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107-518: The oikos was the basic unit of society in most Greek city-states. For regular Attic usage within the context of families, the oikos referred to a line of descent from father to son from generation to generation. Alternatively, as Aristotle used it in his Politics , the term was sometimes used to refer to everybody living in a given house. Thus, the head of the oikos , along with his immediate family and his slaves, would all be encompassed. Large oikoi also had farms that were usually tended by

214-466: A civitas and the social class of the burgher or bourgeoisie . Since then states have expanded the status of citizenship to most of their national people , while the extent of citizen rights remain contested. Conceptually citizenship and nationality are different dimensions of state membership. Citizenship is focused on the internal political life of the state and nationality is the dimension of state membership in international law . Article 15 of

321-424: A passport . Though through discriminatory laws, like disfranchisement and outright apartheid citizens have been made second-class citizens . Historically, populations of states were mostly subjects , while citizenship was a particular status which originated in the rights of urban populations, like the rights of the male public of cities and republics , particularly ancient city-states , giving rise to

428-411: A bond, citizenship extends beyond basic kinship ties to unite people of different genetic backgrounds. It usually signifies membership in a political body. It is often based on or was a result of, some form of military service or expectation of future service. It usually involves some form of political participation, but this can vary from token acts to active service in government. It generally describes

535-429: A citizen on a number of bases. Every citizen has obligations that are required by law and some responsibilities that benefit the community. Obeying the laws of a country and paying taxes are some of the obligations required of citizens by law. Voting and community services form part of responsibilities of a citizen that benefits the community. The Constitution of Ghana (1992), Article 41, obligates citizens to promote

642-702: A citizen thereof." Under early U.S. laws, African Americans were not eligible for citizenship. In 1857, these laws were upheld in the US Supreme Court case Dred Scott v. Sandford , which ruled that "a free negro of the African race, whose ancestors were brought to this country and sold as slaves, is not a 'citizen' within the meaning of the Constitution of the United States," and that "the special rights and immunities guaranteed to citizens do not apply to them." It

749-667: A distinct Canadian Citizenship , automatically conferred upon most individuals born in Canada, with some exceptions, and defined the conditions under which one could become a naturalized citizen. The concept of Commonwealth citizenship was introduced in 1948 in the British Nationality Act 1948 . Other dominions adopted this principle such as New Zealand , by way of the British Nationality and New Zealand Citizenship Act 1948 . Citizenship most usually relates to membership of

856-427: A dominant role at funerals, weddings, and a large number of public festivals. There were many priestesses, and women also had their own festivals. At some festivals, though, it is believed that women were not present; nor may they have attended associated performances at theaters. Childbirth took place at home, with all the women of the household in attendance. A female midwife ( maia , μαῖα) may have been present, and

963-468: A few hundred years and, for humanity, that the concept of citizenship arose with the first laws . Polis meant both the political assembly of the city-state as well as the entire society. Citizenship concept has generally been identified as a western phenomenon. There is a general view that citizenship in ancient times was a simpler relation than modern forms of citizenship, although this view has come under scrutiny. The relation of citizenship has not been

1070-467: A fixed or static relation but constantly changed within each society, and that according to one view, citizenship might "really have worked" only at select periods during certain times, such as when the Athenian politician Solon made reforms in the early Athenian state. Citizenship was also contingent on a variety of biopolitical assemblages, such as the bioethics of emerging Theo-Philosophical traditions. It

1177-503: A house in Attica known as the Vari House had multiple possible places which may have been used for cooking, but no fixed fireplace, and no one place was used for the entire lifetime of the house. Nevett points out that houses frequently had a "complex pattern of spatial usage", with rooms being used for multiple purposes. A man was the head ( kyrios , κύριος ) of the household. The kyrios

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1284-491: A legal member of a specific nation. Modern citizenship has often been looked at as two competing underlying ideas: Responsibilities of citizens Responsibility is an action that individuals of a state or country must take note of in the interest of a common good. These responsibilities can be categorised into personal and civic responsibilities . Scholars suggest that the concept of citizenship contains many unresolved issues, sometimes called tensions, existing within

1391-531: A less discriminatory system. The 1918 constitution of revolutionary Russia granted citizenship to any foreigners who were living within the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic , so long as they were "engaged in work and [belonged] to the working class." It recognized "the equal rights of all citizens, irrespective of their racial or national connections" and declared oppression of any minority group or race "to be contrary to

1498-561: A limited right to free movement and residence in the Member States other than that of which the European Union citizen is a national. Articles 18-21 and 225 provide certain political rights. Union citizens have also extensive rights to move in order to exercise economic activity in any of the Member States which predate the introduction of Union citizenship. Citizenship of the Mercosur

