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105-452: The practice of MTM has been controversial. While there are economic benefits to this practice as well as important contributions to the availability of affordable energy, there are also concerns for environmental and human health costs. Recognizing mountaintop removal as a "humanitarian crisis," members of Congress with the support of Appalachian residents introduced the ACHE ACT in 2012 to enact

210-415: A boom , dipper (or stick), bucket , and cab on a rotating platform known as the "house" . The modern excavator's house sits atop an undercarriage with tracks or wheels , being an evolution of the steam shovel (which itself evolved into the power shovel when steam was replaced by diesel and electric power). All excavation-related movement and functions of a hydraulic excavator are accomplished through

315-401: A tiltrotator which allows attachments rotate 360 degrees and tilt +/- 45 degrees, in order to increase the flexibility and precision of the excavator. Before the 1990s, all excavators had a long or conventional counterweight that hung off the rear of the machine to provide more digging force and lifting capacity. This became a nuisance when working in confined areas. In 1993 Yanmar launched

420-429: A "relatively new semi-surface and semi-underground coal mining method that evolved from auger mining". In highwall mining, the coal seam is penetrated by a continuous miner propelled by a hydraulic pushbeam transfer mechanism (PTM). A typical cycle includes sumping (launch-pushing forward) and shearing (raising and lowering the cutterhead boom to cut the entire height of the coal seam). As the coal recovery cycle continues,

525-608: A 2015 regulation published by EPA and the Army Corps of Engineers, "...more precisely defines waters protected under the Clean Water Act". The Energy Information Administration (EIA) stated that the Office of Surface Mining Reclamation and Enforcement (OSMRE), EPA and the Army are collaborating to prepare an environmental impact statement, "analyzing environmental impacts of coal surface mining in

630-992: A bill to ban the use of mountaintop removal coal from coal-fired power plants within North Carolina. This proposed legislation would have been the only legislation of its kind in the United States; however, the bill was defeated. A Memorandum of Understanding (MOU) and Interagency Action Plan (IAP) were signed by officials of EPA, the Corps, and the Department of the Interior on June 11, 2009. The MOU and IAP outlined different administrative actions that would help decrease "the harmful environmental impacts of mountaintop mining". The plan also includes near and long-term actions that highlight "specific steps, improved coordination, and greater transparency of decisions". The top metallurgical coal supplier in

735-446: A boom, stick and bucket with three joints between them and the house. The boom attaches to the house and provides the up-and-down movement. It can be one of several different configurations: Attached to the end of the boom is the stick (or dipper arm). The stick provides the digging movement needed to pull the bucket through the ground. The stick length is optional depending whether reach (longer stick) or break-out power (shorter stick)

840-433: A controlled water-inflow pump system and/or a gas (inert) venting system. Recovery with tunneling shape of drives used by highwall miners is much better than round augering holes, but the mapping of areas that have been developed by a highwall miner are not mapped as rigorously as deep mined areas. Very little soil is displaced in contrast with mountaintop removal; however, it is comparatively more expensive to own and operate

945-473: A gently rolling contour with no highwalls remaining". In 2012, Appalachian residents led a movement to enact the ACHE ACT, The Appalachian Communities Health Emergency Ac t, which called on Congress to establish a moratorium until proper health studies could be undertaken. The Abandoned Mine Land Fund (AML) introduced in the SMCRA act of 1977. This act provides financial assistance to reclaim mines abandoned before

1050-466: A government-approved contractor to conduct their own surveys for any potential endangered species. The surveys require approval from state and federal biologists, who provide informal guidance on how to minimize mines' potential effects to species. While the agencies have the option to ask for formal endangered species consultations during that process, they do so very rarely. On May 25, 2008, North Carolina State Representative Pricey Harrison introduced

1155-437: A highwall miner. Mapping of the outcrop, as well as core hole data and samples taken during the bench-making process, are taken into account to best project the panels that the highwall miner will cut. Obstacles that could be potentially damaged by subsidence and the natural contour of the highwall mine are taken into account, and a surveyor points the highwall miner in a line (theoretical survey plot-line) mostly perpendicular to

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1260-569: A major role in the physicochemical quality of larger rivers and streams because of their close association to the surrounding landscape. They function to retain floodwaters, store nutrients and reduce sediment accumulation. VF processes limit these functions, negatively impacting surrounding rivers and watersheds. Factors contributing to disturbed stream flow include vegetation removal, subsequent aquifer formation, compaction of fill surface and overall loss of headwater streams. The removal of vegetation for mining sites reduces evapotranspiration rates from

1365-459: A moratorium on the mining practice until a health report could be undertaken. Author and journalist Jeff Biggers, who covered the coal mining industry in his Reckoning in Appalachia reports for 25 years, called mountaintop removal "an immoral crime against nature and our citizenry, and it must be abolished, not regulated.” Mountaintop removal mining (MTR), also known as mountaintop mining (MTM),

1470-476: A number of effects on the local environment. The negative effects involve soil, water, air, and noise pollution as well as landscape alteration and various other negatives. However, new technology and proper management can make it easier to properly treat the local water supply and restore the local ecology which helps rebuild the environment. Each type of surface mining has its own environmental impact, as laid out below. Strip mining - Once operations have ended,

