging inwards to see what had occurred. As McKinley was carried out on a stretcher to an electric-powered ambulance, there was a moan from the crowd at the sight of the President's ashen face. Foster rode with him on the way to the fair's hospital. On the way there, McKinley felt in his clothing and came out with a metal object. "I believe that is a bullet." McKinley had been shot twice; one bullet had deflected off
10857-542: The height of his powers, broadening his approach beyond the Greek Revival he had done so much to popularize." The style may have also appealed to the church's congregation as a way of distinguishing itself architecturally within the city from the Second Reformed Dutch Church of Kingston , an offshoot church which had built a new Gothic Revival church nearby in 1850. It also may have been preferred as it made
10998-399: The hospital was Herman Mynter, whom the President had met briefly the previous day; the wounded McKinley (who had a good memory for faces) joked that when he had met Mynter, he had not expected to need his professional services. As McKinley lay on the operating table, he stated of Czolgosz, "He didn't know, poor fellow, what he was doing. He couldn't have known." With Park unavailable and with
11139-496: The intent of lining up for the public reception at the Temple of Music; he reached the Exposition gates at 8:30 a.m., in time to see the President pass in his carriage en route to the train station for the visit to Niagara Falls. The McKinleys traveled by train to Lewiston , where they switched to trolleys to view the Niagara Gorge . When the party reached the municipality of Niagara Falls , they transferred to carriages to see
11280-449: The job". An experienced politician, McKinley could shake hands with 50 people per minute, gripping their hands first so as to both guide them past him quickly and prevent his fingers from being squeezed. Cortelyou anxiously watched the time; about halfway through the ten minutes allotted, he sent word to Babcock to have the doors closed when the presidential secretary raised his hand. Seeing Cortelyou looking at his watch, Babcock moved towards
11421-402: The jury, Lewis took pains to praise President McKinley; Miller notes that the closing argument was more calculated to defend the attorney's "place in the community, rather than an effort to spare his client the electric chair". After a bare half-hour of deliberations (which a jury member later remarked would have actually been sooner, if not examining the evidence), the jury convicted Czolgosz; he
11562-408: The last burial in the churchyard. The church building, too, was reaching the limit of its capacity. The original parsonage was torn down and a new brick church with Romanesque arched windows erected. Its roof was damaged by a lightning strike in 1840 that tore a large hole in it. No one was present in the church at the time and services were held the next Sunday. Within two decades the new church
11703-477: The latter's St Martin-in-the-Fields , which again may have been chosen by the congregation to distinguish themselves from the Second Reformed Church. By using such a consciously English model, the church's congregation signaled the full assimilation of Dutch Americans , many of whom had continued to speak Dutch for some years after independence , into the predominantly English-influenced culture of
11844-556: The man who to him embodied injustice. On Tuesday, September 3, he made up his mind. Czolgosz later stated to the police: It was in my heart, there was no escape for me. I could not have conquered it had my life been at stake. There were thousands of people in town on Tuesday. I heard it was President's Day. All those people seemed bowing to the great ruler. I made up my mind to kill that ruler. On September 3, Czolgosz went to Walbridge's Hardware Store on Buffalo's Main Street and purchased
11985-478: The mid-19th century United States. He used a 3:5:7 ratio for the proportions, representing the Trinity , the human senses and the days of Creation respectively. Calvert Vaux , when declining a commission for a new pulpit at the church three decades later, called its forms and symmetry, "ideally perfect". The First Protestant Dutch Reformed Church of Kingston has held worship services for 350 years, making it one of
12126-569: The nomination and was elected on McKinley's ticket. Leon Czolgosz was born in Detroit , Michigan , in 1873, the son of Polish immigrants. The Czolgosz family moved several times as Paul Czolgosz, Leon's father, sought work throughout the Midwest. As an adult, Leon Czolgosz worked in a Cleveland factory until he lost his job in a labor dispute in 1893. Thereafter, he worked irregularly and attended political and religious meetings, trying to understand