1605-515: A male doctor called in if complications arose, but virtually no information on midwifery exists. Childbirth was regarded as polluting so was not allowed to take place on sacred ground. At birth the guardian (usually the father) had to decide whether to keep the child or expose it. If it was kept a purification ceremony took place on the fifth or seventh day after birth. It was the mother's duty to breast-feed her children, but wet nurses were employed, and pottery feeding bottles are also known. There

1712-411: A member of his original oikos , but was transferred to the oikos of his adopter. If he wished to return to his original oikos , he had to leave a son of his own in his adoptive oikos in order that it might continue. Animals were sometimes kept, indoors or out, not only for practical or economic purposes but as hobbies, for show or affectionately as pets. Homer mentions dogs; the most popular pet

1819-691: A member or sister dialect of the Ionic branch. Greek is the primary member of the Hellenic branch of the Indo-European language family. In ancient times, Greek had already come to exist in several dialects, one of which was Attic. The earliest attestations of Greek, dating from the 16th to 11th centuries BC, are written in Linear B , an archaic writing system used by the Mycenaean Greeks in writing their language;

1926-460: A naturalized citizen. The Naturalization Act of 1790 , the first law in U.S. history to establish rules for citizenship and naturalization, barred citizenship to all people who were not of European descent, stating that "any alien being a free white person, who shall have resided within the limits and under the jurisdiction of the United States for the term of two years, maybe admitted to becoming

2033-528: A particular locality, as well as membership in a mercantile or trading class; thus, individuals of respectable means and socioeconomic status were interchangeable with citizens. During this era, members of the nobility had a range of privileges above commoners (see aristocracy ), though political upheavals and reforms, beginning most prominently with the French Revolution , abolished privileges and created an egalitarian concept of citizenship. During

2140-428: A person with legal rights within a given political order. It almost always has an element of exclusion, meaning that some people are not citizens and that this distinction can sometimes be very important, or not important, depending on a particular society. Citizenship as a concept is generally hard to isolate intellectually and compare with related political notions since it relates to many other aspects of society such as

2247-420: A political one. For further information, see History of citizenship . Citizenship status, under social contract theory, carries with it both rights and duties . In this sense, citizenship was described as "a bundle of rights -- primarily, political participation in the life of the community, the right to vote, and the right to receive certain protection from the community, as well as obligations." Citizenship

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2354-595: A row). The movable nu can also be used to turn what would be a short syllable into a long syllable for use in meter . Attic and Euboean Ionic use rr in words, when Cycladean and Anatolian Ionic use rs: Attic and Euboean Ionic use tt, while Cycladean and Anatolian Ionic use ss: Attic Greek grammar follows Ancient Greek grammar to a large extent. References to Attic Grammar are usually in reference to peculiarities and exceptions from Ancient Greek Grammar. This section mentions only some of these Attic peculiarities. In addition to singular and plural numbers, Attic Greek had

2461-399: A son was given his portion of the inheritance, either before or after his father had died, he was said to have formed a new oikos . Therefore, new oikoi were formed every generation and would continue to be perpetuated through marriage and childbirth. The relationship between father and son was bound intrinsically to the transfer of family property: a legitimate son could expect to inherit

2568-400: A special elite status, and it can also be seen as a democratizing force and something that everybody has; the concept can include both senses. According to sociologist Arthur Stinchcombe , citizenship is based on the extent that a person can control one's own destiny within the group in the sense of being able to influence the government of the group. One last distinction within citizenship

2675-558: A struggle between the upper-class patrician interests against the lower-order working groups known as the plebeian class. A citizen came to be understood as a person "free to act by law, free to ask and expect the law's protection, a citizen of such and such a legal community, of such and such a legal standing in that community". Citizenship meant having rights to have possessions, immunities, expectations, which were "available in many kinds and degrees, available or unavailable to many kinds of person for many kinds of reason". The law itself

2782-399: A submissive relation with a lord or count, but rather indicated the bond between a person and the state in the rather abstract sense of having rights and duties. The modern idea of citizenship still respects the idea of political participation, but it is usually done through "elaborate systems of political representation at a distance" such as representative democracy . Modern citizenship

2889-432: A subordinate social status but demanded a greater role in the form of citizenship. Membership in guilds was an indirect form of citizenship in that it helped their members succeed financially. The rise of citizenship was linked to the rise of republicanism , according to one account, since independent citizens meant that kings had less power. Citizenship became an idealized, almost abstract, concept, and did not signify

2996-460: A total of one hour per week. The term oikophobia is used to refer to fear of the home or of household appliances. It has been extended by the philosopher Roger Scruton to mean rejection of one's home culture . This is also the sense in which conservative philosopher and classicist Benedict Beckeld has been using the term. Attic Greek Attic Greek is the Greek dialect of

3103-465: Is also in recent and contemporary use. Weber used it to characterise social groups where members contribute fixed quantities of goods and services, in kind, for use within the group rather than for the market (or which depend completely on such contributions made externally): one of five types of rational association for satisfying wants (He attributes the term in this sense to Karl Rodbertus ). Several dozen to several hundred people may be known, but

