The Okeechobean Sea was a Cenozoic eutropical subsea, which along with the Choctaw Sea , occupied the eastern Gulf of Mexico basin system bounding Florida.
112-646: The Okeechobean Sea was named for Lake Okeechobee of southern Early Oligocene Florida . It occupied southern Florida from what is now Tampa, Florida , to the Kissimmee River and to Martin County on the east and southward across the Everglades to the tip of Florida. The Okeechobean (including its subseas) survived until the Pleistocene making it the longest-lived paleosea in eastern North America. The Okeechobean Sea
224-498: A hurricane in 1928 breached the old dike, flooding surrounding communities and killing at least 2,500 people. Water flows into Lake Okeechobee from several sources, including the Kissimmee River , Fisheating Creek , Lake Istokpoga , Taylor Creek, and smaller sources such as Nubbin Slough and Nicodemus Slough. The Kissimmee River is the largest source, providing more than 60% of the water flowing into Lake Okeechobee. Fisheating Creek
336-516: A decline in basic activity level and information usage at 1000 ppm, when compared to 500 ppm. However a review of the literature found that a reliable subset of studies on the phenomenon of carbon dioxide induced cognitive impairment to only show a small effect on high-level decision making (for concentrations below 5000 ppm). Most of the studies were confounded by inadequate study designs, environmental comfort, uncertainties in exposure doses and differing cognitive assessments used. Similarly
448-446: A fixed structure. However, in a Coulomb explosion imaging experiment, an instantaneous image of the molecular structure can be deduced. Such an experiment has been performed for carbon dioxide. The result of this experiment, and the conclusion of theoretical calculations based on an ab initio potential energy surface of the molecule, is that none of the molecules in the gas phase are ever exactly linear. This counter-intuitive result
560-611: A glass state similar to other members of its elemental family, like silicon dioxide (silica glass) and germanium dioxide . Unlike silica and germania glasses, however, carbonia glass is not stable at normal pressures and reverts to gas when pressure is released. At temperatures and pressures above the critical point, carbon dioxide behaves as a supercritical fluid known as supercritical carbon dioxide . Table of thermal and physical properties of saturated liquid carbon dioxide: Table of thermal and physical properties of carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) at atmospheric pressure: Carbon dioxide
672-425: A marker pole, which resembled from a distance a monkey's head inside a box. This shallow lake has been previously studied for its algal blooms. Lake Okeechobee is known for its algal blooms in consequence of increased eutrophication . Algal blooms like this can be harmful to the environment, including the lake's flora and fauna, because of released toxins. The vegetation at Lake Okeechobee is important in maintaining
784-491: A mature forest will produce as much CO 2 from respiration and decomposition of dead specimens (e.g., fallen branches) as is used in photosynthesis in growing plants. Contrary to the long-standing view that they are carbon neutral, mature forests can continue to accumulate carbon and remain valuable carbon sinks , helping to maintain the carbon balance of Earth's atmosphere. Additionally, and crucially to life on earth, photosynthesis by phytoplankton consumes dissolved CO 2 in
896-428: A much larger denominator and a much smaller value than the true K a1 . The bicarbonate ion is an amphoteric species that can act as an acid or as a base, depending on pH of the solution. At high pH, it dissociates significantly into the carbonate ion ( CO 2− 3 ): In organisms, carbonic acid production is catalysed by the enzyme known as carbonic anhydrase . In addition to altering its acidity,
1008-416: A study on the effects of the concentration of CO 2 in motorcycle helmets has been criticized for having dubious methodology in not noting the self-reports of motorcycle riders and taking measurements using mannequins. Further when normal motorcycle conditions were achieved (such as highway or city speeds) or the visor was raised the concentration of CO 2 declined to safe levels (0.2%). Poor ventilation
1120-467: A typical single C–O bond, and shorter than most other C–O multiply bonded functional groups such as carbonyls . Since it is centrosymmetric, the molecule has no electric dipole moment . As a linear triatomic molecule, CO 2 has four vibrational modes as shown in the diagram. In the symmetric and the antisymmetric stretching modes, the atoms move along the axis of the molecule. There are two bending modes, which are degenerate , meaning that they have
1232-475: A very short dry period lasting possibly 1 million years. During this time the Middle Miocene Disruption continues. Forests slowly draw in massive amounts of carbon dioxide , gradually lowering the level of atmospheric CO 2 to approximately 100 ppmv. Metaxytherium floridanum a form of manatee , and long beaked dolphin ( Pomatodelphis ) swam this subsea. The fossil of Mesoplodon longirostris
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#17328520478691344-485: A waste product. In turn, oxygen is consumed and CO 2 is released as waste by all aerobic organisms when they metabolize organic compounds to produce energy by respiration . CO 2 is released from organic materials when they decay or combust, such as in forest fires. When carbon dioxide dissolves in water, it forms carbonate and mainly bicarbonate ( HCO − 3 ), which causes ocean acidification as atmospheric CO 2 levels increase. Carbon dioxide
1456-469: Is Emiliania huxleyi whose calcite scales have formed the basis of many sedimentary rocks such as limestone , where what was previously atmospheric carbon can remain fixed for geological timescales. Plants can grow as much as 50% faster in concentrations of 1,000 ppm CO 2 when compared with ambient conditions, though this assumes no change in climate and no limitation on other nutrients. Elevated CO 2 levels cause increased growth reflected in
1568-419: Is 304.128(15) K (30.978(15) °C) at 7.3773(30) MPa (72.808(30) atm). Another form of solid carbon dioxide observed at high pressure is an amorphous glass-like solid. This form of glass, called carbonia , is produced by supercooling heated CO 2 at extreme pressures (40–48 GPa , or about 400,000 atmospheres) in a diamond anvil . This discovery confirmed the theory that carbon dioxide could exist in