12267-415: The north has some two-story commercial buildings. The old Ulster County courthouse is just to the northwest, across Wall. Amid a cluster of buildings on the south, across Main Street, is the building the current church replaced, now St. Joseph's Catholic church. Most of the neighboring buildings support the church's historic character, dating to the 19th or early 20th centuries. Tall shade trees surround
12408-442: The official funeral services following the assassination of President William McKinley . Seven years later, the remains of George Clinton , an Episcopalian , were transferred from Washington to the churchyard, where he was reburied with full honors, under the same obelisk he had originally been buried under, within sight of the steps of the courthouse where he had been sworn in as New York's first governor in 1777. Shortly after
12549-410: The old building, which was still suffering the effects of the lightning strike. The next year the church bought another nearby parcel to enlarge its cemetery, in preparation for the construction of a new building. How they chose Lafever is not known, but in 1852 they began construction of his church, grounding the building in trenches instead of excavating a full cellar, so as not to disturb the graves in
12690-455: The oldest continuously existing congregations in the U.S. The current building is its fifth. For the first 170 years of its existence it was the only church in Kingston, and the only Dutch Reformed Church for much of the west side of the Hudson River . Fifty other churches in the region were started under its auspices. Its birth, marriage and death records are complete to 1660, making it one of
12831-503: The oldest such collections in the country and an important resource for genealogists . Like many churches, the Old Dutch Church began with informal meetings, in its case starting around May 1658, when Kingston was still known as Wiltwyck, part of the Dutch colony of New Netherland . Jacob Stoll, a local settler, led services for 11 others in his house in the absence of an ordained minister or actual building. The following year it
12972-418: The ornate building was one of the architectural features of the fair. Considerable arrangements had been made for the President's security. Exposition police were stationed at the doors; detectives from the Buffalo police guarded the aisle. In addition to McKinley's usual Secret Service agent, George Foster, two other agents had been assigned to the Buffalo trip because of Cortelyou's security concerns. Babcock
13113-405: The platform, believing the damage was caused by a bomb, shouted "Anarchists!" As William McKinley stepped down from the train to the official welcome, Czolgosz shoved his way forward in the crowd, but found the President too well guarded to make an attempt on his life. McKinley's trip to Buffalo was part of a planned ten-day absence from Canton, beginning on September 4, 1901, which was to include
13254-431: The presidential party was driven through the fairgrounds on the way to the Milburn House, pausing for a moment at the Triumphal Bridge at the Exposition so the visitors could look upon the fair's attractions. While in Buffalo, McKinley had two days of events: On Thursday, September 5, he was to deliver his address and then tour the fair. The following day, he was to visit Niagara Falls , and, on his return to Buffalo, meet
13395-515: The property of the state, which used it as an armory . When the Civil War started, the church, long active in the abolitionist movement, became the center of parishioner George H. Sharpe 's efforts to organize the 120th New York Infantry . The unit drilled in the armory and fought in battles ranging from Fredericksburg to Appomattox . Its battle flags hang in the Old Church's narthex. After
13536-537: The public and was reluctant to accept the security available to his office. Secretary to the President George B. Cortelyou feared that an assassination attempt would take place during a visit to the Temple of Music and took it off the schedule twice, but McKinley restored it each time. Czolgosz had lost his job during the economic Panic of 1893 and turned to anarchism , a political philosophy adhered to by recent assassins of foreign leaders. He regarded McKinley as
13677-461: The public at the Temple of Music on the Exposition grounds. Part of the reason for bringing McKinley repeatedly to the fair was to swell the gate receipts; the popular President's visit was heavily advertised. The public reception at the Temple of Music was disliked by his personal secretary , George B. Cortelyou , who, concerned for the President's security, twice tried to remove it from the program. McKinley restored it every time; he wished to support