3210-501: Is applied to the totality of the citizens of their constituent countries combined. Citizenship at this level is a secondary concept, with rights deriving from national citizenship. The Maastricht Treaty introduced the concept of citizenship of the European Union . Article 17 (1) of the Treaty on European Union stated that: Citizenship of the Union is hereby established. Every person holding

3317-416: Is evidence from vase paintings for cradles of wickerwork or wood. From the 4th century BC children appear much more in artistic representations. Children played a number of games, and evidence of toys comes from literature, vase paintings and surviving examples of the actual toys. It was customary at various festivals to give children toys. When girls were about to marry and when boys reached adolescence, it

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3424-565: Is granted to eligible citizens of the Southern Common Market member states . It was approved in 2010 through the Citizenship Statute and should be fully implemented by the member countries in 2021 when the program will be transformed in an international treaty incorporated into the national legal system of the countries, under the concept of "Mercosur Citizen". The concept of "Commonwealth Citizenship" has been in place ever since

3531-418: Is much more passive; action is delegated to others; citizenship is often a constraint on acting, not an impetus to act. Nevertheless, citizens are usually aware of their obligations to authorities and are aware that these bonds often limit what they can do. From 1790 until the mid-twentieth century, United States law used racial criteria to establish citizenship rights and regulate who was eligible to become

3638-417: Is often conflated with nationality in today's English-speaking world, international law does not usually use the term citizenship to refer to nationality ; these two notions are conceptually different dimensions of collective membership. Generally citizenships have no expiration and allow persons to work , reside and vote in the polity, as well as identify with the polity, possibly acquiring

3745-633: Is seen by most scholars as culture-specific, in the sense that the meaning of the term varies considerably from culture to culture, and over time. In China , for example, there is a cultural politics of citizenship which could be called "peopleship", argued by an academic article. How citizenship is understood depends on the person making the determination. The relation of citizenship has never been fixed or static, but constantly changes within each society. While citizenship has varied considerably throughout history, and within societies over time, there are some common elements but they vary considerably as well. As

3852-454: Is the same in both cases, gnomai and theai , but other sound changes were more important in its formation. For example, original -as in the nominative plural was replaced by the diphthong -ai , which did not change from a to e . In the few a -stem masculines, the genitive singular follows the second declension: stratiotēs , stratiotou , stratiotēi , etc. In the omicron or second declension, mainly masculines (but with some feminines),

3959-430: Is the so-called consent descent distinction, and this issue addresses whether citizenship is a fundamental matter determined by a person choosing to belong to a particular nation––by their consent––or is citizenship a matter of where a person was born––that is, by their descent. Some intergovernmental organizations have extended the concept and terminology associated with citizenship to the international level, where it

4066-513: The Gortyn Code , where an adopted son had fewer inheritance rights than a son by birth. By the 4th century BC in Athens, there were three forms of adoption: firstly, while a man was still alive; secondly, in his will; and thirdly, if a man died without a male heir and without providing for the adoption of a son in his will, he could have a son assigned to carry on his family. An adopted son was no longer

4173-607: The Naturalization Act of 1870 would extend the right to become a naturalized citizen to include "aliens of African nativity and to persons of African descent". Despite the gains made by African Americans after the Civil War, Native Americans , Asians , and others not considered "free white persons" were still denied the ability to become citizens. The 1882 Chinese Exclusion Act explicitly denied naturalization rights to all people of Chinese origin, while subsequent acts passed by

4280-503: The Renaissance , people transitioned from being subjects of a king or queen to being citizens of a city and later to a nation. Each city had its own law, courts, and independent administration. And being a citizen often meant being subject to the city's law in addition to having power in some instances to help choose officials. City dwellers who had fought alongside nobles in battles to defend their cities were no longer content with having

4387-644: The United Kingdom . Canada departed from the principle of nationality being defined in terms of allegiance in 1921. In 1935 the Irish Free State was the first to introduce its own citizenship. However, Irish citizens were still treated as subjects of the Crown , and they are still not regarded as foreign, even though Ireland is not a member of the Commonwealth. The Canadian Citizenship Act of 1946 provided for

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4494-563: The Universal Declaration of Human Rights states that everyone has the right to nationality. As such nationality in international law can be called and understood as citizenship, or more generally as subject or belonging to a sovereign state , and not as ethnicity. This notwithstanding, around 10 million people are stateless . Today, the concept of full citizenship encompasses not only active political rights, but full civil rights and social rights . A person can be recognized as

4601-461: The ancient region of Attica , including the polis of Athens . Often called classical Greek , it was the prestige dialect of the Greek world for centuries and remains the standard form of the language that is taught to students of ancient Greek. As the basis of the Hellenistic Koine , it is the most similar of the ancient dialects to later Greek. Attic is traditionally classified as

