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69-464: Odzala-Kokoua is an approximately 13,500-square-kilometre (5,200 sq mi) national park and biosphere reserve in northwestern Republic of the Congo, established in 1935. The park has preserved old-growth rainforest and variable terrain, ranging from 350-metre (1,150 ft) tall hills to dense jungle and numerous glades . Odzala-Kokoua has dry forest, savanna , and rainforest ecosystems. The park

138-586: A European Union -sponsored program that establishes a framework for conserving rainforests in the region. Conservation efforts were limited during the Republic of the Congo Civil War (1997–99) . Odzala-Kokoua was neglected for years around the time of the Ebola outbreaks, and suffered from heavy poaching. Tourism was limited until recently, with only 50 tourists visiting Odzala-Kokoua in 2011. African Parks began managing

207-418: A forest dynamics perspective, old-growth forest is in a stage that follows understory reinitiation stage. Those stages are: Of importance is that while the stand switches from one tree community to another, the stand will not necessarily go through old-growth stage between those stages. Some tree species have a relatively open canopy. That allows more shade-tolerant tree species to establish below even before

276-495: A free content work. Licensed under CC BY-SA 3.0 ( license statement/permission ). Text taken from The State of the World's Forests 2020. In brief – Forests, biodiversity and people​ , FAO & UNEP, FAO & UNEP. Crested mona monkey The crested mona monkey , also known as the crowned guenon , crowned monkey , golden-bellied guenon , or golden-bellied monkey , ( Cercopithecus pogonias ),

345-432: A biodiversity that is different from other forest stages. The characteristic topography of much old-growth forest consists of pits and mounds. Mounds are caused by decaying fallen trees, and pits ( tree throws ) by the roots pulled out of the ground when trees fall due to natural causes, including being pushed over by animals. Pits expose humus -poor, mineral-rich soil and often collect moisture and fallen leaves, forming

414-411: A dense understorey. The crested mona monkey is a highly vocal species with a wide repertoire of calls. Both males and females have vocal sacs which are inflated to be used as resonators. A typical call is the booming call made by the adult male which can be heard more than 200m away. Social interactions include tail twining between resting monkeys and a ritualised head display. The crested mona monkey

483-562: A different potential to store carbon. For example, this potential is particularly high in the Pacific Northwest where forests are relatively productive, trees live a long time, decomposition is relatively slow, and fires are infrequent. The differences between forests must, therefore, be taken into consideration when determining how they should be managed to store carbon. A 2019 study projected that old-growth forests in Southeast Asia ,

552-767: A different spatial location relative to the main canopy, hence each one receives a different amount of light. The mixed age of the forest is an important criterion in ensuring that the forest is a relatively stable ecosystem in the long term. A climax stand that is uniformly aged becomes senescent and degrades within a relatively short time to result in a new cycle of forest succession . Thus, uniformly aged stands are less stable ecosystems. Boreal forests are more uniformly aged, as they are normally subject to frequent stand-replacing wildfires. Forest canopy gaps are essential in creating and maintaining mixed-age stands. Also, some herbaceous plants only become established in canopy openings, but persist beneath an understory. Openings are

621-563: A healthy fungal ecosystem, and presence of indicator species. Old-growth forests are often biologically diverse , and home to many rare species , threatened species , and endangered species of plants and animals, such as the northern spotted owl , marbled murrelet and fisher , making them ecologically significant. Levels of biodiversity may be higher or lower in old-growth forests compared to that in second-growth forests, depending on specific circumstances, environmental variables, and geographic variables. Logging in old-growth forests

690-410: A moist, relatively mild climate, some old-growth trees have attained notable height and girth (DBH: diameter at breast height), accompanied by notable biodiversity in terms of the species supported. Therefore, for most people, the physical size of the trees is the most recognized hallmark of old-growth forests, even though the ecologically productive areas that support such large trees often comprise only

759-689: A result of industrial logging operations. In 2006, about 61,000 hectares of tall-eucalypt RFA old-growth forests remained unprotected. Recent logging attempts in the Upper Florentine Valley have sparked a series of protests and media attention over the arrests that have taken place in this area. Additionally, Gunns Limited , the primary forestry contractor in Tasmania, has been under recent criticism by political and environmental groups over its practice of woodchipping timber harvested from old-growth forests. Increased understanding of forest dynamics in