13818-571: The reasons for the economic turmoil of the Panic of 1893. In doing so, he became interested in anarchism . By 1901, this movement was feared in the United States – New York's highest court had ruled that the act of identifying oneself as an anarchist in front of an audience was a breach of the peace . Anarchists had taken a toll in Europe by assassinating or attempting assassinations of a half-dozen officials and members of royal houses, and had been blamed for
13959-497: The reception had been pared down to ten minutes, the President did not expect to be separated from his wife for long. As it was only 3:30 p.m., McKinley stopped for refreshments at the Mission Building before proceeding to the Temple of Music. When given the opportunity to host a public reception for President McKinley, fair organizers chose to site it in the Temple of Music – Louis L. Babcock, grand marshal of
14100-399: The resistance of his strong body to the gangrene that was creeping along the bullet's track through the stomach, the pancreas, and one kidney". Another X-ray machine was sent from New Jersey by its inventor, Thomas Edison . It was not used on the President; sources vary on why this was – Leech stated that the machine, which she says was procured by Cortelyou and accompanied by
14241-605: The said William McKinley, from the said sixth day of September, in the year aforesaid, until the fourteenth day of September, in the same year aforesaid, in the city and county aforesaid, did languish and languishing did live; on which said last mentioned day he, the said William McKinley, of the said mortal wound did die. From the indictment by the grand jury of the County Court of Erie County for first-degree murder in State of New York v. Leon Czolgosz , September 16, 1901. An autopsy
14382-587: The sights. The party rode halfway across the Honeymoon Bridge overlooking the Falls, though McKinley was careful not to enter Canada for reasons of protocol. It was a hot day, and Ida McKinley felt ill due to the heat; she was driven to the International Hotel to await her husband, who toured Goat Island before joining his wife for lunch. After smoking a cigar on the veranda, the President rode with his wife to
14523-546: The sinking of the Titanic in 1912, the church held a memorial service for the victims. The following year a small stone building at the corner of Washington Avenue and Joys Lane, known as Bethany Chapel, was sold to the church. In 1932 Franklin D. Roosevelt , then governor and himself a Dutch American native of the Hudson Valley , spoke at ceremonies commemorating the 150th anniversary of Washington's visit. Bethany Chapel
14664-451: The steeple was repainted in its current white from its previous gray. In 1996 the Patriotism monument to the 120th was restored. Other historic Kingston buildings benefited from the church's focus on restoration and preservation . When city hall began suffering from neglect in the late 20th century, some congregants removed the surviving bas-relief plaster lunettes depicting scenes in
14805-407: The stones are believed to be Revolutionary War-era veterans. George Clinton , former Governor of New York and U.S. Vice President under Thomas Jefferson and James Madison , is buried here under a large obelisk in the churchyard's southwest corner. He was moved here from Washington in 1908 and reburied in a full ceremony. Another large monument to " Patriotism " in the southeast corner honors
14946-429: The suburb of West Seneca and spent much of his time reading. Czolgosz then left for Cleveland, though what he did there is uncertain; he may have picked up anarchist literature or procured more money. After Cleveland, Czolgosz went to Chicago, where he saw a newspaper mention of President McKinley's impending visit to Buffalo. He returned to Buffalo, as yet uncertain of what he would do; at first, he only sought to be near
15087-410: The swarthy individual had his right hand wrapped in one, as if injured. Seeing this, McKinley reached for his left hand instead. As the two men's hands touched at 4:07 p.m., Czolgosz shot McKinley twice in the abdomen with a .32 Iver Johnson revolver concealed under the handkerchief. As onlookers gazed in horror, and as McKinley lurched forward a step, Czolgosz prepared to take a third shot. He
15228-415: The tallest in the state at that time, crashed to the ground when the roof collapsed during a Christmas Eve windstorm. The cause was traced to the 50 tons (46 tonnes) of slate roofing the church elders had substituted for Lafever's tin , creating a load greater than the structure was intended to support. The church sold the brick building, which it no longer needed. After a few other owners, it became