4708-837: The diphthongs eu and au , upsilon continued to be pronounced / u / . Attic contracts more than Ionic does. a + e → long ā . e + e → ē (written ει : spurious diphthong ) e + o → ō (written ου: spurious diphthong) Attic ē (from ē -grade of ablaut or Proto-Greek ā ) is sometimes shortened to e : Attic deletes one of two vowels in a row, called hyphaeresis ( ὑφαίρεσις ). PIE *ky or *chy → Proto-Greek ts ( palatalization ) → Attic and Euboean Ionic tt — Cycladean/Anatolian Ionic and Koine ss . Sometimes, Proto-Greek *ty and *tw → Attic and Euboean Ionic tt — Cycladean/Anatolian Ionic and Koine ss . Proto-Greek and Doric t before i or y → Attic-Ionic s (palatalization). Doric, Aeolian, early Attic-Ionic ss → Classical Attic s . Proto-Greek w ( digamma )

4815-511: The dual number . This was used to refer to two of something and was present as an inflection in nouns, adjectives, pronouns and verbs (any categories inflected for number). Attic Greek was the last dialect to retain it from older forms of Greek, and the dual number had died out by the end of the 5th century BC. In addition to this, in Attic Greek, any plural neuter subjects will only ever take singular conjugation verbs. With regard to declension ,

4922-414: The family , military service , the individual, freedom , religion , ideas of right, and wrong , ethnicity , and patterns for how a person should behave in society. When there are many different groups within a nation, citizenship may be the only real bond that unites everybody as equals without discrimination—it is a "broad bond" linking "a person with the state" and gives people a universal identity as

5029-484: The s (like in the other dialects) lengthens the stem o to the spurious diphthong -ou (see above under Phonology, Vowels): logos "the word" logou from * logosyo "of the word". The dative plural of Attic-Ionic had -oisi , which appears in early Attic but later simplifies to -ois : anthropois "to or for the men". Classical Attic may refer either to the varieties of Attic Greek spoken and written in Greek majuscule in

5136-682: The "Eucleidian" alphabet, after the name of the archon Eucleides , who oversaw the decision, was to become the Classical Greek alphabet throughout the Greek-speaking world. The classical works of Attic literature were subsequently handed down to posterity in the new Ionic spelling, and it is the classical orthography in which they are read today. Proto-Greek long ā → Attic long ē , but ā after e, i, r . ⁓ Ionic ē in all positions. ⁓ Doric and Aeolic ā in all positions. However, Proto-Greek ā → Attic ē after w ( digamma ), deleted by

5243-531: The 5th and 4th centuries BC ( Classical-era Attic) or to the Hellenistic and Roman era standardized Attic Greek, mainly on the language of Attic orators and written in Greek uncial . Attic replaces the Ionic -σσ with -ττ  : Proto-Greek Mycenaean Ancient Koine Medieval Modern Citizen Citizenship is a membership and allegiance to a sovereign state . Though citizenship

5350-545: The Athenians led to some universally read and admired history, as found in the works of Thucydides and Xenophon . Slightly less known because they are more technical and legal are the orations by Antiphon , Demosthenes , Lysias , Isocrates , and many others. The Attic Greek of philosophers Plato (427–347 BC) and his student Aristotle (384–322 BC) dates to the period of transition between Classical Attic and Koine. Students who learn Ancient Greek usually begin with

5457-543: The Attic dialect and continue, depending upon their interests, to the later Koine of the New Testament and other early Christian writings, to the earlier Homeric Greek of Homer and Hesiod , or to the contemporaneous Ionic Greek of Herodotus and Hippocrates . Attic Greek, like other dialects, was originally written in a local variant of the Greek alphabet. According to the classification of archaic Greek alphabets , which

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5564-564: The Classical Period. Proto-Greek ă → Attic ě . ⁓ Doric: ă remains. Compensatory lengthening of vowel before cluster of sonorant ( r , l , n , m , w , sometimes y ) and s , after deletion of s . ⁓ some Aeolic: compensatory lengthening of sonorant. Proto-Greek and other dialects' / u / (English f oo d ) became Attic / y / (pronounced as German ü , French u ) and represented by y in Latin transliteration of Greek names. In

5671-455: The German government passed a law that entitled victims of Nazi persecution and their descendants to become naturalised German citizens. The primary principles of Israeli citizenship is jus sanguinis (citizenship by descent) for Jews and jus soli (citizenship by place of birth) for others. Many theorists suggest that there are two opposing conceptions of citizenship: an economic one, and

5778-562: The Mediterranean, including in Ancient Rome and the larger Hellenistic world , and later in the Muslim world , Europe, and other parts of the world touched by those civilizations. The earliest Greek literature , which is attributed to Homer and is dated to the eighth or seventh centuries BC, is written in "Old Ionic" rather than Attic. Athens and its dialect remained relatively obscure until