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828-550: A result of tree death due to small impact disturbances such as wind, low-intensity fires, and tree diseases. Old-growth forests are unique, usually having multiple horizontal layers of vegetation representing a variety of tree species , age classes, and sizes, as well as "pit and mound" soil shape with well-established fungal nets . As old-growth forest is structurally diverse, it provides higher-diversity habitat than forests in other stages. Thus, sometimes higher biological diversity can be sustained in old-growth forests, or at least

897-432: A severe disturbance, such as wildfire, insect infestation, or harvesting, is often called second-growth or 'regeneration' until enough time passes for the effects of the disturbance to be no longer evident. Depending on the forest, this may take from a century to several millennia. Hardwood forests of the eastern United States can develop old-growth characteristics in 150–500 years. In British Columbia , Canada, old growth

966-486: A source of raw materials. These services include making breathable air, making pure water, carbon storage, regeneration of nutrients, maintenance of soils, pest control by insectivorous bats and insects, micro- and macro-climate control, and the storage of a wide variety of genes. The effects of old-growth forests in relation to global warming have been addressed in various studies and journals. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change said in its 2007 report : "In

1035-412: A substrate for seedling trees. Intact soils harbor many life forms that rely on them. Intact soils generally have very well-defined horizons, or soil profiles . Different organisms may need certain well-defined soil horizons to live, while many trees need well-structured soils free of disturbance to thrive. Some herbaceous plants in northern hardwood forests must have thick duff layers (which are part of

1104-400: A thick organic layer that is able to nurture certain types of organisms. Mounds provide a place free of leaf inundation and saturation, where other types of organisms thrive. Standing snags provide food sources and habitat for many types of organisms. In particular, many species of dead-wood predators, such as woodpeckers , must have standing snags available for feeding. In North America,

1173-417: A useful number to measure. So, some forests may be excluded from being categorized as old-growth even if they have old-growth attributes just because they are too young. Also, older forests can lack some old-growth attributes and be categorized as old-growth just because they are so old. The idea of using age is also problematic, because human activities can influence the forest in varied ways. For example, after

1242-584: A very small portion of the total area that has been mapped as old-growth forest. (In high-altitude, harsh climates, trees grow very slowly and thus remain at a small size. Such trees also qualify as old growth in terms of how they are mapped, but are rarely recognized by the general public as such.) The debate over old-growth definitions has been inextricably linked with a complex range of social perceptions about wilderness preservation, biodiversity, aesthetics, and spirituality, as well as economic or industrial values. In logging terms, old-growth stands are past

1311-504: Is a forest that has developed over a long period of time without disturbance . Due to this, old-growth forests exhibit unique ecological features. The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations defines primary forests as naturally regenerated forests of native tree species where there are no clearly visible indications of human activity and the ecological processes are not significantly disturbed. One-third (34 percent) of

1380-414: Is a contentious issue in many parts of the world. Excessive logging reduces biodiversity, affecting not only the old-growth forest itself, but also indigenous species that rely upon old-growth forest habitat. Some forests in the old-growth stage have a mix of tree ages, due to a distinct regeneration pattern for this stage. New trees regenerate at different times from each other, because each of them has

1449-401: Is a species of African primate in the family Cercopithecidae found in west central Africa. The crested mona monkey is a medium-sized, long tailed arboreal monkey. The females are smaller than the males but show similar colouration and pattern of coat. They have a brown coat speckled with grey which becomes black on its lower arms and legs and on the base of its long tail. The rump, belly and

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1518-654: Is affected. Climate change showed an impact on the mortality of some dominant tree species, as observed in the Korean pine . Climate change also showed an effect on the composition of species when forests were surveyed over a 10- and 20-year period, which may disrupt the overall productivity of the forest. According to the World Resources Institute , as of January 2009, only 21% of the original old-growth forests that once existed on Earth are remaining. An estimated one-half of Western Europe's forests were cleared before

1587-476: Is an agile species, which crosses large gaps between trees by jumping. They are normally found in groups of between 8 and 20 individuals which are typically made up of a single male, several females and their dependent offspring. Groups are highly vocal, with the males producing the loud, "boom" mentioned above announcing their presence and status, there is also a sharp hacking call which is used as an alarm. The dominant males are able to establish groups, and therefore

1656-615: Is defined as 120 to 140 years of age in the interior of the province where fire is a frequent and natural occurrence. In British Columbia's coastal rainforests , old growth is defined as trees more than 250 years, with some trees reaching more than 1,000 years of age. In Australia, eucalypt trees rarely exceed 350 years of age due to frequent fire disturbance. Forest types have very different development patterns, natural disturbances and appearances. A Douglas-fir stand may grow for centuries without disturbance while an old-growth ponderosa pine forest requires frequent surface fires to reduce