1575-402: A once operational surface mine requires a large sum of money and extensive environmental remediation . These remediation projects can continue on for years after the mine is closed. In some cases, the mining companies go bankrupt leaving abandoned mines with no funding for remediation. In other cases, mining companies are unwilling to pay for remediation, meaning litigation or regulatory action

1680-456: A reduction in salamander populations on reclaimed sites can be attributed to an overall loss in mesic conditions. These conditions are not present in emerging edge forests. Additionally, terrestrial changes have transformed natural forest carbon sinks into carbon sources. Reclaimed soil generally has high bulk density and lower in infiltration rate, nutrients content and organic matter; reclaimed sites are generally not successful to reestablish

1785-489: A region of the United States with numerous endemic species . Erosion also increases, which can intensify flooding . In the eastern United States, the Appalachian Regional Reforestation Initiative works to promote the use of trees in mining reclamation. Dredging is a method for mining below the water table. It is mostly associated with gold mining. Small dredges often use suction to bring

1890-405: A region of the United States with numerous endemic species . Streams are reclaimed by regrading mine land, reconfiguring the mine drain, or building new stream channels in an effort to resemble the buried ones. Although the mitigation focuses on rebuilding the structure, it has not successfully restored the ecological function of the natural streams. Evidence suggests that such methods can decrease

1995-508: A region where flat land is rare. They also maintain that the new growth on reclaimed mountaintop mined areas is better able to support populations of game animals. Critics contend that mountaintop removal is a disastrous practice that benefits a small number of corporations at the expense of local communities and the environment . A U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) environmental impact statement finds that streams near valley fills sometimes may contain higher levels of minerals in

2100-593: A seam of mineral, by first removing a long strip of overlying soil and rock (the overburden ); this activity is also referred to as overburden removal . It is most commonly used to mine coal and lignite (brown coal) . Strip mining is only practical when the ore body to be excavated is relatively near the surface and/or is mostly horizontal. This type of mining uses some of the largest machines on earth, including bucket-wheel excavators which can move as much as 12,000 cubic meters (16,000 cu. yd.) of earth per hour. There are two forms of strip mining. The more common method

2205-559: A skilled operator to control all four functions simultaneously. The most popular configuration in the US is the SAE controls configuration while in other parts of the world, the ISO control configuration is more common. Some manufacturers such as Takeuchi have switches that allow the operator to select which control configuration to use. Hydraulic excavators now perform tasks well beyond bucket excavation. With

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2310-511: A waterway. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and the Army Corps of Engineers changed a rule to include mining debris in the definition of fill material, and the ruling was overturned. A 2002 ruling by a West Virginia judge was made against dumping waste material in streams in Appalachia. The judge declared a loophole in the Bush administrations mining regulations an "obvious perversity" of

2415-401: Is area stripping , which is used on fairly flat terrain, to extract deposits over a large area. As each long strip is excavated, the overburden is placed in the excavation produced by the previous strip. Contour mining involves removing the overburden above the mineral seam near an outcrop in hilly terrain, where the mineral outcrop usually follows the contour of the land. Contour stripping

2520-478: Is a form of surface mining that involves the topographical alteration and/or removal of a summit , hill, or ridge to access buried coal seams. The MTR process involves the removal of coal seams by first fully removing the overburden lying atop them, exposing the seams from above. This method differs from more traditional underground mining , where typically a narrow shaft is dug which allows miners to collect seams using various underground methods, while leaving

2625-453: Is a health hazard. Although MTR sites are required to be reclaimed after mining is complete, reclamation has traditionally focused on stabilizing rock and controlling erosion, but not always on reforesting the area. Quick-growing, non-native grasses, planted to quickly provide vegetation on a site, compete with tree seedlings, and trees have difficulty establishing root systems in compacted backfill. Consequently, biodiversity suffers in

2730-451: Is completed, the mining operators back stack overburden from the next area to be mined into the now empty pit. After backstacking and grading of overburden has been completed, topsoil (or a topsoil substitute) is layered over the overburden layer. Next, grass seed is spread in a mixture of seed, fertilizer, and mulch made from recycled newspaper. Depending on the surface land owner wishes the land will then be further reclaimed by adding trees if

2835-531: Is generally smaller, stronger, and has hardened side cutters and teeth used to break through hard ground and rocks. Buckets have numerous shapes and sizes for various applications. There are also many other attachments that are available to be attached to the excavator for boring, ripping, crushing, cutting, lifting, etc. Attachments can be attached with pins similar to other parts of the arm or with some variety of quick coupler . Excavators in Scandinavia often feature

2940-576: Is necessary to compel the companies to commit funds to remediate. These legal issues often delay remediation and the environment is negatively affected. In the United States, when the company does not exist anymore or is otherwise unable to clean the site, special taxes on hazardous waste producers (i.e. the Environmental Protection Agency Superfund ) can be used to fund remediation projects. Excavator Excavators are heavy construction equipment primarily consisting of