5885-462: The Murder of Eratosthenes offers two possible reasons for the concern of Athenian men with moicheia : firstly, that the seducer not only damages a woman's chastity, but also corrupts her mind, and secondly that a clandestine relationship brings into question the paternity of the woman's children. Christopher Carey considers that the second reason given, the bringing into doubt of the paternity of children,

5992-606: The Murder of Eratosthenes , the women's rooms were said to be situated above the men's quarters, while in Xenophon the women's and men's quarters are next to one another. More recent scholarship from historians such as Lisa Nevett and Lin Foxhall has argued for a more flexible approach to household space, with rooms not simply having a single fixed function, and gendering of space not being as simple as some rooms being for men and others for women. It has been argued that instead of dividing

6099-642: The US Congress, such as laws in 1906 , 1917 , and 1924 , would include clauses that denied immigration and naturalization rights to people based on broadly defined racial categories. Supreme Court cases such as Ozawa v. the United States (1922) and U.S. v. Bhagat Singh Thind (1923), would later clarify the meaning of the phrase "free white persons," ruling that ethnically Japanese, Indian, and other non-European people were not "white persons", and were therefore ineligible for naturalization under U.S. law. Native Americans were not granted full US citizenship until

6206-526: The act still contained restrictions regarding who was eligible for US citizenship and retained a national quota system which limited the number of visas given to immigrants based on their national origin, to be fixed "at a rate of one-sixth of one percent of each nationality's population in the United States in 1920". It was not until the passage of the Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965 that these immigration quota systems were drastically altered in favor of

6313-437: The citizens of the community. This was not a problem because they all had a strong affinity with the polis; their own destiny and the destiny of the community were strongly linked. Also, citizens of the polis saw obligations to the community as an opportunity to be virtuous, it was a source of honor and respect. In Athens, citizens were both rulers and ruled, important political and judicial offices were rotated and all citizens had

6420-550: The classical period, houses excavated from Olynthos were "invariably" organised around a colonnaded courtyard. Likewise, of the houses excavated at Halieis in the Argolid , most of the houses seem to have had a single entrance which gave access to a court, and Nevett also cites three buildings excavated on Thasos as being similarly arranged around a courtyard. Only a minority of the houses had surviving evidence of staircases, demonstrating that they definitely had upper storeys, while for

6527-433: The close supervision of their mothers until they married. They rarely went out of the women's section of the house and were taught domestic skills at home, though they did attend some religious festivals. In Sparta boys were removed from their families at the age of seven to be reared by the state. It was permissible for a man to adopt a son in order to continue his family line. The earliest references to Greek adoption are in

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6634-522: The deceased's funeral and continue to provide annual commemorative rites. This would have been an extremely important consideration for the Athenians, who were notoriously pious. Although men were part of both the polis and oikos , women had a role only in the oikos . In Athens, women of citizen status did not have many of the rights citizen men had. They had no political rights and could take no part in government . They could conduct only limited business and hold and inherit limited property. All business

6741-416: The disposal of property by testament away from legitimate children. At Sparta women were able to own and inherit property. Marriage was arranged for a woman by her father or male guardian. In the home women were kept segregated in their own quarters, called gynaikonitis , and were virtually unseen. They were responsible only for their oikos , which included providing for slaves and children, caring for

6848-429: The distinction between Eastern and Western Greek is believed to have arisen by Mycenaean times or before. Mycenaean Greek represents an early form of Eastern Greek, the group to which Attic also belongs. Later Greek literature wrote about three main dialects: Aeolic , Doric , and Ionic ; Attic was part of the Ionic dialect group. " Old Attic " is used in reference to the dialect of Thucydides (460–400 BC) and

6955-512: The dramatists of 5th-century Athens whereas " New Attic " is used for the language of later writers following conventionally the accession in 285 BC of Greek-speaking Ptolemy II to the throne of the Kingdom of Egypt . Ruling from Alexandria , Ptolemy launched the Alexandrian period, during which the city of Alexandria and its expatriate Greek-medium scholars flourished. The original range of

7062-453: The establishment of its democracy following the reforms of Solon in the sixth century BC; so began the classical period , one of great Athenian influence both in Greece and throughout the Mediterranean. The first extensive works of literature in Attic are the plays of dramatists Aeschylus , Sophocles , Euripides , and Aristophanes dating from the fifth century BC. The military exploits of

7169-724: The establishment of the Commonwealth of Nations . As with the EU, one holds Commonwealth citizenship only by being a citizen of a Commonwealth member state. This form of citizenship offers certain privileges within some Commonwealth countries: Although Ireland was excluded from the Commonwealth in 1949 because it declared itself a republic, Ireland is generally treated as if it were still a member. Legislation often specifically provides for equal treatment between Commonwealth countries and Ireland and refers to "Commonwealth countries and Ireland". Ireland's citizens are not classified as foreign nationals in