1680-566: Is 53% more dense than dry air, but is long lived and thoroughly mixes in the atmosphere. About half of excess CO 2 emissions to the atmosphere are absorbed by land and ocean carbon sinks . These sinks can become saturated and are volatile, as decay and wildfires result in the CO 2 being released back into the atmosphere. CO 2 is eventually sequestered (stored for the long term) in rocks and organic deposits like coal , petroleum and natural gas . Nearly all CO2 produced by humans goes into
1792-406: Is a chemical compound with the chemical formula CO 2 . It is made up of molecules that each have one carbon atom covalently double bonded to two oxygen atoms. It is found in the gas state at room temperature and at normally-encountered concentrations it is odorless. As the source of carbon in the carbon cycle , atmospheric CO 2 is the primary carbon source for life on Earth. In
1904-534: Is afflicted with the invasive terrestrial plant torpedograss ( Panicum repens ). The concerning levels of total phosphorus (TP) began to be noticed in 1970s, and since then inputs of TP have averaged 516 tons per year. These yearly inputs can vary based on the volume of runoff entering the lake. The years 2005 and 2018 had particularly large volumes of water and TP inputs in relation to hurricanes increasing runoff. Despite limiting TP inputs by decreasing phosphorus use in agriculture, Lake Okeechobee has yet to reach
2016-415: Is an end product of cellular respiration in organisms that obtain energy by breaking down sugars, fats and amino acids with oxygen as part of their metabolism . This includes all plants, algae and animals and aerobic fungi and bacteria. In vertebrates , the carbon dioxide travels in the blood from the body's tissues to the skin (e.g., amphibians ) or the gills (e.g., fish ), from where it dissolves in
2128-402: Is commercially used in its solid form, commonly known as " dry ice ". The solid-to-gas phase transition occurs at 194.7 Kelvin and is called sublimation . The symmetry of a carbon dioxide molecule is linear and centrosymmetric at its equilibrium geometry. The length of the carbon–oxygen bond in carbon dioxide is 116.3 pm , noticeably shorter than the roughly 140 pm length of
2240-551: Is found on the Miami Terrace dating to ~15.97—11.61 Ma. The Polk Subsea was named for the rich fossil beds of Polk County, Florida and contemporary with the Walton Subsea. During this rather short period of time of 400,000 years, the peninsula's southwestern edge develops a shallow yet broad lagoon system. Near western DeSoto County , erosion creates water-filled sinkholes and rivers with sediments from this erosion enhancing
2352-474: Is found to be inversely correlated with the amount of suspended solids in the lake. Suspended solids varied with season with higher amounts of suspended solids in the winter, and thus less transparency on average, and lower amounts of suspended solids in the summer, leading to more transparency on average. Secchi depths not only varied across seasons, but also by location in the lake. Secchi depths ranges average from about 0.2 to 0.5 metres (0.66 to 1.64 ft) in
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#17328520478692464-486: Is it the largest lake in Florida and the largest lake in the southeast United States, it is also too large to see across. The Kissimmee River , located directly north of Lake Okeechobee, is the lake's primary source. The lake is divided between Glades , Okeechobee , Martin , Palm Beach and Hendry counties. All five counties meet at one point near the center of the lake. The earliest recorded people to have lived around
2576-538: Is now the peninsula's tip, was a deep water lagoon with many banks made of oyster bars and coral reefs. The largest bank was located on its southwest. Also by this time, phytoplankton blooms along the western coast poured into the Arcadia Subsea. The Middle Miocene Climatic Optimum of ~16 Ma. carbon dioxide and a climate change increases, warming the planet. The Middle Miocene disruption , an extinction of many mammal genera begins. The Arcadia begins to regress with
2688-632: Is one of the main causes of excessive CO 2 concentrations in closed spaces, leading to poor indoor air quality . Carbon dioxide differential above outdoor concentrations at steady state conditions (when the occupancy and ventilation system operation are sufficiently long that CO 2 concentration has stabilized) are sometimes used to estimate ventilation rates per person. Higher CO 2 concentrations are associated with occupant health, comfort and performance degradation. ASHRAE Standard 62.1–2007 ventilation rates may result in indoor concentrations up to 2,100 ppm above ambient outdoor conditions. Thus if
2800-410: Is ordinarily a difficult and slow reaction: The redox potential for this reaction near pH 7 is about −0.53 V versus the standard hydrogen electrode . The nickel-containing enzyme carbon monoxide dehydrogenase catalyses this process. Photoautotrophs (i.e. plants and cyanobacteria ) use the energy contained in sunlight to photosynthesize simple sugars from CO 2 absorbed from
2912-405: Is produced as a by-product. Ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase oxygenase , commonly abbreviated to RuBisCO, is the enzyme involved in the first major step of carbon fixation, the production of two molecules of 3-phosphoglycerate from CO 2 and ribulose bisphosphate , as shown in the diagram at left. RuBisCO is thought to be the single most abundant protein on Earth. Phototrophs use
3024-472: Is the true first acid dissociation constant, defined as where the denominator includes only covalently bound H 2 CO 3 and does not include hydrated CO 2 (aq). The much smaller and often-quoted value near 4.16 × 10 (or pK a1 = 6.38) is an apparent value calculated on the (incorrect) assumption that all dissolved CO 2 is present as carbonic acid, so that Since most of the dissolved CO 2 remains as CO 2 molecules, K a1 (apparent) has
3136-507: Is the largest freshwater lake in the U.S. state of Florida . It is the eighth-largest natural freshwater lake among the 50 states of the United States and the second-largest natural freshwater lake contained entirely within the contiguous 48 states , after Lake Michigan . Okeechobee covers 730 square miles (1,900 km ) and is exceptionally shallow for a lake of its size, with an average depth of only 9 feet (2.7 metres). Not only