15369-531: The title Old Dutch Church . If an internal link led you here, you may wish to change the link to point directly to the intended article. Retrieved from " https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Old_Dutch_Church&oldid=530157852 " Category : Disambiguation pages Hidden categories: Short description is different from Wikidata All article disambiguation pages All disambiguation pages Old Dutch Church (Kingston, New York) The Old Dutch Church , officially known as
15510-411: The train which now awaited them nearby, and saw her settled there before touring the hydroelectric plant at the Falls. The train then returned to Buffalo so McKinley could attend the reception at the Temple of Music. Ida McKinley had originally intended to accompany her husband to the auditorium, but as she was not fully recovered, she decided to return to the Milburn House to rest. As the time allotted for
15651-477: The volunteers of the 120th New York Infantry during the Civil War . It was commissioned by George H. Sharpe , a Kingston native and colonel of volunteers for the 120th. The Old Dutch Church was one of Lafever's last commissions, and considered his most fully developed application of the Renaissance Revival style. Architectural historian W. Barksdale Maynard says it "reveals an experienced architect at
15792-454: The wall behind it. It has two front piers that resemble antae . On the wall above the pulpit is a Palladian Tiffany stained glass window depicting the Presentation of Jesus at the Temple framed by gilded moldings and flanked by pairs of fluted Corinthian pilasters . Bronze statues of angels are on either side. On the south wall is a choir loft with the church's pipe organ . It is in
15933-533: The walls, and a door on the northwest side leads to the tower vestibule. The remainder of the church lot is given over to its cemetery. It contains around 300 headstones , many of which predate the current church. The stonework on many is detailed and high in quality. 1710 is the earliest date for which one is legible, but church records show burials as early as 1679, and some that have not yet been translated may have taken place earlier. Not all graves were marked. The most recent stone dates to 1832. At least 70 of
16074-412: The war, it was consecrated as St. James Catholic Church In 1861 the church closed for ten months in order to erect the current steeple. Another structural problem, the shifting of its east wall, had been noticed and was mentioned in a report by the state engineer's office in 1874. It was attributed at the time to the lack of a full basement due to the decision to leave the underlying graves intact. In 1882
16215-518: The week following the shooting: His hearty constitution, everyone said, would see him through. The doctors seemed hopeful, even confident ... It is difficult to understand the cheer with which they viewed their patient. He was nearly sixty years old, overweight, and the wound itself had not been thoroughly cleaned or traced. Precautions against infections, admittedly difficult in 1901, were negligently handled. According to McKinley biographer Margaret Leech, McKinley's apparent recovery "was merely
16356-411: The wound by another physician; towards the end of the surgery, an electric light was rigged. The hospital lacked basic surgical equipment such as retractors . With McKinley in a weakened condition, Mann could do little probing of the wound to try to find the bullet; his work was complicated by the fact that the President was obese. The surgeon made an incision in the President's skin, and found and removed
16497-451: The wounded man murmured the Lord's Prayer . For hundreds of years, abdominal gunshot wounds had meant death by gangrene or other infection, with doctors able to do little more than ease pain. Only seventeen years previously, Emil Kocher , a Swiss surgeon, had been the first to successfully operate on a patient who had received such a wound. To increase the lighting, sunlight was reflected onto
16638-487: Was a great influence on Czolgosz; he later stated that her words burned in his head. He came to see her at her Chicago home in July as she was about to depart on a trip to Buffalo to see the fair, and the two anarchists rode together to the train station. Goldman expressed concern to another radical that Czolgosz (who was using the alias Fred Nieman) was following her around; soon after, he apparently departed Chicago. William Arntz,
16779-454: Was already reaching its capacity, with over a thousand congregants. In 1848, a group of parishioners broke away when the Classis of Ulster denied permission for a new building and formed the Second Reformed Dutch Church of Kingston two blocks away on Fair Street, ending the Old Church's hegemony over Kingston. This did not adequately relieve the overcrowding. In 1850 the church resolved to replace