1725-422: Is mainly frugivorous but invertebrates are also frequently taken, along with small quantities of leaves. Unlike most guenons, populations of the crested mona monkey in the northern parts of its range are known to migrate over long distances to forage for seasonally abundant food supplies. The crested mona monkey has a polygynous mating system where the dominant male in each group has exclusive breeding access to all

1794-554: Is managed by African Parks in partnership with the Congolese government. Odzala-Kokoua is one of Africa's oldest national parks, first protected in 1935 and given official designation by presidential decree from Denis Sassou Nguesso in 2001. The park was designated a biosphere reserve in 1977, and administered since 1992 with financial assistance from Conservation and Rational Utilization of Forest Ecosystems in Central Africa (ECOFAC),

1863-433: Is more accurate in forests where the species that constitute old-growth have long lifespans and succession is slow. Common cultural definitions and common denominators regarding what comprises old-growth forest, and the variables that define, constitute and embody old-growth forests include: Additionally, in mountainous, temperate landscapes (such as Western North America), and specifically in areas of high-quality soil and

1932-907: Is not the most commercially viable timber—in British Columbia, Canada, harvesting in the coastal region is moving to younger second-growth stands. A 2001 scientific symposium in Canada found that defining old growth in a scientifically meaningful, yet policy-relevant, manner presents some basic difficulties, especially if a simple, unambiguous, and rigorous scientific definition is sought. Symposium participants identified some attributes of late-successional, temperate-zone, old-growth forest types that could be considered in developing an index of "old-growthness" and for defining old-growth forests: Structural features: Compositional features: Process features: Old-growth forests provide ecosystem services that may be far more important to society than their use as

2001-552: Is seen as extremely economically unproductive, as timber can only be collected from falling trees, and also potentially damaging to nearby managed groves by creating environments conducive to root rot. It may be more productive to cut the old growth down and replace the forest with a younger one. The island of Tasmania , just off the southeast coast of Australia, has the largest amount of temperate old-growth rainforest reserves in Australia with around 1,239,000 hectares in total. While

2070-552: Is thought to have contributed to this success. The results of a survey conducted in clearings within the northern part of the park, published in 1998, showed the presence of thirteen large mammals, the most frequent of which were the bongo , buffalo, African elephant , forest hog, giant forest hog , gorilla, and sitatunga . Other mammal species recorded include the African civet , African forest elephant , black-and-white colobus , and common chimpanzee . Poaching has been attributed to

2139-674: The Cross River in Nigeria and southern Cameroon south to Cabinda , Angola , including Bioko Island, and east into the Central African Republic , eastern Congo and the northern Democratic Republic of Congo . The Crested mona monkey occurs in mature lowland rainforest, in both primary and secondary forest, where there is a well developed canopy and with a clear understorey. Will also occur in flooded forest but avoids small forest patches, gallery forests and open secondary forest with

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2208-480: The Middle Ages , and 90% of the old-growth forests that existed in the contiguous United States in the 1600s have been cleared. The large trees in old-growth forests are economically valuable, and have been subject to aggressive logging throughout the world. This has led to many conflicts between logging companies and environmental groups . From certain forestry perspectives, fully maintaining an old-growth forest

2277-674: The Regional Forest Agreement (RFA) attempted to prevent the clearfelling of defined "old-growth forests". This led to struggles over what constitutes "old growth". For example, in Western Australia, the timber industry tried to limit the area of old growth in the karri forests of the Southern Forests Region; this led to the creation of the Western Australian Forests Alliance , the splitting of

2346-597: The ecosystem services they provide. This can be a point of contention when some in the logging industry desire to harvest valuable timber from the forests, destroying the forests in the process, to generate short-term profits, while environmentalists seek to preserve the forests in their pristine state for benefits such as water purification , flood control , weather stability, maintenance of biodiversity, and nutrient cycling . Moreover, old-growth forests are more efficient at sequestering carbon than newly planted forests and fast-growing timber plantations , thus preserving

2415-658: The goliath heron , black dwarf hornbill , and giant kingfisher . Crocodiles , lizards , and frogs live in Odzala-Kokoua. A study published in Zootaxa in 2010 reported the presence of eleven species of Petrocephalus . The distichodontid fish species Hemigrammocharax rubensteini , described in 2013, has been recorded in the park. Odzala-Kokoua hosts a variety of insect species, including ants , bees , butterflies , and termites . Old-growth forest An old-growth forest (also referred to as primary forest )