3248-574: Is the last one of delta creation upwelling and one of fast erosion in Florida with sediments quite rapidly flowing into the Everglades area creating what is known as the Immokolee Delta. The Okeechobean flooded again creating the Murdock Subsea and covering the Immokolee Delta which disbursed its sediments further south into the glades. What remained was a long deep water feature on the eastern side of
3360-545: Is the main cause of these increased CO 2 concentrations, which are the primary cause of climate change . Its concentration in Earth's pre-industrial atmosphere since late in the Precambrian was regulated by organisms and geological features. Plants , algae and cyanobacteria use energy from sunlight to synthesize carbohydrates from carbon dioxide and water in a process called photosynthesis , which produces oxygen as
3472-531: Is the second largest source for the lake, with about 9% of the total inflow. Prior to the 20th century, Lake Istokpoga was connected to the Kissimmee River by Istokpoga Creek, but during the rainy season Lake Istokpoga overflowed, with the water flowing in a 40 km wide sheet across the Indian Prairie into Lake Okeechobee. Today Lake Istokpoga drains into Lake Okeechobee through several canals that drain
Okeechobean Sea - Misplaced Pages Continue
3584-419: Is trivially due to the fact that the nuclear motion volume element vanishes for linear geometries. This is so for all molecules except diatomic molecules . Carbon dioxide is soluble in water, in which it reversibly forms H 2 CO 3 (carbonic acid), which is a weak acid , because its ionization in water is incomplete. The hydration equilibrium constant of carbonic acid is, at 25 °C: Hence,
3696-465: Is used in CO 2 scrubbers and has been suggested as a possible starting point for carbon capture and storage by amine gas treating . Only very strong nucleophiles, like the carbanions provided by Grignard reagents and organolithium compounds react with CO 2 to give carboxylates : In metal carbon dioxide complexes , CO 2 serves as a ligand , which can facilitate the conversion of CO 2 to other chemicals. The reduction of CO 2 to CO
3808-582: The DeSoto Delta . This delta filled in approximately 50% of the western Okeechobee Basin producing a platform. Fossils of the beaked whale , river dolphin , and a form of toothed whale ( Kentriodontidae ) dating to ~7.9—7.8 Ma. are uncovered in Polk County. The Murdock Subsea was named after Murdock Station Formation and followed the worldwide cooling and sea level lowering of the Messinian stage. This period
3920-482: The Kissimmee River Valley and the Everglades . The trough is underlain by clay deposits that compacted more than the limestone and sand deposits did along both coasts of peninsular Florida. Until about 6,000 years ago, the trough was dry land. As the sea level rose, the water table in Florida also rose and rainfall increased. From 6,000 to 4,000 years ago, wetlands formed building up peat deposits. Eventually
4032-539: The Okeechobee Hurricane crossed over the lake, killing thousands. The Red Cross reported 1,836 deaths, a figure which the National Weather Service initially accepted, but in 2003, the number was revised to "at least 2,500". In both cases the catastrophe was caused by flooding from a storm surge when strong winds drove water over the 6.6-foot (2-meter) mud dike that circled the lake at the time. After
4144-492: The South Florida Water Management District , arsenic levels on the northern part of the lake bed were as much as four times the limit for residential land. Independent tests found the mud too polluted for use on agricultural or commercial lands, and therefore difficult to dispose of on land. Through early 2008, the lake remained well below normal levels, with large portions of the lake bed exposed above
4256-711: The Tampa, Florida and reef system. It is contemporary with the Chattahoochee Subsea in the Florida Panhandle . During this period, Orange Island grew in size toward the west and north while the Gulf Trough or Suwannee Strait narrowed and became shallower. On Orange Island's western side, upwelling systems were taking place with a system of lagoons and coral islands not unlike the Florida Keys evolving. In what would become
4368-660: The Treasure Coast , St. Lucie estuary, and the Indian River Lagoon . In May 2016, 33 square miles (85 km ) of the southern portion of the lake were affected by an algal bloom . The outbreak was possibly due in part to nutrient-laden waters reaching the lake from farms and other sources. Microcystin was found among the other species involved in the outbreak. In July 2016, the Federal Government denied Governor Rick Scott's request for Federal Disaster Aid to
4480-518: The continental shelf to almost Key West . Oolite was created behind reef sections from pounding seas originating off of Africa due to a submerged Bahamas Bank. The Lake Worth Subsea was the last flooding stage of this area. It regressed during the Wisconsin Ice Age and infilled to become a shallow basin creating the Everglades . Lake Okeechobee Lake Okeechobee ( US : / oʊ k i ˈ tʃ oʊ b i / oh-kee- CHOH -bee )
4592-738: The Amalgamated Phosphate Mine; Brewster Phosphate Mine, Polk County, Florida. The Charlotte Subsea was named for the fossil beds found in Charlotte County, Florida . A rather short-lived subsea, during this period the rivers and lakes of the DeSoto Plain are complete and produce vast quantities of sediment deposited in the Okeechobee Basin. The banks on the western side of the Charlotte Subsea force material southward producing
Okeechobean Sea - Misplaced Pages Continue
4704-455: The Everglades, the carbonate banks grew and the area became shallower. The Gulf Trough closed between Georgia and Florida forming the complete peninsula allowing southward movement of Florida's first land mammals such as the early canids Enhydrocyon , Osbornodon , and Phlaocyon preying upon the proto-horse Miohippus , deer-like Hypertragulidae , and the extinct camel, Nothokemas . The fossil record shows that land animals entered
4816-669: The Hawthornian oyster and barnacle bars. The Nashua Lagoon System extends along the entire east coast of Florida. The Caloosahatchee Subsea was named for the Caloosahatchee Formation . During this period, the Tamiami Psedoatoll feature of islands and reefs became wider and the marine environment was shallower and more of a connected lagoon system. The west and south of the Okeechobean was covered with mangrove. During
