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142-623: During Pre-Hispanic times, Ocuituco was inhabited by Olmecs-Xicalancas, and after the Spanish Conquest, Hernan Cortés received the submission of the Cacique of Ocuituco. During the Colonial era, Ocuituco was one of the few towns subtracted from the Marquessate of the valley of Oaxaca and was commissioned to Fray Juan de Zumarraga in the year of 1548, as a means of financing the traveling expenses of

284-678: A battle against the natives. He received twenty young indigenous women from the vanquished natives, and he converted them all to Christianity. Among these women was La Malinche , his future mistress and mother of his son Martín . Malinche knew both the Nahuatl language and Chontal Maya, thus enabling Cortés to communicate with the Aztecs through Aguilar. At San Juan de Ulúa on Easter Sunday 1519, Cortés met with Moctezuma II 's Aztec Empire governors Tendile and Pitalpitoque. In July 1519, his men took over Veracruz . By this act, Cortés dismissed

426-624: A shipwreck followed by a period in captivity with the Maya , before escaping. Aguilar had learned the Chontal Maya language and was able to translate for Cortés. Cortés's military experience was almost nonexistent, but he proved to be an effective leader of his small army and won early victories over the coastal Indians. In March 1519, Cortés formally claimed the land for the Spanish crown . Then he proceeded to Tabasco , where he met with resistance and won

568-566: A battle in Otumba , they managed to reach Tlaxcala, having lost 870 men. With the assistance of their allies, Cortés's men finally prevailed with reinforcements arriving from Cuba . Cortés began a policy of attrition towards Tenochtitlán, cutting off supplies and subduing the Aztecs' allied cities. During the siege he would construct brigantines in the lake and slowly destroy blocks of the city to avoid fighting in an urban setting. The Mexicas would fall back to Tlatelolco and even succeed in ambushing

710-479: A colony on the mainland where there was a bonanza of silver and gold, and Velázquez decided to send him help. Cortés was appointed captain-general of this new expedition in October 1518, but was advised to move fast before Velázquez changed his mind. With Cortés's experience as an administrator, knowledge gained from many failed expeditions, and his impeccable rhetoric he was able to gather six ships and 300 men, within

852-658: A hundred men in Veracruz, Cortés marched on Tenochtitlán in mid-August 1519, along with 600 soldiers, 15 horsemen, 15 cannons , and hundreds of indigenous carriers and warriors. On the way to Tenochtitlán, Cortés made alliances with indigenous peoples such as the Totonacs of Cempoala and the Nahuas of Tlaxcala . The Otomis initially, and then the Tlaxcalans clashed with the Spanish in

994-498: A large influx of tribute, especially agricultural goods. Itzcoatl died, and Moctezuma I was enthroned as the new Mexica emperor. The expansion of the empire was briefly halted by a major four-year drought that hit the Basin of Mexico in 1450, and several cities in Morelos had to be re-conquered after the drought subsided. Moctezuma and Nezahualcoyotl continued to expand the empire east towards

1136-477: A man of substance with an encomienda to provide Indian labor for his mines and cattle. This new position of power also made him the new source of leadership, which opposing forces in the colony could then turn to. In 1514, Cortés led a group which demanded that more Indians be assigned to the settlers. As time went on, relations between Cortés and Governor Velázquez became strained. Cortés found time to become romantically involved with Catalina Xuárez (or Juárez),

1278-421: A month. Velázquez's jealousy exploded and he decided to put the expedition in other hands. However, Cortés quickly gathered more men and ships in other Cuban ports. In 1518, Velázquez put Cortés in command of an expedition to explore and secure the interior of Mexico for colonization. At the last minute, due to the old argument between the two, Velázquez changed his mind and revoked Cortés's charter. Cortés ignored

1420-549: A new title called " quauhpilli " that could be conferred on commoners. This title was a form of non-hereditary lesser nobility awarded for outstanding military or civil service (similar to the English knight ). Commoners who received this title rarely married into royal families and became kings. One component of this reform was the creation of an institution of regulated warfare called the Flower Wars . Mesoamerican warfare overall

1562-476: A notary of the town of Azua de Compostela . His next five years seemed to help establish him in the colony; in 1506, Cortés took part in the conquests of Hispaniola and Cuba. The expedition leader awarded him a large estate of land and Taíno slaves for his efforts. In 1511, Cortés accompanied Diego Velázquez de Cuéllar , an aide of the Governor of Hispaniola, in his expedition to conquer Cuba. Afterwards Velázquez

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1704-407: A red field, in memory of the fact that you, the said Hernando Cortés, by your industry and effort brought matters to the state described above" (i.e., the conquest). The specificity of the other two quadrants is linked directly to Mexico, with one quadrant showing three crowns representing the three Aztec emperors of the conquest era, Moctezuma , Cuitlahuac , and Cuauhtemoc and the other showing

1846-672: A series of three battles from 2 to 5 September 1519, and at one point, Diaz remarked, "they surrounded us on every side". After Cortés continued to release prisoners with messages of peace, and realizing the Spanish were enemies of Moctezuma, Xicotencatl the Elder and Maxixcatzin persuaded the Tlaxcalan warleader, Xicotencatl the Younger , that it would be better to ally with the newcomers than to kill them. In October 1519, Cortés and his men, accompanied by about 1,000 Tlaxcalteca, marched to Cholula ,

1988-617: A ship commanded by Alonso Quintero, who tried to deceive his superiors and reach the New World before them in order to secure personal advantages. Quintero's mutinous conduct may have served as a model for Cortés in his subsequent career. Upon his arrival in 1504 in Santo Domingo , the capital of Hispaniola, the 18-year-old Cortés registered as a citizen; this entitled him to a building plot and land to farm. Soon afterward, Governor Nicolás de Ovando granted him an encomienda and appointed him as

2130-518: A sling stone, and he died several days later, though the exact circumstances of his death are unclear. The Spaniards and their allies attempted to retreat without detection in what is known as the "Sad Night" or La Noche Triste , realizing that they were vulnerable to the hostile Mexica in Tenochtitlan following Moctezuma's death. Spaniards and their Indigenous allies were discovered clandestinely retreating and were then forced to fight their way out of

2272-501: A small city-state but important historically as a refuge of the Toltecs to make them settle in a relatively infertile patch of land called Chapultepec ( Chapoltepēc, "in the hill of grasshoppers"). The Mexica served as mercenaries for Culhuacan. After the Mexica served Culhuacan in battle, the ruler appointed one of his daughters to rule over the Mexica. Mythological native accounts say that