7276-520: The fundamental laws of the Republic." The 1918 constitution also established the right to vote and be elected to soviets for both men and women "irrespective of religion, nationality, domicile, etc. [...] who shall have completed their eighteenth year by the day of the election." The later constitutions of the USSR would grant universal Soviet citizenship to the citizens of all member republics in concord with

7383-451: The household space into "male" and "female" areas, it is more accurate to look at areas as being private or public. In this model, access to the private areas was restricted to the family, while public areas accommodated visitors. In Olynthos and Halieis , street plans in the classical city were rectilinear, and thus houses were of regular shapes and sizes. By contrast, in Athens houses appear to have varied much more in size and shape. In

7490-679: The importance of freedom . Hosking explained: It can be argued that this growth of slavery was what made Greeks particularly conscious of the value of freedom. After all, any Greek farmer might fall into debt and therefore might become a slave, at almost any time ... When the Greeks fought together, they fought in order to avoid being enslaved by warfare, to avoid being defeated by those who might take them into slavery. And they also arranged their political institutions so as to remain free men. Slavery permitted slave-owners to have substantial free time and enabled participation in public life. Polis citizenship

7597-447: The latter, it used an L-shaped variant of lambda ( [REDACTED] ) and an S-shaped variant of sigma ( [REDACTED] ). It lacked the consonant symbols xi ( Ξ ) for /ks/ and psi ( Ψ ) for /ps/ , expressing these sound combinations with ΧΣ and ΦΣ , respectively. Moreover, like most other mainland Greek dialects, Attic did not yet use omega ( Ω ) and eta ( Η ) for the long vowels /ɔː/ and /ɛː/ . Instead, it expressed

7704-421: The modern western conception. The obligations of citizenship were deeply connected with everyday life. To be truly human, one had to be an active citizen to the community, which Aristotle famously expressed: "To take no part in the running of the community's affairs is to be either a beast or a god!" This form of citizenship was based on the obligations of citizens towards the community, rather than rights given to

7811-482: The more widely used Ionic alphabet, native to the eastern Aegean Islands and Asia Minor. By the late fifth century, the concurrent use of elements of the Ionic system with the traditional local alphabet had become common in private writing, and in 403 BC, it was decreed that public writing would switch to the new Ionic orthography, as part of the reform following the Thirty Tyrants . This new system, also called

7918-618: The nation's boundaries who did not fit the racial criteria for citizenship. Subjects would have no voting rights, could not hold any position within the state, and possessed none of the other rights and civic responsibilities conferred on citizens. All women were to be conferred "subject" status upon birth, and could only obtain "citizen" status if they worked independently or if they married a German citizen (see women in Nazi Germany ). The final category, aliens, referred to those who were citizens of another state, who also had no rights. In 2021,

8025-421: The nation-state, but the term can also apply at the subnational level. Subnational entities may impose requirements, of residency or otherwise, which permit citizens to participate in the political life of that entity or to enjoy benefits provided by the government of that entity. But in such cases, those eligible are also sometimes seen as "citizens" of the relevant state, province, or region. An example of this

8132-454: The nationality of a Member State shall be a citizen of the Union. Citizenship of the Union shall be additional to and not replace national citizenship. An agreement is known as the amended EC Treaty established certain minimal rights for European Union citizens. Article 12 of the amended EC Treaty guaranteed a general right of non-discrimination within the scope of the Treaty. Article 18 provided

8239-474: The oikos; however, this standard was rarely observed as evidenced in the literature of the time. Poorer women undertook work, including selling goods in the market, spinning, making bread, agricultural laboring, acting as wet nurses or working alongside their husbands. It was not possible in such households to segregate men from women. Poorer widows often had to work, if they had no means of financial support. Within religion women did play an important role, such as

8346-521: The passage of the Indian Citizenship Act in 1924. However, even well into the 1960s, some state laws prevented Native Americans from exercising their full rights as citizens, such as the right to vote. In 1962, New Mexico became the last state to enfranchise Native Americans. It was not until the passage of the Immigration and Nationality Act of 1952 that the racial and gender restrictions for naturalization were explicitly abolished. However,

8453-402: The polis. These small-scale organic communities were generally seen as a new development in world history, in contrast to the established ancient civilizations of Egypt or Persia, or the hunter-gatherer bands elsewhere. From the viewpoint of the ancient Greeks, a person's public life could not be separated from their private life, and Greeks did not distinguish between the two worlds according to

8560-463: The prestige and good name of Ghana and respect the symbols of Ghana. Examples of national symbols includes the Ghanaian flag, coat of arms, money, and state sword. These national symbols must be treated with respect and high esteem by citizens since they best represent Ghanaians. Apart from responsibilities, citizens also have rights. Some of the rights are the right to pursue life, liberty and happiness,

8667-507: The principles of equality under the law , civic participation in government, and notions that "no one citizen should have too much power for too long", but Rome offered relatively generous terms to its captives, including chances for lesser forms of citizenship. If Greek citizenship was an "emancipation from the world of things", the Roman sense increasingly reflected the fact that citizens could act upon material things as well as other citizens, in