3045-443: Is often followed by auger mining into the hillside, to remove more of the mineral. This method commonly leaves behind terraces in mountainsides. Open-pit mining refers to a method of extracting rock or minerals from the earth through their removal from an open pit or borrow . This process is done on the ground surface of the earth It is best suited for accessing mostly vertical deposits of minerals. Although open-pit mining

3150-458: Is regulated by state and local laws, which may vary widely. The National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA), Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA), Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act (CERCLA) and many more laws deal with the subject of surface mining. In some cases, even with proper legislation in place for surface mining some negative human health and environmental impacts remain. Surface mining can have

3255-458: Is required. Most common is mono stick but there are also, for example, telescopic sticks. The largest form ever of an excavator, the dragline excavator , eliminated the dipper in favor of a line and winch . On the end of the stick is usually a bucket . A wide, large capacity (mud) bucket with a straight cutting edge is used for cleanup and levelling or where the material to be dug is soft, and teeth are not required. A general purpose (GP) bucket

Mountaintop removal mining - Misplaced Pages Continue

3360-458: Is sometimes mistakenly referred to as "strip mining", the two methods are different (see above). Mountaintop removal mining (MTR) is a form of coal mining that mines coal seams beneath mountaintops by first removing the mountaintop overlying the coal seam. Explosives are used to break up the overburden (rock layers above the seam), which is then removed. The overburden is then dumped by haul trucks into fills in nearby hollows or valleys. MTR involves

3465-488: Is toxic and can bioaccumulate. Land disturbance from forestry cutting, soil and bedrock displacement/removal and use of heavy machinery can decrease soil infiltration rate, terrestrial habitat and carbon sequestration, increase in runoff and sediment weathering. As the consequence, hydrology, geochemistry and the ecosystem's health can be permanently impacted. A January 2010 report in the journal Science reviews current peer-reviewed studies and water quality data and explores

3570-485: Is very sensitive and vulnerable to drastic and harmful changes within their ecosystem. Highwall mining - Has a lower environmental impact than mountaintop removal because of the smaller external surface area present but there are still negative side effects. Air and noise pollution from blasting are common environmental effects along with the large tailing piles, which can leach into waterways and numerous ecosystems. Properly cleaning, restoring, and removing hazards from

3675-462: The Appalachian coal fields of West Virginia , Kentucky , Virginia , and Tennessee in the United States. The profound changes in topography and disturbance of pre-existing ecosystems have made mountaintop removal highly controversial. Advocates of mountaintop removal point out that once the areas are reclaimed as mandated by law, the technique provides premium flat land suitable for many uses in

3780-481: The U.S. Clean Air Act that tightened emission limits on high-sulfur coal processing. Land is deforested prior to mining operations and the resultant lumber is either sold or burned. According to the Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act of 1977 ( SMCRA ), the topsoil is supposed to be removed and set aside for later reclamation. However, coal companies are often granted waivers and instead reclaim

3885-773: The US Army Corps of Engineers violated the Clean Water Act by issuing such permits. Massey Energy Company appealed a 2007 ruling, but was allowed to continue mining while the appeal was pending, because "most of the substantial harm has already occurred," according to the judge. On December 2, 2008, the Bush Administration made a rule change to remove the Stream Buffer Zone protection provision from SMCRA allowing coal companies to place mining waste rock and dirt directly into headwater waterways. On January 15, 2008,

3990-505: The arms , swing motor, track motors and accessories while the third is a lower pressure (≈700 psi , 48 bar) pump for pilot control of the spool valves ; this third circuit allows for reduced physical effort when operating the controls. Generally, the 3 pumps used in excavators consist of 2 variable displacement piston pumps and a gear pump. The arrangement of the pumps in the excavator unit changes with different manufacturers using different formats. The three main sections of an excavator are

4095-476: The backhoe . In the UK , wheeled excavators are sometimes known as "rubber ducks". Excavators are used in many ways: Modern hydraulic excavators come in a wide variety of sizes. The smaller ones are called mini or compact excavators . For example, Caterpillar's smallest mini-excavator weighs 2,060 pounds (930 kg) and has 13 hp ; their largest model is the largest excavator available (developed and produced by

4200-950: The reforestation of the affected area. However, the Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act of 1977 list "the restoration of land and water resources" as a priority. The act also introduced the Abandoned Mine Land Fund (AML) that provides financial assistance to reclaim mines abandoned before the act was implemented. However, subjective environmental quality assessments and the many forgotten or missed locations has lead to disagreements on its effectiveness. The fund also promotes job creation and economic revitalization through reclamation projects. Workers are needed to dismantle dangerous mine locations and reclaimed areas become available for municipal development. In 2022, OSMRE (Office of Surface Mining and Reclamation Enforcement), along with states and tribes issued over 5,400 permits for reclamation sites and active mines. Totaling 2.7 million acres,

4305-593: The tailings are placed back into the hole and covered up to make the site resemble the landscape before the mining operation. This process involves the removal of all ground vegetation in the area, which is a detriment to the environment. Topsoil may be placed over the tailing along with planting trees and other vegetation. Another reclamation method involves filling in the hole with water to create an artificial lake. Large tailing piles left behind may contain heavy metals which can leach out acids such as lead and copper and enter into water systems. Open-pit mining - One of