2414-405: A small tributary empire with Mexica assistance. The Mexica ruler was not recognized as a legitimate king until this point. Mexica leaders successfully petitioned one of the kings of Culhuacan to provide a daughter to marry into the Mexica line. Their son Acamapichtli was enthroned as the first tlatoani of Tenochtitlan in 1372. The Tepanecs of Azcapotzalco expanded their rule with help from

2556-406: A son around 1522 by his cultural translator, Doña Marina , Cortés knew he was capable of fathering children. Cortés's only male heir at this point was illegitimate, but nonetheless named after Cortés's father, Martín Cortés. This son Martín Cortés was also popularly called "El Mestizo". Catalina Suárez died under mysterious circumstances the night of November 1–2, 1522. There were accusations at

2698-415: Is characterized by a strong preference for capturing live prisoners as opposed to slaughtering the enemy on the battlefield, which was considered sloppy and gratuitous. The Flower Wars are a potent manifestation of this approach to warfare. These highly ritualized wars ensured a steady, healthy supply of experienced Aztec warriors as well as a steady, healthy supply of captured enemy warriors for sacrifice to

2840-446: Is conceptualized in a kind of monistic pantheism as manifest in the supreme god Ometeotl , as well as a large pantheon of lesser gods and idealizations of natural phenomena such as stars and fire. Priests and educated upper classes held more monistic views, while the popular religion of the uneducated tended to embrace the polytheistic and mythological aspects. The Aztec empire's state-sanctioned religion meanwhile had to fulfill

2982-503: Is located at 2352 meters above sea level. There is one preschool, one elementary school, and one middle school. Hernan Cort%C3%A9s Hernán Cortés de Monroy y Pizarro Altamirano, 1st Marquess of the Valley of Oaxaca (December 1485 – December 2, 1547) was a Spanish conquistador who led an expedition that caused the fall of the Aztec Empire and brought large portions of what

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3124-653: Is now mainland Mexico under the rule of the King of Castile in the early 16th century. Cortés was part of the generation of Spanish explorers and conquistadors who began the first phase of the Spanish colonization of the Americas . Born in Medellín, Spain , to a family of lesser nobility, Cortés chose to pursue adventure and riches in the New World . He went to Hispaniola and later to Cuba , where he received an encomienda (the right to

3266-406: Is our will that besides your coat of arms of your lineage, which you have, you may have and bear as your coat of arms, known and recognized, a shield ... The grant specifies the iconography of the coat of arms, the central portion divided into quadrants. In the upper portion, there is a "black eagle with two heads on a white field, which are the arms of the empire". Below that is a "golden lion on

3408-423: Is the name of a Nahua deity), and the role of the position, somewhat analogous to a European Viceroy or Prime Minister , reflect the dualistic nature of Nahua cosmology . Neither the position of Cihuacoatl nor the position of Huetlatoani were priestly, yet both did have important ritual tasks. Those of the former were associated with the "female" wet season, those of the latter with the "male" dry season. While

3550-492: Is the one Cortés presents in his letters and in the later biography written by Francisco López de Gómara . However, there may be more to the picture than this. Cortés's own sense of accomplishment, entitlement, and vanity may have played a part in his deteriorating position with the king: Cortés personally was not ungenerously rewarded, but he speedily complained of insufficient compensation to himself and his comrades. Thinking himself beyond reach of restraint, he disobeyed many of

3692-550: The otontin (" Otomies "). The tetecuhtin , the relatives of the former Huey tlatoani, will choose the next Huey tlatoani from the four council members. Traditionally, provinces and altepetl were governed by hereditary tlatoani. As the empire grew, the system evolved further and some tlatoani were replaced by other officials. The other officials had similar authority to tlatoani. As has already been mentioned, directly appointed stewards (singular calpixqui , plural calpixque ) were sometimes imposed on altepetl instead of

3834-494: The tlatoani (ruler) of Tenochtitlán, on August 13, 1521, the Aztec Empire was captured, and Cortés was able to claim it for Spain, thus renaming the city Mexico City . From 1521 to 1524, Cortés personally governed Mexico. Many historical sources have conveyed an impression that Cortés was unjustly treated by the Spanish Crown , and that he received nothing but ingratitude for his role in establishing New Spain . This picture

3976-468: The Aztec Empire , Cortés was awarded the title of marqués del Valle de Oaxaca , while the more prestigious title of viceroy was given to a high-ranking nobleman, Antonio de Mendoza . In 1541 Cortés returned to Spain, where he died six years later of natural causes. Cortés himself used the form "Hernando" or "Fernando" for his first name, as seen in the contemporary archive documents, his signature and

4118-512: The Palace of Cortés in Cuernavaca , in a region close to the capital where he had extensive encomienda holdings. In 1529 he had been accorded the noble designation of don , but more importantly was given the noble title of Marquess of the Valley of Oaxaca and married the Spanish noblewoman Doña Juana de Zúñiga. The marriage produced three children, including another son, who was also named Martín. As

4260-468: The Aztec Empire and the neighboring cities of their arch-enemy Tlaxcala . After the defeat of the Tepanecs, Itzcoatl and Nezahualcoyotl consolidated power in the Basin of Mexico and began to expand beyond its borders. The first targets for imperial expansion were Coyoacan in the Basin of Mexico and Cuauhnahuac and Huaxtepec in the modern Mexican state of Morelos . These conquests provided the new empire with

4402-556: The Aztec Triple Alliance. Nearby, he founded the town of Veracruz where he met with ambassadors from the reigning Mexica emperor Moctezuma II. When the ambassadors returned to Tenochtitlan, Cortés went to Cempoala to meet with the local Totonac leaders. The Totonac ruler told Cortés of his various grievances against the Mexica, and Cortés convinced the Totonacs to imprison an imperial tribute collector. Cortés subsequently released

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4544-508: The Aztec capital of Tenochtitlan. Encircling the central shield are symbols of the seven city-states around the lake and their lords that Cortés defeated, with the lords "to be shown as prisoners bound with a chain which shall be closed with a lock beneath the shield". Cortés's wife Catalina Súarez arrived in New Spain around summer 1522, along with her sister and brother. His marriage to Catalina