8774-428: The principles of non-discrimination laid out in the original 1918 constitution of Russia. Nazism , the German variant of twentieth-century fascism, classified inhabitants of the country into three main hierarchical categories, each of which would have different rights in relation to the state: citizens, subjects, and aliens. The first category, citizens, were to possess full civic rights and responsibilities. Citizenship

8881-447: The property of his father and, in return, was legally obligated to provide for his father in his old age. If a son failed to care for his parents he could be prosecuted and a conviction would result in the loss of his citizen rights. However, sons were not compelled to maintain their fathers in their old age if they had not provided them with a skill. Furthermore, the heir to an inheritance would also be required to perform burial rites at

8988-461: The quality time spent with others is extremely limited: only those to whom quality (face-to-face) time is devoted can be said to be a part of an oikos . Each individual has a primary group that includes relatives and friends who relate to the individual through work, recreation, hobbies, or by being neighbors. The modern oikos , however, includes people who share some sort of social interaction, be it through conversation or simple relation, for at least

9095-583: The relation, that continue to reflect uncertainty about what citizenship is supposed to mean. Some unresolved issues regarding citizenship include questions about what is the proper balance between duties and rights . Another is a question about what is the proper balance between political citizenship versus social citizenship. Some thinkers see benefits with people being absent from public affairs, since too much participation such as revolution can be destructive, yet too little participation such as total apathy can be problematic as well. Citizenship can be seen as

9202-469: The remainder of Olynthian houses the evidence is inconclusive. On the Murder of Eratosthenes demonstrates that at least some Athenian houses also had an upper storey. Entranceways at Olynthos were designed for privacy, preventing passers-by from seeing inside the house. Historians have identified a "hearth-room" in ancient Greek houses as a centre of female activity; however, Foxhall has argued that Greek houses often had no permanent kitchens. For example,

9309-536: The right to speak and vote in the political assembly. In the Roman Empire , citizenship expanded from small-scale communities to the entirety of the empire. Romans realized that granting citizenship to people from all over the empire legitimized Roman rule over conquered areas. Roman citizenship was no longer a status of political agency, as it had been reduced to a judicial safeguard and the expression of rule and law. Rome carried forth Greek ideas of citizenship such as

9416-408: The right to worship, right to run for elected office and right to express oneself. Many thinkers such as Giorgio Agamben in his work extending the biopolitical framework of Foucault 's History of Sexuality in the book, Homo Sacer , point to the concept of citizenship beginning in the early city-states of ancient Greece , although others see it as primarily a modern phenomenon dating back only

9523-430: The sense of buying or selling property, possessions, titles, goods. One historian explained: The person was defined and represented through his actions upon things; in the course of time, the term property came to mean, first, the defining characteristic of a human or other being; second, the relation which a person had with a thing; and third, the thing defined as the possession of some person. Roman citizenship reflected

9630-638: The sick, and cooking, cleaning and making clothes. Much of this work, at least in wealthy families, would have been done by slaves, with the Athenian women largely taking a supervisory role. Women rarely left the house, and even then would be accompanied by female slaves. Women did go shopping and to the wells to fetch water, but this was done mainly by slaves and by poorer women without slaves. Older women and widows had more freedom, as did Spartan wives. Wives in Sparta were permitted to drink alcohol, an act forbidden in most other city-states, and exercise more authority in

9737-474: The slaves, which were also the basic agricultural unit of the ancient Greek economy . Traditional interpretations of the layout of the oikos in Classical Athens have divided into men's and women's spaces, with an area known as the gynaikon or gynaikonitis associated with women's activities such as cooking and textiles work, and an area restricted to men called the andron . In Lysias's speech On

9844-513: The spoken Attic dialect included Attica and a number of the Aegean Islands ; the closely related Ionic was also spoken along the western and northwestern coasts of Asia Minor in modern Turkey , in Chalcidice , Thrace , Euboea , and in some colonies of Magna Graecia . Eventually, the texts of literary Attic were widely studied far beyond their homeland: first in the classical civilizations of

9951-431: The stem ends in o or e , which is composed in turn of a root plus the thematic vowel , an o or e in Indo-European ablaut series parallel to similar formations of the verb. It is the equivalent of the Latin second declension. The alternation of Greek -os and Latin -us in the nominative singular is familiar to readers of Greek and Latin. In Attic Greek, an original genitive singular ending *-osyo after losing

10058-589: The stem is the part of the declined word to which case endings are suffixed. In the alpha or first declension feminines, the stem ends in long a , which is parallel to the Latin first declension. In Attic-Ionic the stem vowel has changed to ē in the singular, except (in Attic only) after e , i or r . For example, the respective nominative, genitive, dative and accusative singular forms are ἡ γνώμη τῆς γνώμης τῇ γνώμῃ τὴν γνώμην gnome , gnomes , gnome(i) , gnomen , "opinion" but ἡ θεᾱ́ τῆς θεᾶς τῇ θεᾷ τὴν θεᾱ́ν thea , theas , thea(i) , thean , "goddess". The plural