16920-415: Was also present as the church officially received its plaque . That year, the church celebrated its 350th anniversary at events like its annual Washington dinner and Pinkster . The current pastor, Ken Walsh, started the year by doing the liturgy as it was in 1659, in the vestments a minister of that era would have worn. He has advanced to a different century every three months, to reach the present day by
17061-404: Was dedicated in a ceremony attended by many of the 120th's former members. It is the only Civil War monument erected to a unit's members by that unit's commander, and one of the rare examples of such a war monument anywhere. The plot it stands on was reportedly deeded to the monument itself. The early 20th century saw several events related to funerary matters. In 1901, the church held one of
17202-529: Was diagnosed as indigestion; he was given purgatives and most doctors left after their evening consultation. In the early morning of September 13, McKinley suffered a collapse. Urgent word to return to Buffalo was sent to Vice President Roosevelt, 12 mi (19 km) from the nearest telegraph or telephone in the Adirondack wilderness; a park ranger was sent to find him. Specialists were summoned; although at first some doctors hoped that McKinley might survive with
17343-435: Was dragged away, but not before being searched by Agent Foster. When Czolgosz kept turning his head to watch the President while being searched, Foster struck him to the ground with one punch. After stopping the beating of Czolgosz, McKinley's next concern was for his wife, urging Cortelyou, "My wife – be careful, Cortelyou, how you tell her – oh, be careful." The initial crowd reaction had been panic, and an attempt to flee
17484-437: Was formally organized, and in 1660 received its first dominie , or minister, Hermanus Blom. A parsonage was built at the order of Peter Stuyvesant in 1662. It was used as a school and court as well, and possibly an Indian trading post . Church lore holds that a crude log meetinghouse , built into the stockade that had been built around the small city, was erected near the current location in 1661, although whether it
17625-426: Was heard to say, "I done my duty." McKinley staggered backwards and to the right, but was prevented from falling by Cortelyou, Milburn, and Detective Geary; they guided him across some fallen bunting to a chair. The President tried to convince Cortelyou he was not seriously injured, but blood was visible as he tried to expose his injury. Seeing the pummeling being taken by Czolgosz, McKinley ordered it stopped. Czolgosz
17766-528: Was heavily guarded by soldiers and police, but still tried to interact with the public, encouraging those who tried to run to him by noticing them, and bowing to a group of loud young popcorn sellers. He made an unscheduled stop for coffee at the Porto Rican Building before returning to the Milburn House in the late afternoon. Despite a Cortelyou warning to the organizers that she might not attend due to her delicate health, Ida McKinley had been present at
17907-440: Was made nervous by a joke at lunch in an Exposition restaurant that the President might be shot during the reception. He had arranged for a dozen artillerymen to attend the reception in full-dress uniform, intending to use them as decoration. Instead, he had them stand in the aisle with instructions to close on any suspicious-looking person who might approach the President. These men were not trained in police work, and served to crowd
18048-434: Was on display at the fair but was not used on McKinley; Mann later stated that its use might have disturbed the patient and done little good. He used black silk thread to stitch the incision and wound, without drainage, and covered the area with a bandage. As the operation concluded, Park arrived from Niagara Falls; he was unwilling to interfere and at 5:20, McKinley was given another shot of painkiller and allowed to awaken. He
18189-478: Was on his return journey to Buffalo, racing over the mountain roads by carriage to the nearest railroad station, where a special train was waiting. When he reached that station at dawn, he learned of McKinley's death. President Roosevelt took the oath of office at about 3:00 p.m. that afternoon at the Ansley Wilcox House in Buffalo. The oath was administered by U.S. district judge John R. Hazel . He,
18330-429: Was performed later on the morning of McKinley's death; Mann led a team of 14 physicians. They found the bullet had passed through the stomach, then through the transverse colon , and vanished through the peritoneum after penetrating a corner of the left kidney. There was also damage to the adrenal glands and pancreas. Mynter, who participated in the autopsy, later stated his belief that the bullet lodged somewhere in