4928-708: The Indian Prairie, and into the Kissimmee River through a canal that has replaced Istokpoga Creek. Historically, outflow from the lake was by sheet flow over the Everglades, but most of the outflow has been diverted to dredged canals connecting to coastal rivers, such as the Miami Canal to the Miami River , the New River on the east, and the Caloosahatchee River (via the Caloosahatchee Canal and Lake Hicpochee) on
5040-603: The Murdock. Upwelling with plankton blooms continued along the west coast supporting well as oysters and similar animals. Balaenoptera floridana and Delphinidae were found in Lee County . and Bone Valley Formation. The Tamiami Subsea is named after the Tamiami Formation . This period is marked by a warming climate and one in which produced tropical conditions in Florida. Upwelling of cooler, nutrient rich water halted and
5152-542: The Okeechobean Sea locality was much shallower than previous. Geologic features were greatly enlarged compared with the aforementioned Loxahatchee Subsea. Islands and mangrove forests filled 75% of the Okeechobean basin. The Lake Worth Subsea was named for Lake Worth Formation and lasted from ~300,000—75,000 years ago, a period of 0.225 million years . The eastern lagoon of Okeechobean Sea had filled in with sands, quartz, and carbonates. A series of keys extended along
5264-686: The Okeechobee Basin returned to evolving through carbonate sedimentation with both Immokolee and DeSoto deltas now were covered and looking similar to the Bahama Banks . During the Tamiami Subsea's creation, the basin of the Everglades was encompassed by the Everglades Pseudoatoll . This feature's north side supported mangrove jungles and estuaries extending to the mainland and Kissimmee Embayment. The east, west, and south were created by reefs and islands of over 100 species of coral which grew atop
5376-666: The Tomeu Islands on the west was the Capeletti Reef Tract . The southeastern and Atlantic facing part of the peninsula supported the Miami and Palm Beach Archipelagos . Connected and to the south of that and what would be the future Florida Keys was the Monroe Reef Tract . The Belle Glade Subsea was named after Belle Glade, Florida and lasted ~300,000 to 75,000 years ago, a period of ~ 0.225 million years . During this time
5488-624: The Treasure Coast as a result of the toxic algal bloom in the St. Lucie Estuary which was responsible for millions of dollars of lost income for local businesses: this reaffirmed the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) finding that the lake's water quality was a State issue. The Florida Department of Environmental Protection and Martin County had carried out toxicity testing on the algae, but had not funded any work to clean up
5600-880: The aimed target set by the South Florida Water Management District's in the 1980s of reducing the lake's TP by 40 μg/L. Although proposed by the South Florida Water Management District, this initiative of limiting the lake's TP to 40 μg/L was adopted by The Lake Okeechobee Technical Advisory Committee (LOTAC), the United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA), and the Florida Department of Environmental Protection (FDEP), but phosphorus inputs have yet to be controlled enough to reach this goal. Concerning estimates of phosphorus assimilation capacity indicates that even if phosphorus inputs were to be stopped, or severely limited,
5712-439: The air and water: Carbon dioxide is colorless. At low concentrations, the gas is odorless; however, at sufficiently high concentrations, it has a sharp, acidic odor. At standard temperature and pressure , the density of carbon dioxide is around 1.98 kg/m , about 1.53 times that of air . Carbon dioxide has no liquid state at pressures below 0.51795(10) MPa (5.11177(99) atm ). At a pressure of 1 atm (0.101325 MPa),
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#17328520478695824-444: The air, carbon dioxide is transparent to visible light but absorbs infrared radiation , acting as a greenhouse gas . Carbon dioxide is soluble in water and is found in groundwater , lakes , ice caps , and seawater . It is a trace gas in Earth's atmosphere at 421 parts per million (ppm) , or about 0.042% (as of May 2022) having risen from pre-industrial levels of 280 ppm or about 0.028%. Burning fossil fuels
5936-430: The atmosphere. Less than 1% of CO2 produced annually is put to commercial use, mostly in the fertilizer industry and in the oil and gas industry for enhanced oil recovery . Other commercial applications include food and beverage production, metal fabrication, cooling, fire suppression and stimulating plant growth in greenhouses. Carbon dioxide cannot be liquefied at atmospheric pressure. Low-temperature carbon dioxide
6048-413: The canal is part of the lake, but in others it is separated from the open lake by low grassy islands such as Kreamer Island . During the drought of 2007–2008, this canal remained navigable while much of surrounding areas were too shallow or even above the water line. Even when the waters are higher, navigating the open lake can be difficult, whereas the rim canal is easier, so to reach a specific location in
6160-504: The carbonate bank on the southwest and producing large oyster bioherms along the seaward side of the lagoon system as well as banks to the south. The upwelling of nutrients and phytoplankton of the Arcadia Subsea continued and increased eventually flooding the lagoon system and Okeechobee Basin and contributing to the building of the Peace River Formation . Sperm whale ( Kogiopsis floridana ), 9.1—9.0 Ma. Fossil specimen found in
6272-697: The colder Eocene . By the mid Rupelian, the global climate warms and Florida consists of just Orange Island , a somewhat long island with coral reefs extending as far north as Alabama and Georgia forming the Salt Mountain formation and Flint River Formation respectively. Along its west coast lay the Pasco Reef System. separated from the mainland by the Gulf Trough or Suwannee Strait also with coral reefs. Orange Island lay just 150 km (93 mi) from Georgia. Two deep carbonate features will eventually become
6384-806: The condition. There are few studies of the health effects of long-term continuous CO 2 exposure on humans and animals at levels below 1%. Occupational CO 2 exposure limits have been set in the United States at 0.5% (5000 ppm) for an eight-hour period. At this CO 2 concentration, International Space Station crew experienced headaches, lethargy, mental slowness, emotional irritation, and sleep disruption. Studies in animals at 0.5% CO 2 have demonstrated kidney calcification and bone loss after eight weeks of exposure. A study of humans exposed in 2.5 hour sessions demonstrated significant negative effects on cognitive abilities at concentrations as low as 0.1% (1000 ppm) CO 2 likely due to CO 2 induced increases in cerebral blood flow. Another study observed