10165-433: The vowel phonemes /o, oː, ɔː/ with the letter Ο (which corresponds with classical Ο , ΟΥ , Ω ) and /e, eː, ɛː/ with the letter Ε (which corresponds with Ε , ΕΙ , and Η in later classical orthography). Moreover, the letter Η was used as heta , with the consonantal value of /h/ rather than the vocalic value of /ɛː/ . In the fifth century, Athenian writing gradually switched from this local system to

10272-508: Was a kind of bond uniting people. Roman citizenship was more impersonal, universal, multiform, having different degrees and applications. During the European Middle Ages , citizenship was usually associated with cities and towns (see medieval commune ), and applied mainly to middle-class folk. Titles such as burgher , grand burgher (German Großbürger ) and the bourgeoisie denoted political affiliation and identity in relation to

10379-490: Was a small dog, often represented on 5th-century BC Attic gravestones and vases. Tame birds were also popular; but not cats. (Their sacred status in Egypt probably raised barriers.) If a married woman was caught committing adultery, her husband was required to divorce her. Additionally, any woman found with a moichos (adulterer) was barred from public religious practices, as well as from wearing any ornament. Lysias's speech On

10486-401: Was conducted on a woman's behalf by her husband or father. Athenian inheritance laws prioritised men over equally closely related women, and daughters in the absence of sons did not inherit at all, but came along with the estate as epikleroi . Instead of automatic inheritance rights, daughters were given dowries to support. As late as the fourth century, Athenian inheritance law forbade

10593-513: Was conferred only on males of German (or so-called " Aryan ") heritage who had completed military service, and could be revoked at any time by the state. The Reich Citizenship Law of 1935 established racial criteria for citizenship in the German Reich , and because of this law Jews and others who could not "prove German racial heritage" were stripped of their citizenship. The second category, subjects, referred to all others who were born within

10700-421: Was customary for them to dedicate their playthings to deities. Male children were favored for many reasons. They perpetuated the family and family cult, cared for parents in old age and arranged a proper funeral for deceased parents. In addition, sons could inherit their mothers' dowry. Boys were raised in the female quarters until about the age of six, when they were educated in schools, but girls remained under

10807-482: Was introduced by Adolf Kirchhoff , the old-Attic system belongs to the "eastern" or "blue" type, as it uses the letters Ψ and Χ with their classical values ( /ps/ and /kʰ/ ), unlike "western" or "red" alphabets, which used Χ for /ks/ and expressed /kʰ/ with Ψ . In other respects, Old Attic shares many features with the neighbouring Euboean alphabet (which is "western" in Kirchhoff's classification). Like

10914-404: Was lost in Attic before historical times. Attic retained Proto-Greek h- (from debuccalization of Proto-Indo-European initial s- or y- ), but some other dialects lost it ( psilosis "stripping", "de-aspiration"). Attic-Ionic places an n ( movable nu ) at the end of some words that would ordinarily end in a vowel, if the next word starts with a vowel, to prevent hiatus (two vowels in

11021-432: Was marked by exclusivity. Inequality of status was widespread; citizens (πολίτης politēs < πόλις 'city') had a higher status than non-citizens, such as women, slaves, and resident foreigners ( metics ). The first form of citizenship was based on the way people lived in the ancient Greek times, in small-scale organic communities of the polis. The obligations of citizenship were deeply connected to one's everyday life in

11128-422: Was necessary to fit Aristotle's definition of the besouled (the animate) to obtain citizenship: neither the sacred olive tree nor spring would have any rights. An essential part of the framework of Greco-Roman ethics is the figure of Homo Sacer or the bare life. Historian Geoffrey Hosking in his 2005 Modern Scholar lecture course suggested that citizenship in ancient Greece arose from an appreciation for

11235-509: Was not until the abolition of slavery following the American Civil War that African Americans were granted citizenship rights. The 14th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution , ratified on July 9, 1868, stated that "all persons born or naturalized in the United States, and subject to the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the United States and of the State wherein they reside." Two years later,

11342-400: Was responsible for representing the interests of his oikos to the wider polis and providing legal protection to the women and minors with whom he shared his household. Initially the kyrios of an oikos was the husband and father of offspring, but when any legitimate sons reached adulthood, the role of kyrios was transferred from the father to next male generation in many instances. When

11449-430: Was the more important consideration, as not only was the paternity of children important for inheritance, in ancient Athens this inheritance involved the cult of the family's ancestors, making the purity of the blood even more important than it might otherwise be. Finally, adultery was feared because through seduction, unlike through rape, an adulterer might gain access to the household and its possessions. The term oikos

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