Mountaintop removal mining - Misplaced Pages Continue

4410-427: The undercarriage , the house and the arm. The boom, the front part that is attached to the cab itself and holds the arm, is also used. The undercarriage includes tracks, track frame, and final drives, which have a hydraulic motor and gearing providing the drive to the individual tracks. The undercarriage, especially frequently for a mini-excavator, can also have blade similar to that of a bulldozer. The house includes

4515-453: The 20th century, and surface mines now produce most of the coal mined in the United States . In most forms of surface mining, heavy equipment , such as earthmovers, first remove the overburden. Next, large machines, such as dragline excavators or bucket-wheel excavators , extract the mineral. Advantages of surface mining include lower cost and greater safety compared to underground mining. Disadvantages include hazards to human health and

4620-507: The Appalachian region". Different organizations have tried to revise a stream buffer rule placed in 1977. The rule states that certain conditions must be met, or the mining operation must take place "within 100 feet of a stream".  The Obama Administration, in July 2015, wrote up a draft "Stream Protection Rule". This draft adds "more protections to downstream waters", but it will also debilitate

4725-632: The Clean Water Act. Due to this ruling, mining companies found to be dumping waste into waterways would no longer be eligible to receive permits from the Army Corps of Engineers. In 2007, a U.S. District Court judge ruled that using settling ponds to remove mining waste from streams violates the Clean Water Act. He also declared that the Army Corps of Engineers has no authority to issue permits allowing discharge of pollutants into such in-stream settling ponds, which are often built just below valley fills. Permits must be obtained to deposit valley fill into streams. On four occasions, federal courts have ruled that

4830-577: The House Subcommittee on Energy and Mineral Resources held a legislative hearing, "Health and Environmental Impacts of Mountaintop Removal Mining". This hearing involved the H.R. 2050 (Rep. Yarmuth) bill. This bill stated that "until health studies are conducted by the Department of Health and Human Services", there will be a suspension on permitting for mountaintop removal coal mining. The Biden-Harris Administration approved $ 725 million towards Abandoned Mine Land Fund (AML) reclamation work. This funding

4935-527: The Orenstein & Koppel, Germany, until the takeover 2011 by Caterpillar, named »RH400«), the CAT 6090, which weighs in excess of 2,160,510 pounds (979,990 kg), has 4500 hp, and a bucket as large as 52.0 m . Hydraulic excavators usually couple engine power to (commonly) three hydraulic pumps rather than to mechanical drivetrains . The two main pumps supply oil at high pressure (up to 5000 psi , 345 bar) for

5040-512: The Total Environment cited elevated concentrations of SO 4 , HCO 3 , Ca and Mg downstream from VF sites. These elevated concentrations are driving factors contributing to overall increases in water conductivity. Measured conductivity values ranging from 159 to 2720 μS/cm were recorded downstream. In comparison, the reference site that did not experience MTM measured conductivity values that ranged from 30 to 260μS/cm. Headwater streams play

5145-481: The U.S., Alpha Natural Resources, Inc., was found guilty of exceeding permits 6,289 times in 2014. Through a settlement with the EPA, the company was issued a civil penalty of $ 27,500,000 for its violations. Additionally, Alpha and other subsidiaries committed to spending $ 200,000,000 to create and upgrade wastewater treatment systems to reduce pollution discharge from mines in several Appalachian states. The Clean Water Rule ,

5250-412: The United States, sparked by the 1973 and 1979 oil crises , created incentives for a more economical form of coal mining than the traditional underground mining methods involving hundreds of workers, triggering the first widespread use of MTR. Its prevalence expanded further in the 1990s to retrieve relatively low-sulfur coal , a cleaner-burning form, which became desirable as a result of amendments to

5355-481: The act was implemented. The OSMRE (Office of Surface Mining and Reclamation Enforcement), founded in 1977, allows states to create their own regulatory plans in accordance with the SMCRA. When approved by OSMRE, the states get to issue and enforce mining permits. The George W. Bush administration appealed one of these rulings in 2001 because the Act had not explicitly defined "fill material" that could legally be placed in

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5460-418: The active pit of exposed coal. If the ridge topography is too steep to adequately handle the amount of spoil produced then additional storage is used in a nearby valley or hollow, creating what is known as a valley fill or hollow fill . Any streams in a valley are buried by the overburden. A front-end loader or excavator then removes the coal, where it is transported to a processing plant. Once coal removal

5565-494: The advent of hydraulic-powered attachments such as a breaker , a cutter, a grapple or an auger ,a crusher and screening buckets the excavator is frequently used in many applications other than excavation. Many excavators feature a quick coupler for simplified attachment mounting, increasing the machine's utilization on the jobsite. Excavators are usually employed together with loaders and bulldozers . Most wheeled, compact and some medium-sized (11 to 18-tonne) excavators have

5670-423: The biodiversity over time. Studies comparing the characteristics of natural and constructed channels find that constructed channels are higher in specific conductance, temperature, ion concentration and lower in organic matter, leaves breakdown rate, invertebrate density and richness. Researchers have concluded that MTR has detrimental impacts on the aquatic system and the current assessments cannot adequately evaluate