6496-510: The degenerate pair of bending modes at 667 cm (wavelength 15.0 μm). The symmetric stretching mode does not create an electric dipole so is not observed in IR spectroscopy, but it is detected in Raman spectroscopy at 1388 cm (wavelength 7.20 μm), with a Fermi resonance doublet at 1285 cm . In the gas phase, carbon dioxide molecules undergo significant vibrational motions and do not keep
6608-566: The dispersing effects of wind, it can collect in sheltered/pocketed locations below average ground level, causing animals located therein to be suffocated. Carrion feeders attracted to the carcasses are then also killed. Children have been killed in the same way near the city of Goma by CO 2 emissions from the nearby volcano Mount Nyiragongo . The Swahili term for this phenomenon is mazuku . Adaptation to increased concentrations of CO 2 occurs in humans, including modified breathing and kidney bicarbonate production, in order to balance
6720-541: The effects of blood acidification ( acidosis ). Several studies suggested that 2.0 percent inspired concentrations could be used for closed air spaces (e.g. a submarine ) since the adaptation is physiological and reversible, as deterioration in performance or in normal physical activity does not happen at this level of exposure for five days. Yet, other studies show a decrease in cognitive function even at much lower levels. Also, with ongoing respiratory acidosis , adaptation or compensatory mechanisms will be unable to reverse
6832-551: The electrical conductivity of fully deionized water without CO 2 saturation is comparably low in relation to these data. CO 2 is a potent electrophile having an electrophilic reactivity that is comparable to benzaldehyde or strongly electrophilic α,β-unsaturated carbonyl compounds . However, unlike electrophiles of similar reactivity, the reactions of nucleophiles with CO 2 are thermodynamically less favored and are often found to be highly reversible. The reversible reaction of carbon dioxide with amines to make carbamates
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#17328520478696944-411: The extensive saturation of the lake would result in it taking years before improved water quality can be observed. These inputs of phosphorus provide optimal conditions for harmful algal blooms (HABs). Cyanobacteria (CyanoHABs), which need nitrogen and phosphorus for growth, have the ability to fix atmospheric nitrogen. With this ability along with the high inputs of phosphorus, the shallow nature of
7056-882: The fauna are so reliant on the macrophytes for habitat, food, and protection from predation, a decrease in macrophyte diversity and abundance has negative consequences on fauna richness. Macrophyte abundance is dependent on many abiotic factors such as water depth, water transparency and light availability, and nutrients, along with influence of biotic factors. Increasing phytoplankton and algal blooms from eutrophication and nutrient abundance can decrease water transparency and light availability to submerged macrophytes, providing one explanation how macrophytes are sensitive to eutrophication. Some submerged macrophytes that have been recorded at Lake Okeechobee include southern naiad ( Najas guadalupensis ), Illinois pondweed ( Potamogeton illlinoensis ), vallisneria ( Vallisneria americana ), and hydrilla ( Hydrilla verticillata ). Lake Okeechobee
7168-414: The first time it exceeded 12 feet (3.66 m) since January 2007. Over a seven-day period (including some storms that preceded Fay), about 8 inches (20 cm) of rain fell directly onto the lake. During construction of the dike , earth was excavated along the inside perimeter, resulting in a deep channel which runs along the perimeter of the lake. This channel is known as the rim canal. In most places
7280-485: The frigid late Calabrian stage yet contained several ice ages and interglacials of its own. During one of several Pre-Illinoian glaciations, the Loxahatchee Subsea then consisted of a freshwater lake called Lake Immokolee filled with calcarenite charaphytes and siliclastic material from what would eventually be the Kissimmee River . It was approximately four times the size of Lake Okeechobee and existed until
7392-469: The gas deposits directly to a solid at temperatures below 194.6855(30) K (−78.4645(30) °C) and the solid sublimes directly to a gas above this temperature. In its solid state, carbon dioxide is commonly called dry ice . Liquid carbon dioxide forms only at pressures above 0.51795(10) MPa (5.11177(99) atm); the triple point of carbon dioxide is 216.592(3) K (−56.558(3) °C) at 0.51795(10) MPa (5.11177(99) atm) (see phase diagram). The critical point
7504-597: The harvestable yield of crops, with wheat, rice and soybean all showing increases in yield of 12–14% under elevated CO 2 in FACE experiments. Increased atmospheric CO 2 concentrations result in fewer stomata developing on plants which leads to reduced water usage and increased water-use efficiency . Studies using FACE have shown that CO 2 enrichment leads to decreased concentrations of micronutrients in crop plants. This may have knock-on effects on other parts of ecosystems as herbivores will need to eat more food to gain
7616-490: The lake and what their respective contributions are. They found that ammonium based fertilizers and soil nitrogen were the largest contributors to nitrate found in the lake. Manure and precipitation were two other sources of nitrate. These results can aid in monitoring and regulation of nitrogen uses around Okeechobee, and subsequently aid in restoring the lake. [REDACTED] Media related to Lake Okeechobee at Wikimedia Commons Carbon dioxide Carbon dioxide
7728-520: The lake before 2000, to nitrogen fixing cyanobacteria dominating the lake after 2000 and up until 2004 as phosphorus inputs were high and nitrogen was limiting. This time was referred to as the "pre-hurricane" time period, and the period after the 2004–2005 hurricane season was referred to as the "post-hurricane" period. During the post-hurricane period, light became limiting and influenced phytoplankton composition. Kramer et al. (2018) studied Lake Okeechobee during and after its major 2016 algal bloom that