18471-427: Was prevented from doing so when James Parker , an American of African and Spanish descent from Georgia who had been behind Czolgosz in line, slammed into the assassin, reaching for the gun. A split second after Parker struck Czolgosz, so did Buffalo detective John Geary and one of the artillerymen, Francis O'Brien. Czolgosz disappeared beneath a pile of men, some of whom were punching or hitting him with rifle butts. He
18612-548: Was relaxed and conversational. His wife was allowed to see him, as was Cortelyou; the President asked his secretary, "How did they like my speech?" and was pleased on hearing of positive reactions. Meanwhile, Vice President Roosevelt (who had been in Vermont), much of the Cabinet, and Senator Hanna hurried to Buffalo. Cortelyou continued to issue encouraging bulletins. The President was permitted few visitors, and complained of loneliness. As
18753-567: Was released without charge. Anarchist colonies and newspapers were attacked by vigilantes; although no one was killed, there was considerable property damage. Fear of anarchists led to surveillance programs which were eventually consolidated in 1908 as the Federal Bureau of Investigation . Anti-anarchist laws passed in the wake of the assassination lay dormant for some years before being used during and after World War I , alongside newly passed statutes, against non-citizens whose views were deemed
18894-465: Was shot by a ... " Leech, in her biography of President McKinley, suggests that the First Lady could not write the word, "anarchist". Within minutes of the shots, the news was conveyed around the world by telegraph wire, in time for the late newspaper editions in the United States. In the era before radio, thousands stood in cities across the country outside newspaper offices, awaiting the latest bulletin from Buffalo. Fears that McKinley would not survive
19035-583: Was shot on the grounds of the Pan-American Exposition in the Temple of Music in Buffalo, New York , on September 6, 1901, six months into his second term. He was shaking hands with the public when an anarchist, Leon Czolgosz , shot him twice in the abdomen . McKinley died on September 14 of gangrene caused by the wounds. He was the third American president to be assassinated , following Abraham Lincoln in 1865 and James A. Garfield in 1881 . McKinley enjoyed meeting
19176-428: Was sold in 1946, and burned down shortly thereafter. Five years later, when the church needed to expand its facilities again, the small chapel on the north that had been created in 1883 was enlarged to include a second story, with choir room, classroom and kitchen as well. Bluestone sympathetic to the original design was used. The new wing was named Bethany Annex in honor of the chapel building. The next year, to celebrate
19317-466: Was subsequently sentenced to death and executed by electric chair on October 29, 1901. Acid was placed in the casket to dissolve his body, before burial in the prison graveyard. After McKinley's murder, newspaper editorials across the country heavily criticized the lack of protection afforded to American presidents. Though it still lacked any legislative mandate, by 1902, the Secret Service (a unit of
19458-412: Was succeeded by his vice president, Theodore Roosevelt . Czolgosz was sentenced to death and executed in the electric chair , and Congress passed legislation to officially charge the Secret Service with the responsibility for protecting the president. In September 1901, William McKinley was at the height of his power as president. Elected in 1896, during the serious economic depression resulting from
19599-413: Was suffering from cardiomyopathy (fatty degeneration of the heart muscle). This would have weakened his heart and made him less able to recover from such an injury, and was thought to be related to his overweight frame and lack of exercise. Modern scholars generally believe that McKinley died of pancreatic necrosis , a condition that is difficult to treat today and would have been completely impossible for
19740-417: Was taken to the Milburn House by the electric ambulance. The First Lady had not been told of the President's shooting; once the surgery was complete, the presidential physician, Presley M. Rixey , gently told her what had occurred. Ida McKinley took the news calmly; she wrote in her diary, "Went to Niagra [ sic ] Falls this morning. My Dearest was receiving in a public hall on our return, when he
19881-560: Was there has been disputed. Any structure that did exist was destroyed in 1663 during the Second Esopus War . By 1680 a small stone building was in use there. Records of the time describe it as 60 feet (18 m) wide long and 45 feet (14 m) wide. A later history notes that it was extravagantly furnished for the time and place with stained glass windows bearing coats of arms . Services of that era were austere and lengthy, conducted in strict accordance with Calvinist beliefs. On
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