5775-433: The coal industry on their role in promoting and adopting effective management practices. Valley fill sites can be characterized by high sulfur concentrations from the weathering process of mountaintop sulfur-rich debris. Additionally, acid mine drainage (AMD) increases the concentration of sulfate, iron, aluminum and manganese in surrounding streams. Some of the most common treatments include plugging mine openings, altering

5880-696: The coal seam, and today's models are capable of going farther, with the support of gyro navigation and not limited anymore by the amount of cable stored on the machine. The maximum depth would be determined by the stress of further penetration and associated specific-power draw (torsion and tension in screw transporters string), but today's optimized screw-transporters conveying embodiments (called pushbeams) with visual product development and discrete element modeling (DEM) using flow simulation behavior software shows smart-drive extended penetrations are possible, even so under steep inclined angles from horizontal to more than 30 degree downhole. In case of significant steep mining

5985-725: The consequences of mountaintop mining. It concludes that mountaintop mining has serious environmental impacts that mitigation practices cannot successfully address. For example, the extensive tracts of deciduous forests destroyed by mountaintop mining support several endangered species and some of the highest biodiversity in North America. There is a particular problem with burial of headwater streams by valley fills which causes permanent loss of ecosystems that play critical roles in ecological processes. In addition, increases in metal ions, pH, electrical conductivity, total dissolved solids due to elevated concentrations of sulfate are closely linked to

6090-581: The current buffer requirements. Through a 2016 settlement between the EPA, DOJ, and several surface mining companies, new upgrade requirements were put in place. These upgrades must comprehensively reduce the amount of polluted wastewater that occurs from their Appalachian sites. In February 2017, President Donald Trump repealed the valley-fill protections installed by the Obama Administration. This ruling removed restrictions on dumping mining waste into streams and waterways. On Tuesday, April 9, 2019,

6195-560: The cutterhead is progressively launched into the coal seam for 19.72 feet (6.01 m). Then, the PTM automatically inserts a 19.72-foot-long (6.01 m) rectangular pushbeam (screw-conveyor segment) into the center section of the machine between the Powerhead and the cutterhead. The pushbeam system can penetrate nearly 1,200 feet (370 m) (proven in 2015 till today) into the coal seam. One patented highwall mining system uses augers enclosed inside

6300-416: The environment. Humans face a variety of health risks caused by mining such as different cardiovascular diseases, food, and water contamination. Habitat destruction , alongside air, noise, and water pollution, are all significant negative environmental impacts caused by the side effects of surface mining. There are five main types of surface mining as detailed below. Strip mining is the practice of mining

6405-500: The environmental advocacy group Center for Biological Diversity petitioned the United States Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS) to end a policy that waives detailed federal Endangered Species Act reviews for new mining permits. Under current policy, as long as a given MTR mining operation complies with federal surface mining law, the agency presumes conclusively, despite the complexities of intra- and inter-species relationships, that

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6510-426: The environmental impacts are primarily found underwater. The method of extracting material from the seafloor or any water body leads to the harmful risk of marine life. Overall, the effect are far less compared to the other mining methods. The influx of sediment can bury flora and fauna, change water levels and can alter the oxygen content. Water and noise pollution is a concern that must be monitored because marine life

6615-832: The extent of mining in West Virginia watersheds. Declines in stream biodiversity have been linked to the level of mining disturbance in West Virginia watersheds. A 2005 environmental impact statement prepared by EPA stated that streams near some valley fills from mountaintop removal contain higher levels of minerals in the water and decreased aquatic biodiversity . Mine-affected streams also have high selenium concentrations, which can bioaccumulate and produce toxic effects (e.g., reproductive failure, physical deformity, mortality), and these effects have been documented in reservoirs below streams. Because of higher pH balances in mine-affected streams, metals such as selenium and iron hydroxide are rendered insoluble, bringing attendant chemical changes to

6720-618: The extraction of coal in the Appalachian Mountains . Google Earth Engine and Landsat imagery report the extent of newly mined land from 1985 to 2015 to be 2,900 km. Considering surface mining sites prior to 1985, the cumulative total of mined land was calculated to be 5,900 km. Further studies calculated that 12 m of mined land produced one metric ton of coal. There are many MTR site locations ranging from Ohio to Virginia. It occurs most commonly in West Virginia and Eastern Kentucky ,

6825-506: The food web and eutrophication. Operations of valley fills buried more than 2,000 km of headwater and streams in the Appalachians. MTR reduces the freshwater resource that supports biodiversity. In addition, the operation provides opportunities for contamination leaching. Ca, Mg and SO 4 alter water chemistry by increasing pH, salinity and electrical conductivity. Increasing phosphorus and nitrogen can cause nutrient pollution . Selenium

6930-771: The growth of hardwood trees on reclaimed mining sites. The ARRI operates utilizing the Forestry Reclamation Approach (FRA). In an effort to apply specific forest restoration practices, the FRA focuses on five main reclamation components: (1) establish suitable soil deeper than four feet to enhance root growth, (2) ensure non-compacted topsoil is present, (3) plan vegetative ground cover to support tree growth (4) include tree species that support local wildlife, as well as commercially desired products, (5) ensure that proper planting techniques are utilized. This group also facilitates restoration efforts by educating and training members of