7840-754: The lake depending on seasonality, site depth, sediments, and turbidity. Yearly fish recruitment was found to be positively correlated with increased water levels, providing more substrate and protection. These fish populations support different wading birds, including various species of egrets , ibises , wood storks , and herons , along with alligator populations. Fish diets in Lake Okeechobee depend on macro-invertebrates and zooplankton , such as calanoids , cyclopoids , and cladocerans . Lake Okeechobee supports over 3,800 different arthropods , including insects and arachnids, along with around 400 species of nematodes . Vascular macrophytes are important in
7952-423: The lake has a surface area of 1,730 square kilometres (670 sq mi). The lake is normally mixed, but on days with direct sunlight and limited wind, the lake can exhibit diurnal thermal stratification. Although daily thermal stratification is brief, a hypolimnion can form during this time resulting in decreased amounts of dissolved oxygen at the lake bottom. Lake transparency, measured as secchi depth ,
8064-399: The lake is a limestone basin, with a maximum depth of 13 feet (4 m). Its water is somewhat murky from runoff from surrounding farmlands. The Army Corps of Engineers targets keeping the surface of the lake between 12.5 and 15.5 feet (4 and 5 m) above sea level . The lake is enclosed by a 40 feet (12 m) high Herbert Hoover Dike built by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers after
8176-451: The lake it is often easiest to use the rim canal to get close then take one of the many channels into the lake. In 2007, during a drought, state water and wildlife managers removed thousands of truckloads of toxic mud from the lake's floor, in an effort to restore the lake's natural sandy base and create clearer water and better habitat for wildlife. The mud contained elevated levels of arsenic and other pesticides . According to tests from
8288-531: The lake may have had different limiting factors based on the light and nutrient availability in those locations. At Lake Okeechobee specifically, algal blooms were found to have strong effects during the winter on the western side of the lake. In the limnological study conducted by Beaver et al. (2013) at Lake Okeechobee, lake phytoplankton composition was examined in response to conditions of anthropogenic inputs, including nutrient inputs, along with natural events, like extreme weather conditions. Lake Okeechobee
8400-507: The lake providing plenty of sunlight, and cyanobacteria's preference for warm waters, Lake Okeechobee is an optimal environment for a cyanobacteria algal bloom. The presence of various species of cyanobacteria in Lake Okeechobee have been recorded since the 1980s. Cyanobacteria produce various toxins, including microcystin , which is not only harmful to the environment, but humans. In 2016, Lake Okeechobee experienced an extensive cyanobacteria algal bloom that lasted from May to mid-July. During
8512-455: The lake rose 18 inches (46 cm) after Hurricane Wilma in 2005. Hurricane Ernesto increased water levels by 1 foot (30 cm) in 2006, the last time it exceeded 13 feet (4.0 m). However, the lake's level began dropping soon after and by July 2007, it had dropped more than 4 feet (1.2 m) to its all-time low of 8.82 feet (2.69 m). In August 2008, Tropical Storm Fay increased water levels to 2 feet (0.65 m) above sea level,
8624-520: The lake to avoid jeopardizing the integrity of the Hoover dike holding back the water from inundating the surrounding populated area. Some claim that sugar plantations have been pumping polluted water from their flooded fields into the lake, but U.S. Sugar claims back pumping is only to avoid flooding of communities, never to protect farmland. In March 2015, the rate was 1 billion US gallons (3,800,000 m ) daily. This results in pollution problems for
8736-511: The lake were the Calusa . They called the lake Mayaimi , meaning "big water", as reported in the 16th century, by Hernando de Escalante Fontaneda . The name Okeechobee comes from the Hitchiti words oki (water) and chubi (big). Slightly later in the 16th century, René Goulaine de Laudonnière reported hearing about a large freshwater lake in southern Florida called Serrope . By the 18th century
8848-476: The lake. Research done by James et al. (2009) aimed to evaluate and compare shallow lakes, including Lake Okeechobee and Lake Taihu in P.R. China, including their light, temperature, and nutrient dynamics. This research provides important knowledge on conditions that influence algal blooms. They found that for both lakes, wind, nutrients, water depth, and water transparency varied seasonally, and this had implications on phytoplankton abundance. Different locations in
8960-550: The lake; rising lake levels forced the CoE ( Army Corps of Engineers ) to release large volumes of polluted water from the lake through the St. Lucie River estuary to the east and the Caloosahatchee River estuary to the west. Thus the normal mix of fresh and salt water in those estuaries was replaced by a flood of polluted fresh water resulting in ecological damage . Since 2013, the CoE has been forced to pump billions of gallons of water out of
9072-541: The largely mythical lake was known to British mapmakers and chroniclers by the Spanish name Laguna de Espiritu Santo . In the early 19th century it was known as Mayacco Lake or Lake Mayaca after the Mayaca people , originally from the upper reaches of the St. Johns River , who moved near the lake in the early 18th century. The modern Port Mayaca on the east side of the lake preserves that name. The Battle of Lake Okeechobee
9184-570: The late Calabrian, ~1.8 Ma.—780,000 years ago, temperatures plunged to that or possibly colder than the Messinian - Zanclean with the Caloosahatchee basin rising and filling with rock and mineral deposits. All of the paleoseas experienced mass extinction of endemic species. The Loxahatchee Subsea was named after the Loxahatchee Formation . The Pre-Illinoian began as a general warming from
9296-444: The majority of the carbon dioxide is not converted into carbonic acid, but remains as CO 2 molecules, not affecting the pH. The relative concentrations of CO 2 , H 2 CO 3 , and the deprotonated forms HCO − 3 ( bicarbonate ) and CO 2− 3 ( carbonate ) depend on the pH . As shown in a Bjerrum plot , in neutral or slightly alkaline water (pH > 6.5), the bicarbonate form predominates (>50%) becoming