2484-525: The spotted owl is well known for needing standing snags for nesting habitat. Fallen timber, or coarse woody debris , contributes carbon -rich organic matter directly to the soil , providing a substrate for mosses , fungi, and seedlings , and creating microhabitats by creating relief on the forest floor. In some ecosystems such as the temperate rain forest of the North American Pacific coast , fallen timber may become nurse logs , providing

2553-454: The Atlantic coastal forests, this includes red-capped mangabey as well. These large mixed-species groups grant the monkeys' increased protection from predation, as the greater number of eyes on the sky means that the spotting of predators such as birds of prey is more likely, and it also facilitates the sharing of information between groups about the best foraging sites. The crested mona monkey

2622-625: The Liberal Government of Western Australia and the election of the Gallop Labor Government. Old-growth forests in this region have now been placed inside national parks . A small proportion of old-growth forests also exist in South-West Australia and are protected by federal laws from logging, which has not occurred there for more than 20 years. In British Columbia , Canada , old-growth forests must be maintained in each of

2691-436: The absence of lions, but at least 46 hyenas were recorded in the park's savanna ecosystem. Also, African golden cat , leopard , and serval were recorded. The decline of lion and spotted hyena populations are thought to be caused by overexploitation . Antelope species include the bay duiker , black-fronted duiker , Peters' duiker , and white-bellied duiker . Several authors noted the importance of forest clearings for

2760-446: The atmosphere. Proponents of harvesting the forest argue the carbon stored in wood is available for use as biomass energy (displacing fossil fuel use), although using biomass as a fuel produces air pollution in the form of carbon monoxide , nitrogen oxides , volatile organic compounds , particulates, and other pollutants, in some cases at levels above those from traditional fuel sources such as coal or natural gas. Each forest has

2829-623: The continent's most diverse primate populations. Odzala-Kokoua was once home to nearly 20,000 gorillas . However, during 2002–2005 a series of Ebola virus disease outbreaks killed 70–95% of the park's population. In 2005, Ebola killed approximately 5,000 gorillas within a 1,042 sq mi (2,700 km) area of the park, according to the United States Fish and Wildlife Service . The number of gorillas in Odzala-Kokoua has since increased, following efforts by conservation organizations and at least one tourism company to preserve and rehabilitate

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2898-421: The economic optimum for harvesting—usually between 80 and 150 years, depending on the species. Old-growth forests were often given harvesting priority because they had the most commercially valuable timber, they were considered to be at greater risk of deterioration through root rot or insect infestation, and they occupied land that could be used for more productive second-growth stands. In some regions, old growth

2967-663: The females in that group. Breeding seem to take place at any time of year, and the females give birth to a single baby after a gestation period of roughly five months. This species sits within the mona superspecies grouping within Cercopithecus . There does not seem to be a consensus around how many subspecies of the crested mona monkey are recognised and some which were formerly considered subspecies of this species are now regarded as species in their own right, e.g. Wolf's mona monkey Cercopithecus wolfi and Dent's mona monkey Cercopithecus denti . Three subspecies appear to be

3036-436: The forest will switch back to understory reinitiation stage. Using the stand dynamics definition, old-growth can be easily evaluated using structural attributes. However, in some forest ecosystems, this can lead to decisions regarding the preservation of unique stands or attributes that will disappear over the next few decades because of natural succession processes. Consequently, using stand dynamics to define old-growth forests

3105-472: The forests is vital to climate change mitigation . Old-growth forests tend to have large trees and standing dead trees, multilayered canopies with gaps that result from the deaths of individual trees, and coarse woody debris on the forest floor. The trees of old-growth forests develop distinctive attributes not seen in younger trees, such as more complex structures and deeply fissured bark that can harbor rare lichens and mosses. A forest regenerated after

3174-448: The government allowed mineral extraction in parts of Odzala-Kokoua. Odzala-Kokoua opened for tourist visits in August 2012. Wilderness Safaris invested in the park by improving infrastructure, constructing two luxury lodges, and providing additional training to guides and rangers. The lodges took six years to become fully operational, and received funding from philanthropist Sabine Plattner,

3243-591: The government's management and preservation of Odzala-Kokoua and other national parks since the early 1990s. African Parks initiated Congo's first firearm amnesty program in 2013, offering poachers positions as park rangers in exchange for weapons and intelligence. According to CNN , there were 76 guards patrolling Odzala-Kokoua in early 2014. Two Malinois dogs were trained to detect ivory and animal meat in 2014, in an effort to reduce poaching. Despite having national park status, which protects against mining , Mongabay reported in 2016 that some mining permits issued by