4686-419: The Aztec empire can be seen in the fact that generally local rulers were restored to their positions once they conquered their city-state, and the Aztecs did not interfere in local affairs as long as the tribute payments were made. The form of government is often referred to as an empire, yet most areas within the empire were, in fact, organized as city-states (individually known as altepetl in Nahuatl ,

4828-515: The Aztec empire followed a somewhat divergent path, with some tlatoani of recently conquered or otherwise subordinated altepetl becoming replaced with calpixque stewards charged with collecting tribute on behalf of the Huetlatoani rather than simply replacing an old tlatoque with new ones from the same set of local nobility. Yet the Huey tlatoani was not the sole executive. It was the responsibility of

4970-479: The Aztec empire was an informal type of empire in that the Alliance did not claim supreme authority over its tributary provinces. It merely expected to pay tributes. The empire was also territorially discontinuous, i.e. land did not connect all of its dominated territories. For example, the southern peripheral zones of Xoconochco were not in immediate contact with the central part of the empire. The hegemonic nature of

5112-482: The Aztecs recorded their history say that the empire's place of origin was called Aztlán . Early migrants settled the Basin of Mexico and surrounding lands by establishing a series of independent city-states. These early Nahua city-states or altepetl were ruled by dynastic heads called tlahtohqueh (singularly tlatoāni ). Most of the existing settlements had been established by other indigenous peoples before

5254-618: The Franciscans be sent to Mexico to convert the Indians. Aztec Empire The Aztec Empire or the Triple Alliance ( Classical Nahuatl : Ēxcān Tlahtōlōyān , [ˈjéːʃkaːn̥ t͡ɬaʔtoːˈlóːjaːn̥] ) was an alliance of three Nahua city-states : Mexico-Tenochtitlan , Tetzcoco , and Tlacopan . These three city-states ruled that area in and around the Valley of Mexico from 1428 until

5396-561: The Franciscans had a particularly strong alliance in Mexico, with Franciscans seeing him as "the new Moses" for conquering Mexico and opening it to Christian evangelization. In Motolinia's 1555 response to Dominican Bartolomé de Las Casas , he praises Cortés. And as to those who murmur against the Marqués del Valle [Cortés], God rest him, and who try to blacken and obscure his deeds, I believe that before God their deeds are not as acceptable as those of

5538-566: The Gulf of Mexico and south into Oaxaca . In 1468, Moctezuma I died and was succeeded by his son Axayacatl . Most of Axayacatl's thirteen-year reign was spent consolidating the territory acquired under his predecessor. Motecuzoma and Nezahualcoyotl had expanded rapidly and many provinces rebelled. Also, as the Aztec Empire was expanding and consolidating power, the Purépecha Empire in West Mexico

5680-410: The Huey tlatoani in his decision-making: the tlacochcalcatl ; the tlaccatecatl ; the ezhuahuacatl ; and the tlillancalqui . This design not only provided advice for the ruler, it also served to contain ambition on the part of the nobility, as henceforth Huey Tlatoani could only be selected from the council. Moreover, the actions of any one member of the council could easily be blocked by

5822-473: The Huey tlatoani to deal with the external issues of empire; the management of tribute, war, diplomacy, and expansion were all under the purview of the Huey tlatoani. It was the role of the Cihuacoatl to govern a given city itself. The Cihuacoatl was always a close relative of the Huey tlatoani; Tlacaelel , for example, was the brother of Moctezuma I. Both the title "Cihuacoatl", which means "female snake" (it

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5964-404: The Marqués. Although as a human he was a sinner, he had faith and works of a good Christian, and a great desire to employ his life and property in widening and augmenting the fair of Jesus Christ, and dying for the conversion of these gentiles ... Who has loved and defended the Indians of this new world like Cortés? ... Through this captain, God opened the door for us to preach his holy gospel and it

6106-502: The Mexica huetlatoani in 1440. Tlacaelel occupied the newly created " Cihuacoatl " title, equivalent to something between "Prime Minister" and "Viceroy". Shortly after the formation of the Triple Alliance, Itzcoatl and Tlacopan instigated sweeping reforms on the Aztec state and religion . It has been alleged that Tlacaelel ordered the burning of some or most of the extant Aztec books, claiming that they contained lies and that it

6248-565: The Mexica Emperor now assumed nominal if not actual seniority. Ahuitzotl was succeeded by his nephew Moctezuma II in 1502. Moctezuma II spent most of his reign consolidating power in lands conquered by his predecessors. In 1515, Aztec armies commanded by the Tlaxcalan general Tlahuicole invaded the Purépecha Empire once again. The Aztec army failed to take any territory and was mostly restricted to raiding. The Purépecha defeated them and

6390-484: The Mexica gained the support of a dissident Tepanec city called Tlacopan . In 1427, Tenochtitlan, Texcoco, Tlacopan, and Huexotzinco went to war against Azcapotzalco, emerging victorious in 1428. After the war, Huexotzinco withdrew, and, in 1430, the three remaining cities formed a treaty now known as the Triple Alliance. The Tepanec lands were carved up among the three cities, whose leaders agreed to cooperate in future wars of conquest. Land acquired from these conquests

6532-434: The Mexica instead sacrificed her by flaying her skin on the command of their god Xipe Totec . The ruler of Culhuacan attacked and used his army to drive the Mexica from Tizaapan by force when he learned of this. The Mexica moved to an island in the middle of Lake Texcoco where an eagle nested on a nopal cactus. The Mexica interpreted this as a sign from their gods and founded their new city Tenochtitlan on this island in

6674-524: The Mexica migration. These early city-states fought various small-scale wars with each other but no individual city gained dominance due to shifting alliances. The Mexica were the last of the Nahua migrants to arrive in Central Mexico. They entered the Basin of Mexico around the year 1250, and, by then, most of the good agricultural land had already been claimed. The Mexica persuaded the king of Culhuacan ,

6816-463: The Mexica ruler Chimalpopoca . The latter died shortly thereafter, possibly assassinated by Maxtla. The new Mexica ruler Itzcoatl continued to defy Maxtla, and he blockaded Tenochtitlan and demanded increased tribute payments. Maxtla similarly turned against the Acolhua , and the king of Texcoco Nezahualcoyotl fled into exile. Nezahualcoyotl recruited military help from the king of Huexotzinco , and