9408-402: The majority of the perimeter, although with significant breaks. It is used by hikers and bicyclists, and is wide enough to accommodate vehicles. The most common fish in this lake are largemouth bass , crappie , and bluegill . Pickerel have been less commonly caught. One area of the lake is called the "Monkey Box" area, after a strange now-eroded beacon located inside a wooden box on top of
9520-443: The most prevalent (>95%) at the pH of seawater. In very alkaline water (pH > 10.4), the predominant (>50%) form is carbonate. The oceans, being mildly alkaline with typical pH = 8.2–8.5, contain about 120 mg of bicarbonate per liter. Being diprotic , carbonic acid has two acid dissociation constants , the first one for the dissociation into the bicarbonate (also called hydrogen carbonate) ion ( HCO − 3 ): This
9632-573: The newly formed peninsula with the earliest land mammals unearthed in Hernando, County dating from ~24.8 Ma. The Arcadia Subsea was named after the Arcadia Formation and is contemporary with the Chipola Subsea to the north in the panhandle. During this period, the Florida peninsula forms as the Gulf Trough closes in the north and fills with mangrove forests. South of what was Orange Island and
9744-573: The next interglacial. The Okeechobean Sea experienced the last deposits of sediments allowing the Loxahatchee Subsea as well as the Kissimmee Valley and Okeechobee Plain to fill and become 50% covered with mangrove forests. This new Loxahatchee Subsea was filled with mangrove islands. The mangrove islands of southwest Florida are reduced to coastal swamps. On the eastern side of the new Loxahatchee Subsea, reefs became wide islands covered with pines and palmettos with deep water surrounding them. A lagoon
9856-411: The nutrient dynamics of lakes, along with creating micro-habitats for fish and invertebrates, and providing substrate for epiphytes . Macrophytes provide the lake with oxygen through photosynthesis, along with acting as a buffer for eutrophication by uptake of phosphorus. However, with increased eutrophication of lakes along with climate change, trends are showing decreased richness of macrophytes. Because
9968-432: The oxygen in the lake on which many aquatic biota rely. There are various species of biota in Lake Okeechobee that are interdependent on each other for food, habitat, and other resources. Multiple limnological studies and related research has been conducted at Lake Okeechobee. Lake Okeechobee is a shallow lake, with an average depth of only 3 metres (9.8 ft), and has a fetch of 54 kilometres (34 mi). In total,
10080-495: The presence of carbon dioxide in water also affects its electrical properties. When carbon dioxide dissolves in desalinated water, the electrical conductivity increases significantly from below 1 μS/cm to nearly 30 μS/cm. When heated, the water begins to gradually lose the conductivity induced by the presence of C O 2 {\displaystyle \mathrm {CO_{2}} } , especially noticeable as temperatures exceed 30 °C. The temperature dependence of
10192-499: The presence of sufficient oxygen, manifesting as dizziness, headache, visual and hearing dysfunction, and unconsciousness within a few minutes to an hour. Concentrations of more than 10% may cause convulsions, coma, and death. CO 2 levels of more than 30% act rapidly leading to loss of consciousness in seconds. Because it is heavier than air, in locations where the gas seeps from the ground (due to sub-surface volcanic or geothermal activity) in relatively high concentrations, without
10304-548: The previous 2015–16 winter, there were relatively high recorded temperatures, and higher than average rates of precipitation and storms in relation to the El Niño event. As mentioned, higher rates of precipitation can lead to greater influxes of runoff which unload more phosphorus into the lake, enabling harmful algal bloom. Along with this algal bloom in 2016, other algal blooms have been found to occur in relation to hurricanes and other climate events leading to increased water flow into
10416-496: The products of their photosynthesis as internal food sources and as raw material for the biosynthesis of more complex organic molecules, such as polysaccharides , nucleic acids , and proteins. These are used for their own growth, and also as the basis of the food chains and webs that feed other organisms, including animals such as ourselves. Some important phototrophs, the coccolithophores synthesise hard calcium carbonate scales. A globally significant species of coccolithophore
10528-420: The same amount of protein. The concentration of secondary metabolites such as phenylpropanoids and flavonoids can also be altered in plants exposed to high concentrations of CO 2 . Plants also emit CO 2 during respiration, and so the majority of plants and algae, which use C3 photosynthesis , are only net absorbers during the day. Though a growing forest will absorb many tons of CO 2 each year,
10640-411: The same frequency and same energy, because of the symmetry of the molecule. When a molecule touches a surface or touches another molecule, the two bending modes can differ in frequency because the interaction is different for the two modes. Some of the vibrational modes are observed in the infrared (IR) spectrum : the antisymmetric stretching mode at wavenumber 2349 cm (wavelength 4.25 μm) and
10752-546: The southwest. According to the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, the congressionally authorized uses for Lake Okeechobee include the following: The 30-metre (100 ft) wide dike surrounding Lake Okeechobee is the basis for the Lake Okeechobee Scenic Trail (LOST), a part of the Florida National Scenic Trail , a 1,300-mile-long (2,100 km) trail. There is a well-maintained paved pathway along
10864-399: The substructure of the Everglades . Basilosaurus cetoides and Zygorhiza , early toothed whales, as well as Protosiren , an extinct ancestor of the manatee , inhabit these waters and are the earliest mammal fossils uncovered with specimens from Citrus County in dolomite dating to ~40—37 Ma. and Marion County, Florida dating from 37.2—33.9 Ma. The Tampa Subsea was named for
10976-524: The twentieth century, farmers used agricultural tools—including tractors—to farm in the muck. By the 1960s, all of these settlements were abandoned. All of Lake Okeechobee was included in the boundaries of Palm Beach County when it was created in 1909. In 1963, the lake was divided among the five counties surrounding the lake. In 1926, the Great Miami Hurricane hit the Lake Okeechobee area, killing approximately 300 people. Two years later in 1928,