3312-460: The insides of the legs are golden-yellow contrasting with the rest of the fur. The males have a distinctive blue scrotum . Their faces are mainly dark blue with a pink muzzle. Around the face the fur is yellow marked with a wide black stripes which runs from the beside the eyes over to the temples and across the centre of the forehead where it forms the characteristic small crest which gives this species its common name . Western central Africa from

3381-427: The landscape patterns and habitat conditions normally maintained in nature . This coarse filter approach to biodiversity conservation recognizes ecological processes and provides for a dynamic distribution of old growth across the landscape. And all seral stages—young, medium, and old—support forest biodiversity. Plants and animals rely on different forest ecosystem stages to meet their habitat needs. In Australia ,

3450-525: The late 20th century led the scientific community to identify a need to inventory, understand, manage, and conserve representative examples of old-growth forests with their associated characteristics and values. Literature around old growth and its management is inconclusive about the best way to characterize the true essence of an old-growth stand. A better understanding of natural systems has resulted in new ideas about forest management, such as managed natural disturbances, which should be designed to achieve

3519-582: The lives of most males are rather solitary and are marked by an absence of social contact. Surprisingly, this appears to lead to some males joining groups of other monkeys such as the black colobus Colobus satanas , where these solitary males can form strong group bonds with the non conspecific monkeys, possibly resulting in a permanent loss of mating opportunities. The social groups of crested mona monkeys will also associate with other guenon species, especially with moustached guenon Cercopithecus cephus and greater spot-nosed monkey Cercopithecus nictitans . In

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3588-617: The local Regional Forest Agreement (RFA) was originally designed to protect much of this natural wealth, many of the RFA old-growth forests protected in Tasmania consist of trees of little use to the timber industry. RFA old-growth and high conservation value forests that contain species highly desirable to the forestry industry have been poorly preserved. Only 22% of Tasmania's original tall-eucalypt forests managed by Forestry Tasmania have been reserved. Ten thousand hectares of tall-eucalypt RFA old-growth forest have been lost since 1996, predominantly as

3657-408: The logging of 30% of the trees, less time is needed for old-growth to come back than after removal of 80% of the trees. Although depending on the species logged, the forest that comes back after a 30% harvest may consist of proportionately fewer hardwood trees than a forest logged at 80% in which the light competition by less important tree species does not inhibit the regrowth of vital hardwoods. From

3726-413: The long term, a sustainable forest management strategy aimed at maintaining or increasing forest carbon stocks, while producing an annual sustained yield of timber, fibre, or energy from the forest, will generate the largest sustained mitigation benefit." Old-growth forests are often perceived to be in equilibrium or in a state of decay. However, evidence from analysis of carbon stored above ground and in

3795-476: The majority of which are in Indonesia and Malaysia , are able to sequester carbon or be a net emitter of greenhouse gases based on deforestation scenarios over the subsequent decades. Old-growth forests have the potential to impact climate change, but climate change is also impacting old-growth forests. As the effects of global warming grow more substantial, the ability of old-growth forests to sequester carbon

3864-711: The park in 2010, as part of a 25-year agreement with the Ministry of Forest and Sustainable Development of the Republic of the Congo. In 2013, African Parks, the United States Fish and Wildlife Service, Wildlife Conservation Society (WCS), and the World Wide Fund for Nature entered into a five-year, $ 10 million agreement to collaborate and work to conserve Odzala-Kokoua and the Sangha Trinational . WCS has been supporting

3933-476: The park's elephant population decline. Surveys of Odzala-Kokoua's African forest elephant population resulted in estimates of approximately 18,200 and 13,500 in 2000 and 2005, respectively. There were approximately 9,600 elephants, as of 2014. Spotted hyenas were reportedly abundant in the park's savanna area in 2007. In 2013, the lion was considered locally extinct, as the species has not been recorded for fifteen years. Survey results published in 2014 revealed

4002-590: The park's mammal populations. Approximately 440 bird species have been recorded in the park. Species include the African fish eagle , black-backed cisticola , black-throated apalis , black-winged pratincole , eastern wattled cuckooshrike , forest robin , forest wood hoopoe , great snipe , green pigeon , grey parrot , grey-headed broadbill , lesser kestrel , Pel's fishing owl , pied kingfisher , red-capped crombec , red-throated cliff swallow , Uganda woodland warbler , and yellow-capped weaver . Herons , hornbills , and kingfishers are also present, including