6958-492: The Mexica, while the Acolhua city of Texcoco grew in power in the eastern portion of the lake basin. Eventually, war erupted between the two states, and the Mexica played a vital role in the conquest of Texcoco. By then, Tenochtitlan had grown into a major city and was rewarded for its loyalty to the Tepanecs by receiving Texcoco as a tributary province. Mexica warfare was marked by a focus on capturing enemies rather than killing them from its tactics to arms. Capturing enemies

7100-696: The Ocuituco. 529 homes were destroyed and another 511 were damaged in the municipality. Juan Jesus Anzures Garcia of Ecologist Green Party of Mexico (PVEM) was elected Presidente Municipal (mayor) in the election of July 1, 2018. One of the biggest concerns is the high rate of crime and violence. The state of Morelos reported 209 cases and 28 deaths due to the COVID-19 pandemic in Mexico as of April 27, 2020; six cases were reported in Ocuituco. Schools and many businesses were closed from mid March until June 1. On June 2, Ocuituco reported 15 confirmed cases and two deaths from

7242-716: The Order of St. Francis and the other from the Order of St. Dominic. They should bring the most extensive powers Your Majesty is able to obtain, for, because these lands are so far from the Church of Rome, and we, the Christians who now reside here and shall do so in the future, are so far from the proper remedies of our consciences and, as we are human, so subject to sin, it is essential that His Holiness should be generous with us and grant to these persons most extensive powers, to be handed down to persons actually in residence here whether it be given to

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7384-470: The Pacific Coast of Guerrero . By the reign of Ahuitzotl, the Mexica were the largest and most powerful faction in the Aztec Triple Alliance. Building on the prestige the Mexica had acquired over the course of the conquests, Ahuitzotl began to use the title "huehuetlatoani" ("Eldest Speaker") to distinguish himself from the rulers of Texcoco and Tlacopan. The alliance still technically ran the empire. But

7526-528: The Spaniards had a large army. On November 8, 1519, they were peacefully received by Moctezuma II. Moctezuma deliberately let Cortés enter the Aztec capital, the island city of Tenochtitlán, hoping to get to know their weaknesses better and to crush them later. Moctezuma gave lavish gifts of gold to the Spaniards which, rather than placating them, excited their ambitions for plunder. In his letters to King Charles, Cortés claimed to have learned at this point that he

7668-431: The Spanish soldiers. During his stay in the city of Cholula, Cortés claims he received word of a planned ambush against the Spanish. In a pre-emptive response, Cortés directed his troops to attack and kill a large amount of unarmed Cholulans gathered in the main square of the city. Following the massacre at Cholula, Cortés and the other Spaniards entered Tenochtitlan, where they were greeted as guests and given quarters in

7810-508: The Triple Alliance of Tenochtitlan, Texcoco, and Tlacopan dominated the Valley of Mexico and extended its power to the shores of the Gulf of Mexico and the Pacific Ocean . Tenochtitlan gradually became the dominant power in the alliance. Two of the primary architects of this alliance were the half-brothers and nephews of Itzcoatl Tlacaelel and Moctezuma . Moctezuma eventually succeeded Itzcoatl as

7952-699: The University of Salamanca. After two years, Cortés returned home to Medellín, much to the irritation of his parents, who had hoped to see him equipped for a profitable legal career. However, those two years in Salamanca , plus his long period of training and experience as a notary, first in Valladolid and later in Hispaniola , gave him knowledge of the legal codes of Castile that he applied to help justify his unauthorized conquest of Mexico. At this point in his life, Cortés

8094-526: The alliance, and although each partner city shared spoils of war and rights to regular tribute from the provinces and were governed by their own Huetlatoani, Tenochtitlan became the largest, most powerful, and most influential of the three cities. It was the de facto and acknowledged center of empire. Though the Aztecs did not describe them this way, there were essentially two types of provinces: Tributary and Strategic. Strategic provinces were essentially subordinate client states which provided tribute or aid to

8236-463: The army withdrew. Moctezuma II instituted more imperial reforms. The death of Nezahualcoyotl caused the Mexica Emperors to become the de facto rulers of the alliance. Moctezuma II used his reign to attempt to consolidate power more closely with the Mexica Emperor. He removed many of Ahuitzotl's advisors and had several of them executed. He also abolished the quauhpilli class, destroying

8378-410: The authority of the governor of Cuba to place himself directly under the orders of King Charles . To eliminate any ideas of retreat, Cortés scuttled his ships. In Veracruz, he met some of the tributaries of the Aztecs and asked them to arrange a meeting with Moctezuma II , the tlatoani (ruler) of the Aztec Empire. Moctezuma repeatedly turned down the meeting, but Cortés was determined. Leaving

8520-461: The border with 50,000 soldiers and scored a resounding victory, killing or capturing over 90% of the Aztec army. Axayacatl himself was wounded in the battle, retreated to Tenochtitlan, and never engaged the Purépecha in battle again. In 1472, Nezahualcoyotl died, and his son Nezahualpilli was enthroned as the new huetlatoani of Texcoco. This was followed by the death of Axayacatl in 1481. Axayacatl

8662-447: The calpixque system, with two calpixque assigned per tributary province. The province itself stationed one, perhaps for supervising the collection of tribute, and the other in Tenochtitlan, perhaps for supervising storage of tribute. Commoners drew the tribute, the macehualtin , and distributed to the nobility, be they 'kings' ( tlatoque ), lesser rulers ( teteuctin ), or provincial nobility ( pipiltin ). The Nahuas supervised

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8804-426: The capital, kneeling at the feet of the friars who had walked from the coast. This story was told by Franciscans to demonstrate Cortés piety and humility and was a powerful message to all, including the Indians, that Cortés's earthly power was subordinate to the spiritual power of the friars. However, one of the first twelve Franciscans, Fray Toribio de Benavente Motolinia does not mention it in his history. Cortés and

8946-476: The chance for commoners to advance to the nobility. His reform efforts were cut short by the Spanish conquest in 1519. The Spanish expedition leader Hernán Cortés landed in Yucatán in 1519 with approximately 630 men (most armed with only a sword and shield). Cortés had actually been removed as the expedition's commander by the governor of Cuba Diego Velásquez but had stolen the boats and left without permission. At

9088-404: The city with heavy loss of life. Some Spaniards lost their lives by drowning, loaded down with gold. They retreated to Tlacopan (now Tacuba) and made their way to Tlaxcala where they recovered and prepared for the second, successful assault on Tenochtitlan. After this incident, a smallpox outbreak hit Tenochtitlan. The outbreak alone killed more than 50% of the region's population, including