7035-503: The highwall. parallel lines represent the drive cut into the mountain (up to 1,200 feet (370 m) deep (2015 records), without heading or corrective steering actuation on a navigation azimuth during mining results in missing a portion of the coal seam and is a potential danger of cutting in pillars from previous mined drives due to horizontal drift (roll) of the pushbeam-cuttermodule string. Recently highwall miners have penetrated more than 1,200 feet (370 m) (2015 ongoing records into

7140-419: The instance of MTR in question is not damaging to endangered species or their habitat. Since 1996, this policy has exempted many strip mines from being subject to permit-specific reviews of impact on individual endangered species. Because of the 1996 Biological Opinion by FWS making case-by-case formal reviews unnecessary, the Interior's Office of Surface Mining and state regulators require mining companies to hire

7245-483: The land is able to be turned into grassland which game animals can live in, the amount of grassland is minimal. The land does not retake the form it had before the MTR. The ecological benefits after MTR are far below the level of the original land. Surface mining Surface mining , including strip mining , open-pit mining and mountaintop removal mining , is a broad category of mining in which soil and rock overlying

7350-409: The landscape to divert incoming water from at-risk ecosystems, alkaline inputs, limestone channels and treatment ponds or wetlands. Current remediation methods may vary, but expensive treatment costs persist. The cost efficiency of treatments can be increased through the use of models that are able to accurately predict ecosystem responses to various inputs; thus enabling restoration groups to determine

7455-478: The leading causes of water chemistry and habitat alterations in this region, the driving factors limiting mayfly populations. Thus, they can be utilized as an effective indicator species to quantify restoration progress through modeling efforts focused on mountaintop mining driven changes in adjacent ecosystems. Effectively developed biotic response models can improve and refine restoration efforts by establishing target indicator species population goals and by enabling

7560-489: The local economy by providing jobs and other economic opportunities. In the United States, MTR is allowed by section 515(c)(1) of the Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act of 1977 (SMCRA). Although most coal mining sites must be reclaimed to the land's pre-mining contour and use, regulatory agencies can issue waivers to allow MTR. In such cases, SMCRA dictates that reclamation must create "a level plateau or

7665-462: The loose sediment in a pond of its own making. Highwall mining is another form of mining sometimes conducted to recover additional coal adjacent to a surface-mined area. The method evolved from auger mining but does not meet the definition of surface mining since it does not involve the removal of overburden to expose the coal seam. CERB final report No. 2014-004 "Highwall Mining: Design Methodology, Safety, and Suitability" by Yi Luo characterizes it as

7770-928: The mass restructuring of earth in order to reach coal seams as deep as 400 feet (120 m) below the surface. Mountaintop removal replaces the original steep landscape with a much flatter topography. Economic development attempts on reclaimed mine sites include prisons such the Big Sandy Federal Penitentiary in Martin County, Kentucky , small-town airports, golf courses such as Twisted Gun in Mingo County, West Virginia and Stonecrest Golf Course in Floyd County, Kentucky , as well as industrial scrubber sludge disposal sites, solid waste landfills, trailer parks, explosive manufacturers, and storage rental lockers. This method has been increasingly used in recent years in

7875-487: The mine depth each time. This can result in a vertical descent of hundreds of extra feet into the earth. Established in 1977, the Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act set up a program "for the regulation of surface mining activities and the reclamation of coal-mined lands". Although U.S. mountaintop removal sites by law must be reclaimed after mining is complete, reclamation has traditionally focused on stabilizing rock formations and controlling for erosion , and not on

7980-439: The mined material up from the bottom of a water body. Historical large-scale dredging operations often used a floating dredge; a barge-like vessel that scoops material up through a conveyor belt on the bow, filters out the desired component on board, and returns the unwanted material to the water via another conveyor belt on the stern. In gravel-filled river valleys with shallow water tables, a floating dredge can work its way through

8085-459: The mineral deposit (the overburden ) are removed, in contrast to underground mining , in which the overlying rock is left in place, and the mineral is removed through shafts or tunnels. In North America, where the majority of surface coal mining occurs, this method began to be used in the mid-16th century and is practiced throughout the world in the mining of many different minerals. In North America, surface mining gained popularity throughout

8190-618: The mines and supporting equipment are regulated through inspections, enforcements permits, and reclamation bonding requirements. Additionally in 2022, it was found that 91.3% of permitted sites had no off-site effects after 570 partial and 289 complete inspections were performed. Historically, reforested mining sites have been characterized by seedling mortality, slow growth and poor production. Challenges associated with returning forests to their pre-mining state enabled grassland conversion to become standard. The Appalachian Regional Reforestation Initiative (ARRI), established in 2004, works to promote

8295-437: The monitoring and assessment of water chemistry and habitat changes impacting particular species. As of 2023, approximately 16% of U.S. generated electricity was coal-based, down from around one third in 2015. MTR accounted for less than 5% of U.S. coal production as of 2001. In some regions, however, the percentage is higher, for example, MTR provided 30% of the coal mined in West Virginia in 2006. As of 2023, only West Virginia