11088-616: The two hurricanes, the Florida State Legislature created the "Okeechobee Flood Control District". The organization was authorized to cooperate with the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers in actions to prevent similar disasters. U.S. President Herbert Hoover visited the area personally, and afterward the Corps designed a plan incorporating the construction of channels, gates, and nearly 140 miles of levees to protect areas surrounding Lake Okeechobee from overflow. The Okeechobee Waterway
11200-535: The upper ocean and thereby promotes the absorption of CO 2 from the atmosphere. Carbon dioxide content in fresh air (averaged between sea-level and 10 kPa level, i.e., about 30 km (19 mi) altitude) varies between 0.036% (360 ppm) and 0.041% (412 ppm), depending on the location. In humans, exposure to CO 2 at concentrations greater than 5% causes the development of hypercapnia and respiratory acidosis . Concentrations of 7% to 10% (70,000 to 100,000 ppm) may cause suffocation, even in
11312-430: The water flow into the area created a lake, drowning the wetlands. Along what is now the southern edge of the lake, the wetlands built up the layers of peat rapidly enough (reaching 13-to-14-foot or 4-to-4.3-metre thick) to form a dam, until the lake overflowed into the Everglades. At its capacity, the lake holds 1 trillion US gallons (3.8 × 10 m ) of water and is the headwaters of the Everglades. The floor of
11424-401: The water line. During this time, portions of the lake bed, covered in organic matter, dried out and caught fire. In late August 2008, Tropical Storm Fay inundated Florida with record amounts of rain. Lake Okeechobee received almost a 4 feet (1.2 m) increase in water level, including local run-off from the tributaries. In 2013, heavy rains in central Florida resulted in high runoff into
11536-400: The water, and a FEMA spokesman said that "The state has robust capability to respond to emergencies and disasters." On June 23, 2017, the South Florida Water Management District was granted emergency permission to back pump clean water into Lake Okeechobee to save animals and plants in bloated water conservation areas." Lake Okeechobee sits in a shallow geological trough that also underlies
11648-546: The water, or to the lungs from where it is exhaled. During active photosynthesis, plants can absorb more carbon dioxide from the atmosphere than they release in respiration. Carbon fixation is a biochemical process by which atmospheric carbon dioxide is incorporated by plants, algae and cyanobacteria into energy-rich organic molecules such as glucose , thus creating their own food by photosynthesis. Photosynthesis uses carbon dioxide and water to produce sugars from which other organic compounds can be constructed, and oxygen
11760-491: The winter, depending on location in the lake, and 0.3 to 0.9 metres (0.98 to 2.95 ft) in the summer. Secchi depths of 1.7 metres (5.6 ft) have been recorded, indicating higher transparencies than average for the lake. Lake Okeechobee is home to more than 40 species of native fish, along with introduced species , such as the Mayan cichlid, Cichlasoma urophthalmus . Fish species displaying varying distributions throughout
11872-553: Was a great location for this study because of its long history of agricultural runoff causing algal blooms, along with its location in the Gulf of Mexico making it susceptible to weather events like tropical storms and hurricanes. From 2000–2008, phytoplankton samples were collected using an integrated tube sampler, and weather conditions, including temperature and wind conditions, were recorded. They found that phytoplankton composition transitioned from non-nitrogen fixing cyanobacteria dominating
11984-485: Was a limiting factor due to the extreme amounts of phosphorus in the freshwater ecosystem . The field experiments conducted with this study found that microcystin , the toxin produced by cyanobacteria, was produced in higher quantities when there was more nitrogen present. A study conducted by Pei, Zhang, and Mitsch (2020) examined nitrate concentrations, and their respective isotope compositions, in hopes of determining origins of major inflows and outflows of nitrogen into
12096-456: Was created on the east with warmer water than surrounding water creating a refuge for corals and mollusks which became extinct along the eastern U.S. coastline. In the west, Immokolee Island had been created from banks and reefs. To the east lay Miccosukee Island south of where Lake Okeechobee is currently. The Tomeu Islands were near future western Palm Beach County All three islands were covered with pine and palmetto forests. Flanking
12208-475: Was divided further into two groups of a combined 10 subseas based upon marine fauna. These subseas were named: The Dade Subsea was named for Dade County, Florida fossil reefs and is contemporary with the Bainbridge Subsea of North Florida. It is the last platform created from carbonate deposits and the predecessor of the recent Florida peninsula. It was formed out of the meteor impacts and tsunamis of
12320-458: Was fought on the northern shore of the lake in 1837 during the Seminole Wars . On the southern rim of Lake Okeechobee, three islands— Kreamer , Ritta , and Torey—were once settled by early pioneers. These settlements had a general store, post office, school, and town elections. Farming was the main vocation. The fertile land was challenging to farm because of the muddy muck. Over the first half of
12432-540: Was officially opened on March 23, 1937, by a procession of boats which left Fort Myers, Florida , on March 22 and arrived at Stuart, Florida , the following day. The dike was then named the " Herbert Hoover Dike " in honor of the president. The 1947 Fort Lauderdale Hurricane sent an even larger storm surge to the crest of the new dike, which was expanded again in the 1960s. Four recent hurricanes – Frances , Jeanne , Wilma , and Irma – had no major adverse effects on communities surrounding Lake Okeechobee, even though
12544-533: Was related to the El Niño event. They collected information on nutrient availability, phytoplankton communities, and the presence of toxins, along with the genetic makeup of the phytoplankton communities and their genetic abilities to produce toxins. Additionally, they conducted nutrient experiments to couple with their findings. They found that cyanobacteria with the ability to do nitrogen fixation were in high abundance during this 2016 algal bloom. During this time, nitrogen
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