9230-448: The city. Cortés kept him prisoner and tortured him for a period of several years before finally executing him in 1525. The Aztec Empire was an example of an empire that ruled by indirect means. It was ethnically very diverse like most European empires but was more a system of tributes than a single unitary form of government unlike them. In the theoretical framework of imperial systems posited by American historian Alexander J. Motyl ,

9372-450: The combined forces of the Spanish conquistadores and their native allies who ruled under Hernán Cortés defeated them in 1521. The alliance was formed from the victorious factions of a civil war fought between the city of Azcapotzalco and its former tributary provinces. Despite the initial conception of the empire as an alliance of three self-governed city-states, the capital Tenochtitlan became dominant militarily. By

9514-513: The command of Pánfilo de Narváez sent by Diego Velásquez with the goal of arresting Cortés for treason. Before confronting Narváez, Cortés secretly persuaded Narváez's lieutenants to betray him and join Cortés. Cortés was away from Tenochtitlan dealing with Narváez, while his second-in-command Pedro de Alvarado massacred a group of Aztec nobility, in response to a ritual of human sacrifice honoring Huitzilopochtli . The Aztecs retaliated by attacking

9656-410: The conqueror's request. The document granting the coat of arms summarizes Cortés's accomplishments in the conquest of Mexico. The proclamation of the king says in part: We, respecting the many labors, dangers, and adventures which you underwent as stated above, and so that there might remain a perpetual memorial of you and your services and that you and your descendants might be more fully honored ... it

9798-481: The continent, Cortés executed a successful strategy of allying with some indigenous people against others. He also used a native woman, Doña Marina , as an interpreter. She later gave birth to his first son. When the governor of Cuba sent emissaries to arrest Cortés, he fought them and won, using the extra troops as reinforcements. Cortés wrote letters directly to the king asking to be acknowledged for his successes instead of being punished for mutiny. After he overthrew

9940-455: The creation of another level of rulership, hueitlatocayotl , standing in superior contrast to the lesser tlatocayotl principle. A militaristic interpretation of Nahua religion, specifically a devout veneration of the sun god, Huitzilopochtli , guided expansion of the empire. Militaristic state rituals were performed throughout the year according to a ceremonial calendar of events, rites, and mock battles. The time period they lived in

10082-467: The death penalty for adultery and other offenses. A religiously supervised school was built in every neighborhood by royal decree. Commoner neighborhoods had a school called a " telpochcalli " where they received basic religious instruction and military training. A second, more prestigious type of school called a " calmecac " served to teach the nobility, as well as commoners of high standing seeking to become priests or artisans. Moctezuma also created

10224-405: The economy consists of agricultural activities, mainly for corn, peaches, and avocados. Ocuituco is the municipal seat. It has 4,846 inhabitants and stands at 1,919 meters above sea level. There are three preschools, two elementary schools (grades 1−6), one middle school (grades 7−9), and one high school (grades 10−12). Sister city: Pharr , Texas Ocoxaltepec has 1,338 inhabitants. Ocoxaltepec

10366-500: The emperor Cuitláhuac , as the indigenous of the New World had no previous exposure to smallpox. The new emperor Cuauhtémoc dealt with the smallpox outbreak, while Cortés raised an army of Tlaxcalans, Texcocans, Totonacs, and others discontent with Aztec rule. Cortés marched back to the Basin of Mexico with a combined army of up to 100,000 warriors. The overwhelming majority of warriors were indigenous rather than Spanish. Cortés captured various indigenous city-states or altepetl around

10508-634: The favoritism that excluded them. In 1523, the Crown (possibly influenced by Cortés's enemy, Bishop Fonseca ), sent a military force under the command of Francisco de Garay to conquer and settle the northern part of Mexico, the region of Pánuco . This was another setback for Cortés who mentioned this in his fourth letter to the King in which he describes himself as the victim of a conspiracy by his archenemies Diego Velázquez de Cuéllar , Diego Columbus and Bishop Fonseca as well as Francisco Garay. The influence of Garay

10650-493: The first-born legitimate son, Don Martín Cortés y Zúñiga was now Cortés's heir and succeeded him as holder of the title and estate of the Marquessate of the Valley of Oaxaca . Cortés's legitimate daughters were Doña Maria, Doña Catalina, and Doña Juana. Since the conversion to Christianity of indigenous peoples was an essential and integral part of the extension of Spanish power, making formal provisions for that conversion once

10792-507: The general of each order or to his provincials. The Franciscans arrived in May 1524, a symbolically powerful group of twelve known as the Twelve Apostles of Mexico , led by Fray Martín de Valencia . Franciscan Geronimo de Mendieta claimed that Cortés's most important deed was the way he met this first group of Franciscans. The conqueror himself was said to have met the friars as they approached

10934-399: The gods. Flower wars were pre-arranged by officials on both sides and conducted specifically for the purpose of each polity collecting prisoners for sacrifice. Native historical accounts say that these wars were instigated by Tlacaelel as a means of appeasing the gods in response to a massive drought that gripped the Basin of Mexico from 1450 to 1454. The flower wars were mostly waged between

11076-672: The growth and administration of the Aztec tributary system nonetheless. The pochteca strongly tied their power, political and economic, to the political and military power of the Aztec nobility and state. In addition to serving as diplomats ( teucnenenque , or "travelers of the lord") and spies in the prelude to conquest, higher-ranking pochteca also served as judges in market plazas and were to certain degree autonomous corporate groups , having administrative duties within their own estate . Nahua metaphysics centers around teotl , "a single, dynamic, vivifying, eternally self-generating and self-regenerating sacred power, energy or force." This

11218-611: The indirect nature of Aztec rule. Ahuitzotl then began a new wave of conquests including the Oaxaca Valley and the Soconusco Coast . Ahuitzotl conquered the border city of Otzoma and turned the city into a military outpost due to increased border skirmishes with the Purépecha. The population of Otzoma was either killed or dispersed in the process. The Purépecha subsequently established fortresses nearby to protect against Aztec expansion. Ahuitzotl responded by expanding further west to

11360-436: The island of Cozumel, Cortés encountered a shipwrecked Spaniard named Gerónimo de Aguilar who joined the expedition and translated between Spanish and Mayan. The expedition then sailed west to Campeche, where, after a brief battle with the local army, Cortés was able to negotiate peace through his interpreter Aguilar. The King of Campeche gave Cortés a second translator, a bilingual Nahua-Maya slave woman named La Malinche (she