8400-458: The mountain with "topsoil substitute". The waivers are granted if adequate amounts of topsoil are not naturally present on the rocky ridge top. Once the area is cleared, miners use explosives to blast away the overburden , the rock and subsoil , to expose coal seams beneath. The overburden is then moved by various mechanical means to areas of the ridge previously mined. These areas are the most economical area of storage as they are located close to

8505-538: The need for workers. In Kentucky, for example, the number of workers has declined over 60% from 1979 to 2006 (from 47,190 to 17,959 workers). The industry overall lost approximately 10,000 jobs from 1990 to 1997, as MTR and other more mechanized underground mining methods became more widely used. The coal industry asserts that surface mining techniques, such as mountaintop removal, are safer for miners than sending miners underground. Proponents argue that in certain geologic areas, MTR and similar forms of surface mining allow

8610-449: The new mining method phrase should be "directional mining" (commonly used technologies as valuable synergy directional drilling and directional mining are categorized in "surface to in-seam" (SIS) techniques), dry or wet, dewatering is developed or cutting and dredging through screw transporters are proactive in developing a roadmap of the leading global highwall mining engineering company. Historically, moving materials out of surface mines

8715-428: The only access to thin seams of coal that traditional underground mining would not be able to mine. MTR is sometimes the most cost-effective method of extracting coal. Several studies of the impact of restrictions to mountaintop removal were authored in 2000 through 2005. Studies by Mark L. Burton, Michael J. Hicks and Cal Kent identified significant state-level tax losses attributable to lower levels of mining (notably

8820-457: The operator cab, counterweight , engine, fuel and hydraulic oil tanks. The house attaches to the undercarriage by way of a center pin. High-pressure oil is supplied to the tracks' hydraulic motors through a hydraulic swivel at the axis of the pin, allowing the machine to slew 360° unhindered and thus provides the left-and-right movement. The arm provides the up-and-down and closer-and-further (or digging movement) movements. Arms typically consist of

8925-404: The original forest habitat and can have lower diversity and productivity. A study conducted in 2017 found that herpetofaunal (reptiles and amphibians) habitat generalists are associated with all habitats, while habitat specialists are only associated with forest sites. Reclaimed grassland and shrub land are unsuitable for habitat specialists in the near future. Consequently, biodiversity suffers in

9030-489: The overall most effective treatment combination. Biotic indicators present within stream ecosystems impacted by valley fill (VF) activity and AMD are valuable assets to increase the cost efficiency of restoration efforts. Mayflies (Order Ephemeroptera) are abundant in streams in the Appalachian Mountain region. They are highly sensitive to water quality , as their immature forms require unpolluted water. VF and AMD are

9135-422: The pre-approved post-mining land use is forest land or wildlife habitat. If the land owner has requested other post-mining land uses the land can be reclaimed to be used as pasture land, economic development or other uses specified in SMCRA. Because coal usually exists in multiple geologically stratified seams, miners can often repeat the blasting process to mine over a dozen seams on a single mountain, increasing

9240-604: The pre-mining forests that once occupied due to poor soil quality . Mine sites are often converted to non-native grassland and shrub land habitat with primarily invasive vegetation. Fast-growing, non-native flora such as Lespedeza cuneata , planted to quickly provide vegetation on a site, compete with tree seedlings, and trees have difficulty establishing root systems in compacted backfill. In addition, reintroduced elk ( Cervus canadensis ) on mountaintop removal sites in Kentucky are eating tree seedlings. The new ecosystem differs from

9345-534: The pushbeam that prevent the mined coal from being contaminated by rock debris during the conveyance process. Using a video imaging and/or a gamma-ray sensor and/or other geo-radar systems like a coal-rock interface detection sensor (CID), the operator can see ahead projection of the seam-rock interface and guide the continuous miner's progress. Highwall mining can produce thousands of tons of coal in contour-strip operations with narrow benches, previously mined areas, trench mine applications, and steep-dip seams by utilizing

9450-435: The quality of the constructed channels and failed to address the functional importance of the natural stream. Advocates of MTR claim that once the areas are reclaimed as mandated by law, the area can provide flat land suitable for many uses in a region where flat land is at a premium. They also maintain that the new growth on reclaimed mountaintop mined areas is better suited to support populations of game animals. While some of

9555-645: The stream. The statement also estimates that 724 miles (1,165 km) of Appalachian streams were buried by valley fills between 1985 and 2001. On September 28, 2010, the EPA Science Advisory Board (SAB) released its first draft review of EPA's research into the water quality impacts of valley fills associated with mountaintop mining, agreeing with EPA's conclusion that valley fills are associated with increased levels of conductivity threatening aquatic life in surface waters. A 2012 review published in Science of

9660-600: The studies did not examine potential environmental costs, which the authors acknowledge may outweigh commercial benefits). Mountaintop removal sites are normally restored after the mining operation is complete, but "reclaimed soils characteristically have higher bulk density, lower organic content, low water-infiltration rates, and low nutrient content". Reclamation projects designed in conjunction with community needs can aid local economic development. Previously mined land can be reclaimed as sustainable agricultural land and solar farms. These efforts can help to diversify and stimulate