4071-466: The park's open-canopy Marantaceae forest; chimpanzee nests were most abundant in closed-canopy primary and Marantaceae forests. All monkey species were found in the forest's densest areas, but only four were present in terra firma forest . Odzala-Kokoua had the highest densities of western lowland gorilla and chimpanzee in Central Africa recorded to date. High forest productivity and decreased poaching

4140-497: The park. A survey of diurnal primates, conducted during the mid 1990s, showed significant monkey populations in Republic of the Congo's forest region. Sighted species included the western lowland gorilla and central chimpanzee , as well as eight monkeys : Angolan talapoin , black crested mangabey , crested mona monkey , De Brazza's monkey , greater spot-nosed monkey , mantled guereza , moustached guenon , and Tana River mangabey . The number of gorilla nests were highest in

4209-517: The province's ecological units to meet biodiversity needs. In the United States , from 2001, around a quarter of the federal forests are protected from logging. In December 2023, Biden's administration introduced a rule, according to which, logging is strongly limited in old growth forests, but permitted in "mature forests", representing a compromise between the logging industry and environmental activists. In 2006, Greenpeace identified that

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4278-607: The shade-tolerant species and regenerate the canopy species. In the boreal forest of Canada , catastrophic disturbances like wildfires minimize opportunities for major accumulations of dead and downed woody material and other structural legacies associated with old growth conditions. Typical characteristics of old-growth forest include the presence of older trees, minimal signs of human disturbance, mixed-age stands, presence of canopy openings due to tree falls, pit-and-mound topography , down wood in various stages of decay, standing snags (dead trees), multilayered canopies, intact soils ,

4347-462: The soil has shown old-growth forests are more productive at storing carbon than younger forests. Forest harvesting has little or no effect on the amount of carbon stored in the soil, but other research suggests older forests that have trees of many ages, multiple layers, and little disturbance have the highest capacities for carbon storage. As trees grow, they remove carbon from the atmosphere, and protecting these pools of carbon prevents emissions into

4416-516: The soil profile). Fungal ecosystems are essential for efficient in-situ recycling of nutrients back into the entire ecosystem. Stand age can also be used to categorize a forest as old-growth. For any given geographical area, the average time since disturbance until a forest reaches the old growth stage can be determined. This method is useful, because it allows quick and objective determination of forest stage. However, this definition does not provide an explanation of forest function. It just gives

4485-549: The understory reinitiation stage. The shade-tolerant trees eventually outcompete the main canopy trees in stem-exclusion stage. Therefore, the dominant tree species will change, but the forest will still be in stem-exclusion stage until the shade-tolerant species reach old-growth stage. Tree species succession may change tree species' composition once the old-growth stage has been achieved. For example, an old boreal forest may contain some large aspen trees, which may die and be replaced by smaller balsam fir or black spruce. Consequently,

4554-483: The wife of German businessman Hasso Plattner . The company's operating contract ended in 2015, and the camps have since been run directly by the Congo Conservation Company, which Sabine Plattner established and funds. Odzala-Kokoua hosts approximately 4,500 plant and tree species. The vast majority of the park's forest is open-canopy Marantaceae . The park has approximately 100 mammal species, and one of

4623-471: The world has 1.11  billion   ha (2.7 billion acres) of primary forest remaining. Combined, three countries (Brazil, Canada, and Russia) host more than half (61 percent) of the world's primary forest. The area of primary forest has decreased by 81 million ha (200 million acres) since 1990, but the rate of loss more than halved in 2010–2020 compared with the previous decade. Old-growth forests are valuable for economic reasons and for

4692-500: The world's forests are primary forests. Old-growth features include diverse tree-related structures that provide diverse wildlife habitats that increases the biodiversity of the forested ecosystem . Virgin or first-growth forests are old-growth forests that have never been logged. The concept of diverse tree structure includes multi-layered canopies and canopy gaps, greatly varying tree heights and diameters, and diverse tree species and classes and sizes of woody debris. As of 2020 ,

4761-413: The world's remaining intact forest landscapes are distributed among the continents as follows: [REDACTED]  This article incorporates text from a free content work. Licensed under CC BY-SA 3.0 ( license statement/permission ). Text taken from Global Forest Resources Assessment 2020 Key findings​ , FAO, FAO. [REDACTED]  This article incorporates text from

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