11502-576: The king, Cortés pleaded for friars rather than diocesan or secular priests because those clerics were in his view a serious danger to the Indians' conversion. If these people [Indians] were now to see the affairs of the Church and the service of God in the hands of canons or other dignitaries, and saw them indulge in the vices and profanities now common in Spain, knowing that such men were the ministers of God, it would bring our Faith into much harm that I believe any further preaching would be of no avail. He wished

11644-408: The labor of certain subjects). For a short time, he served as alcalde (magistrate) of the second Spanish town founded on the island. In 1519, he was elected captain of the third expedition to the mainland, which he partly funded. His enmity with the governor of Cuba, Diego Velázquez de Cuéllar , resulted in the recall of the expedition at the last moment, an order which Cortés ignored. Arriving on

11786-490: The lake shore and surrounding mountains through numerous subsequent battles and skirmishes, including the other capitals of the Triple Alliance, Tlacopan and Texcoco . Texcoco, in fact, had already become firm allies of the Spaniards and the city-state and subsequently petitioned the Spanish crown for recognition of their services in the conquest similar to Tlaxcala. Cortés used boats constructed in Texcoco from parts salvaged from

11928-503: The language of the Aztecs). These were small polities ruled by a king or tlatoani (literally "speaker", plurally tlatoque ) from an aristocratic dynasty. The Early Aztec period was a time of growth and competition among altepeme. After the Nahuas formed the empire in 1428 and the empire began its program of expansion through conquest, the altepetl remained the dominant form of organization at

12070-549: The largest cults such that the deity was represented in the central temple precinct of the capital Tenochtitlan . The imperial cult was specifically that of the distinctive warlike patron god of the Mexica Huītzilōpōchtli . Peoples were allowed to retain and freely continue their own religious traditions in conquered provinces so long as they added the imperial god Huītzilōpōchtli to their local pantheons. The word Aztec in modern usage would not have been used by

12212-430: The later years of his life. The account of the conquest of the Aztec Empire written by Bernal Díaz del Castillo , gives a detailed description of Hernán Cortés's physical appearance: He was of good stature and body, well proportioned and stocky, the color of his face was somewhat grey, not very cheerful, and a longer face would have suited him more. His eyes seemed at times loving and at times grave and serious. His beard

12354-456: The latter's alliance against the Aztecs. However, the Tlaxcalan general Xicotencatl the Younger believed them to be hostile and attacked. After fighting several close battles, Cortés eventually convinced the leaders of Tlaxcala to order their general to stand down. Cortés then secured an alliance with the people of Tlaxcala and traveled from there to the Basin of Mexico with a smaller company of 5,000-6,000 Tlaxcalans and 400 Totonacs in addition to

12496-450: The local level. The efficient role of the altepetl as a regional political unit was largely responsible for the success of the empire's hegemonic form of control. The term "Aztec empire" is actually modern and not one used by the Aztecs themselves. The Aztec realm was at its core composed of three Nahuatl -speaking city-states in the densely populated Valley of Mexico. Asymmetries of power elevated one of those city states Tenochtitlan above

12638-532: The mendicants to be the main evangelists. Mendicant friars did not usually have full priestly powers to perform all the sacraments needed for conversion of the Indians and growth of the neophytes in the Christian faith, so Cortés laid out a solution to this to the king. Your Majesty should likewise beseech His Holiness [the pope] to grant these powers to the two principal persons in the religious orders that are to come here, and that they should be his delegates, one from

12780-576: The military conquest was completed was an important task for Cortés. During the Age of Discovery , the Catholic Church had seen early attempts at conversion in the Caribbean islands by Spanish friars, particularly the mendicant orders. Cortés made a request to the Spanish monarch to send Franciscan and Dominican friars to Mexico to convert the vast indigenous populations to Christianity. In his fourth letter to

12922-502: The monks arriving from Spain. At a later time, the town of Jumiltepec was used for this purpose. After the historical siege of Cuautla in 1812, José María Morelos y Pavón took to the town of Ocuituco to regroup his forces, and then to Chiautla , where he defeated the Spanish chief París. Ocuituco was one of the most severely affected municipalities during the September 19, 2017 earthquake . 74 people died in Morelos including several in

13064-438: The most important European city in the Americas. Cortés managed the founding of new cities and appointed men to extend Spanish rule to all of New Spain, imposing the encomienda system in 1524. He reserved many encomiendas for himself and for his retinue, which they considered just rewards for their accomplishment in conquering central Mexico. However, later arrivals and members of factions antipathetic to Cortés complained of

13206-575: The mythical place of origin for Nahua peoples. Nahua peoples descended from Chichimec peoples , who migrated to central Mexico from the north (mainly centered sparsely around present-day states of Zacatecas , San Luis Potosí , and Guanajuato ) in the early 13th century. The migration story of the Mexica is similar to those of other polities in central Mexico, with supernatural sites, individuals, and events, joining earthly and divine history, as they sought political legitimacy. Pictographic codices in which

13348-489: The newly appointed Governor of Hispaniola . (This island is now divided between Haiti and the Dominican Republic ). Cortés suffered an injury and was prevented from traveling. He spent the next year wandering the country, probably spending most of his time in Spain's southern ports of Cadiz , Palos , Sanlucar , and Seville . He finally left for Hispaniola in 1504 and became a colonist. Cortés reached Hispaniola in

13490-459: The newly conquered territory, dubbed " New Spain of the Ocean Sea". But also, much to the dismay of Cortés, four royal officials were appointed at the same time to assist him in his governing—in effect, submitting him to close observation and administration. Cortés initiated the construction of Mexico City , destroying Aztec temples and buildings and then rebuilding on the Aztec ruins what soon became

13632-577: The orders and, in an act of open mutiny , went anyway in February 1519. He stopped in Trinidad, Cuba , to hire more soldiers and obtain more horses. Accompanied by about 11 ships, 500 men (including seasoned slaves ), 13 horses, and a small number of cannon , Cortés landed on the Yucatán Peninsula in Maya territory. There he encountered Geronimo de Aguilar , a Spanish Franciscan priest who had survived

13774-500: The orders of the Crown, and, what was more imprudent, said so in a letter to the emperor, dated October 15, 1524 (Ycazbalceta, "Documentos para la Historia de México", Mexico, 1858, I). In this letter Cortés, besides recalling in a rather abrupt manner that the conquest of Mexico was due to him alone, deliberately acknowledges his disobedience in terms which could not fail to create a most unfavourable impression. King Charles appointed Cortés as governor, captain general and chief justice of