9765-542: The terrestrial environment is also negatively impacted. The destruction of mountaintops results in forest loss and fragmentation. The overall loss of forest cover reduces suitable soil for revegetation efforts, carbon sequestration and biodiversity . The Appalachian region is characterized by its high biodiversity and steep topography. The varying elevations from mountains to valleys results in subsequent varying of forest ecosystem distributions. Forest loss and fragmentation exacerbate forest community distribution by altering

9870-513: The terrestrial environment. Fragmentation results in an increase in edge forests and a decrease in interior forests. This is an important distinction because forest conditions vary from both classifications. Edge forests are warmer, drier, more susceptible to windier conditions and can be better suited for invasive species. As edge forests become more prevalent, biodiversity is threatened. Forest communities as well as flora and fauna diversity depend on habitats provided by old growth forests. For example,

9975-483: The top two coal-producing states in Appalachia . At current rates, MTR in the U.S. will mine over 1.4 million acres (5,700 km) by 2010, an amount of land area that exceeds that of the state of Delaware. More than 500 mountains in the US have been destroyed by this process, resulting in the burial of 3,200 km (2,000 mi) of streams. Mountaintop removal has been practiced since the 1960s. Increased demand for coal in

10080-555: The use of hydraulic fluid , with hydraulic cylinders and hydraulic motors , which replaced winches, chains, and steel ropes . Another principle change was the direction of the digging action, with modern excavators pulling their buckets toward them like a dragline rather than pushing them away to fill them the way the first powered shovels did. Excavators are also called diggers, scoopers, mechanical shovels, or 360-degree excavators (sometimes abbreviated simply to "360"). Tracked excavators are sometimes called "trackhoes" by analogy to

10185-425: The vast majority of the overburden undisturbed. The overburden from MTR is either placed back on the ridge, attempting to reflect the approximate original contour of the mountain, and/or is moved into neighboring valleys. When excess rock and soil containing mining byproducts are disposed into nearby valleys, the valleys are called "holler fills" or "valley fills". MTR in the United States is most often associated with

10290-566: The waste rock of which is used to flatten out the surrounding land by infilling rivers and valleys. This is very destructive as it physically permanently alters the landscape and the associated ecosystem. Throughout the Appalachians in states such as Kentucky and Virginia, mountaintop removal is a common mining method where whole forests are cleared and the area becomes vulnerable to possible landslides, with restoration sometimes being too difficult/costly. Dredging - A form of surface mining where

10395-416: The water and decreased aquatic biodiversity . The statement also estimates that 724 miles (1,165 km) of Appalachian streams were buried by valley fills from 1985 to 2001. Blasting at a mountaintop removal mine expels dust and fly-rock into the air, which can then disturb or settle onto private property nearby. This dust may contain sulfur compounds, which some claim corrode structures and tombstones and

10500-557: The watershed and ultimately leads to an increase in average discharge rates. Changes in flow can also be attributed to the formation of aquifers from VF that can store water entering from groundwater sources, surface run-off and precipitation. Compaction of VF sites from MTM equipment can increase the surface run-off contribution. The overall loss of headwater streams from VF practices reduces surface- groundwater connections. While aquatic ecosystems and resources are vulnerable to pollution and geomorphological changes due to MTM and VF leaching,

10605-455: The world's first Zero Tail Swing excavator, which allows the counterweight to stay inside the width of the tracks as it slews, thus being safer and more user friendly when used in a confined space. This type of machine is now widely used throughout the world. There are two main types of control configuration used in excavators to control the boom and bucket, each distributing the four primary digging functions across two x-y joysticks. This allows

10710-405: The world's largest types of mine and the size of these operations leave behind massive landscape scars, destruction to environmental habitats, and substantial clean-up cost. An open-pit mine can yield an enormous quantity of waste rock, sinkholes can form down the road, flooding and similar negative impacts as strip mining. Mountaintop removal mining - Involves the removal of whole mountaintops,

10815-456: Was accomplished through manual labor, horse-drawn vehicles, and/or mining railways. Current practices tend to use haul trucks on haul roads designed into the features of the mine. Federal governments have imposed multiple laws and regulations which mining companies have to strictly follow. In the United States, the Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act of 1977 mandates reclamation of surface coal mines. Reclamation for non-coal mines

10920-625: Was approved for distribution to 22 states and the Navajo Nation in June 2024. MTR negatively impacts the environment. Practices of explosion and digging release many pollutants to the surrounding environment and community and alternation of the ecosystem. Associated air pollutants such as particulate matter, nitrogen oxides, sulfur dioxide not only raise health concerns, they also have effects on all ecosystems. Air pollution contributes to issues such as water and soil acidification, chemicals bioaccumulation in

11025-462: Was noted as producing coal through MTR. With a total of nearly 1,800 tons, that accounted for 0.5% of total coal production in the U.S. Historically in the U.S. the prevalent method of coal acquisition was underground mining which is very labor-intensive. In MTR, through the use of explosives and large machinery, more than two and a half times as much coal can be extracted per worker per hour than in traditional underground mines, thus greatly reducing

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