13916-427: The other three, providing a simple system of checks on the ambition higher officials. These four Council members were also generals, members of various military societies. The ranks of the members were not equal, with the tlacochcalcatl and tlaccatecatl having a higher status than the others. These two Councillors were members of the two most prestigious military societies, the cuauhchique ("shorn ones") and

14058-431: The other two over time. The "Triple Alliance" came to establish hegemony over much of central Mesoamerica, including areas of great linguistic and cultural diversity. The Nahuas performed administration of the empire through largely traditional, indirect means. Something of a nascent bureaucracy , however, may have been beginning to form over time, insofar as the state organization became increasingly centralized. Before

14200-457: The palace of former emperor Axayacatl. After staying in the city for six weeks, two Spaniards from the group left behind in Veracruz were killed in an altercation with an Aztec lord named Quetzalpopoca. Cortés claims that he used this incident as an excuse to take Motecuzoma prisoner under threat of force. Motecuzoma continued to run the kingdom as a prisoner of Cortés for several months. A second, larger Spanish expedition then arrived in 1520 under

14342-411: The palace where the Spanish were quartered. Cortés returned to Tenochtitlan and fought his way to the palace. He then took Motecuzoma up to the roof of the palace to ask his subjects to stand down. However, by this point, the ruling council of Tenochtitlan had voted to depose Motecuzoma and had elected his brother Cuitlahuac as the new emperor. One of the Aztec soldiers struck Motecuzoma in the head with

14484-481: The people themselves. It has variously been used to refer to the Aztecs or Triple Alliance, the Nahuatl -speaking people of central Mexico prior to the Spanish conquest, or specifically the Mexica ethnicity of the Nahuatl-speaking tribes (from tlaca ). The name comes from the singular Nahuatl word aztecatl ( Nahuatl pronunciation: [asˈtekat͡ɬ] ) that means "[people] from Aztlan ", reflecting

14626-595: The population directly, bypassing the authority of local dynasties. Nezahualcoyotl also instituted a policy in the Acolhua lands of granting subject kings tributary holdings in lands far from their capitals. This was done to create an incentive for cooperation with the empire; if a city's king rebelled, he lost the tribute he received from foreign land. Some rebellious kings were replaced by calpixqueh or appointed governors rather than dynastic rulers. Moctezuma issued new laws that separated nobles from commoners and instituted

14768-449: The position of Cihuacoatl is best attested in Tenochtitlan, it is known that the position also existed the nearby altepetl of Azcapotzalco , Culhuacan , and Tenochtitlan's ally Texcoco . Despite the apparent lesser status of the position, a Cihuacoatl could prove both influential and powerful, as in the case of Tlacaelel. Early in the history of the empire, Tenochtitlan developed a four-member military and advisory Council which assisted

14910-512: The present-day Guatemalan border. Aztec rule has been described by scholars as " hegemonic " or "indirect". The Aztecs left rulers of conquered cities in power so long as they agreed to pay semi-annual tribute to the alliance, as well as supply military forces when needed for the Aztec war efforts. In return, the imperial authority offered protection and political stability and facilitated an integrated economic network of diverse lands and peoples who had significant local autonomy. Aztec religion

15052-428: The principle of rulership, established that descent inherited this divine right. Political order was, therefore, also a cosmic order, and to kill a tlatoani was to transgress that order. For this reason, whenever the Nahuas killed or otherwise removed a tlatoani from their station, their stead typically placed a relative and member of the same bloodline. The establishment of the office of Huetlatoani understood through

15194-431: The provincial tribute system which was overseen and coordinated in the paramount capital of Tenochtitlan not by the huetlatoani , but rather by a separate position altogether: the petlacalcatl . On the occasion that a recently conquered altepetl was seen as particularly restive, the Nahuas placed a military governor, or cuauhtlatoani , at the head of provincial supervision. During his reign, Moctezuma I elaborated

15336-402: The pursuing Spanish forces, inflicting heavy losses, but would ultimately be the last portion of the island that resisted the conquistadores. The siege of Tenochtitlan ended with Spanish victory and the destruction of the city. In January 1521, Cortés countered a conspiracy against him, headed by Antonio de Villafana, who was hanged for the offense. Finally, with the capture of Cuauhtémoc ,

15478-421: The reign of Nezahualcoyotl (1429–1472), the Aztec empire operated as a confederation along traditional Mesoamerican lines. Independent altepetl were led by tlatoani (lit., "speakers"), who supervised village headmen, who in turn supervised groups of households. A typical Mesoamerican confederation placed a Huey Tlatoani (lit., "great speaker") at the head of several tlatoani. Following Nezahualcoyotl,

15620-514: The rest to confront Narváez. He overcame Narváez, despite his numerical inferiority, and convinced the rest of Narváez's men to join him. In Mexico, one of Cortés's lieutenants Pedro de Alvarado , committed the massacre in the Great Temple , triggering a local rebellion. Cortés speedily returned to Tenochtitlán. On July 1, 1520, Moctezuma was killed (he was stoned to death by his own people, as reported in Spanish accounts; although some claim he

15762-473: The scuttled ships to blockade and lay siege to Tenochtitlan for a period of several months. Eventually, the Spanish-led army assaulted the city both by boat and using the elevated causeways connecting it to the mainland. The attackers took heavy casualties, although the Aztecs were ultimately defeated. The city of Tenochtitlan was thoroughly destroyed in the process. Cuauhtémoc was captured as he attempted to flee

15904-481: The second-largest city in central Mexico. Cortés, either in a pre-meditated effort to instill fear upon the Aztecs waiting for him at Tenochtitlan or (as he later claimed, when he was being investigated) wishing to make an example when he feared native treachery, massacred thousands of unarmed members of the nobility gathered at the central plaza, then partially burned the city. By the time he arrived in Tenochtitlán,

16046-412: The selection of provincial nobility to the same position of tlatoani. At the height of empire, the organization of the state into strategic tributary provinces saw an elaboration of this system. The 38 tributary provinces fell under the supervision of high stewards, or huecalpixque , whose authority extended over the lower-ranking calpixque. These calpixque and huecalpixque were essentially managers of

16188-411: The sister-in-law of Governor Velázquez. Part of Velázquez's displeasure seems to have been based on a belief that Cortés was trifling with Catalina's affections. Cortés was temporarily distracted by one of Catalina's sisters but finally married Catalina, reluctantly, under pressure from Governor Velázquez. However, by doing so, he hoped to secure the good will of both her family and that of Velázquez. It

16330-453: The spiritual obligations of the upper classes while maintaining their control over the lower classes and conquered populations. This was executed in grand public religious ceremonies, sponsorship of the most popular cults, and a relative degree of religious freedom. Rulers, if they are local teteuctin or tlatoani , or central Huetlatoani, were seen as representatives of the gods and therefore ruled by divine right . Tlatocayotl , or

16472-525: The time that Cortés had murdered his wife. There was an investigation into her death, interviewing a variety of household residents and others. The documentation of the investigation was published in the nineteenth century in Mexico and these archival documents were uncovered in the twentieth century. The death of Catalina Suárez produced a scandal and investigation, but Cortés was now free to marry someone of high status more appropriate to his wealth and power. In 1526, he built an imposing residence for himself,

16614-536: The time the Spanish arrived in 1519, the lands of the alliance were effectively ruled from Tenochtitlan , while other partners of the alliance had taken subsidiary roles. The alliance waged wars of conquest and expanded after its formation. The alliance controlled most of central Mexico at its height, as well as some more distant territories within Mesoamerica , such as the Xoconochco province , an Aztec exclave near

16756-531: The title of an early portrait. William Hickling Prescott 's Conquest of Mexico (1843) also refers to him as Hernando Cortés. At some point writers began using the shortened form of "Hernán" more generally. In addition to the illustration by the German artist Christoph Weiditz in his Trachtenbuch , there are three known portraits of Hernán Cortés which were likely made during his lifetime, though only copies of them have survived. All of these portraits show Cortés in

16898-474: The tribute collection by the above officials and relied upon the coercive power of the Aztec military, but also upon the cooperation of the pipiltin (the local nobility who were themselves exempt from and recipient to tribute) and the hereditary class of merchants known as pochteca . These pochteca had various gradations of ranks which granted them certain trading rights and so were not necessarily pipiltin themselves, yet they played an important role in both

17040-569: The tribute collector after persuading him that the move was entirely the Totonac's idea and that he had no knowledge of it. The Totonacs provided Cortés with 20 companies of soldiers for his march to Tlaxcala, having effectively declared war on the Aztecs. At this time, several of Cortés' soldiers attempted to mutiny. When Cortés discovered the plot, he had his ships scuttled and sank them in the harbor to remove any possibility of escaping to Cuba. The Spanish-led Totonac army crossed into Tlaxcala to seek

17182-490: The virus; the reopening of the state was pushed back until at least June 13. Ocuituco reported 34 cases, 28 recuperations, and five deaths from the virus as of August 31. Sixty-six cases were reported on December 27, 2020. The municipality reported 18,580 inhabitants in the year 2015 census. Fewer than 1% speak a native indigenous language. Ocuitico has a semi-warm sub-humid climate, with rains starting in summer (From June to October), with medium humidity (75.16%). Over 70% of

17324-482: The year ōme calli (or "Two House", 1325 AD). The Mexica rose to prominence as fierce warriors and were able to establish themselves as a military power. The importance of warriors and the integral nature of warfare in Mexica political and religious life helped propel them to emerge as the dominant military power in the region. The new Mexica city-state allied with the city of Azcapotzalco and paid tribute to its ruler Tezozomoc . Azcapotzalco began to expand into

17466-455: Was "not wise that all the people should know the paintings". He rewrote the history of the Aztecs thereafter, naturally placing the Mexica in a more central role. After Moctezuma I succeeded Itzcoatl as the Mexica emperor, more reforms were instigated to maintain control over conquered cities. Uncooperative kings were replaced with puppet rulers loyal to the Mexica. A new imperial tribute system established Mexica tribute collectors that taxed

17608-413: Was a monistic pantheism in which the Nahua concept of teotl was construed as the supreme god Ometeotl, as well as a diverse pantheon of lesser gods and manifestations of nature. The popular religion tended to embrace the mythological and polytheistic aspects, and the empire's state religion sponsored both the monism of the upper classes and the popular heterodoxies. The empire even officially recognized

17750-523: Was an infantry captain of distinguished ancestry but slender means. Hernán's mother was Catalína Pizarro Altamirano. Through his mother, Hernán was second cousin once removed of Francisco Pizarro , who later conquered the Inca Empire of modern-day Peru, and not to be confused with another Francisco Pizarro, who joined Cortés to conquer the Aztecs . (His maternal grandmother, Leonor Sánchez Pizarro Altamirano,

17892-473: Was appointed Governor of Cuba . At the age of 26, Cortés was made clerk to the treasurer with the responsibility of ensuring that the Crown received the quinto , or customary one fifth of the profits from the expedition. Velázquez was so impressed with Cortés that he secured a high political position for him in the colony. He became secretary for Governor Velázquez. Cortés was twice appointed municipal magistrate ( alcalde ) of Santiago . In Cuba, Cortés became

18034-403: Was at this point extremely awkward, since she was a kinswoman of the governor of Cuba, Diego Velázquez, whose authority Cortés had thrown off and who was therefore now his enemy. Catalina lacked the noble title of doña, so at this point his marriage with her no longer raised his status. Their marriage had been childless. Since Cortés had sired children with a variety of indigenous women, including

18176-571: Was black and sparse, as was his hair, which at the time he sported in the same way as his beard. He had a high chest, a well shaped back and was lean with little belly. Cortés was born in 1485 in the town of Medellín , then a village in the Kingdom of Castile , now a municipality of the modern-day province of Badajoz in Extremadura , Spain . His father, Martín Cortés de Monroy, born in 1449 to Rodrigo or Ruy Fernández de Monroy and his wife María Cortés,

18318-532: Was common in Mesoamerica, the scale of human sacrifice under the Aztecs was likely unprecedented in the region. Originally, the Aztec empire was a loose alliance between three cities: Tenochtitlan , Texcoco , and the most junior partner, Tlacopan . As such, they were known as the 'Triple Alliance.' This political form was very common in Mesoamerica, where alliances of city-states were ever fluctuating. However, over time, Tenochtitlan assumed paramount authority in

18460-646: Was considered by the Aztecs to be either an emissary of the feathered serpent god Quetzalcoatl or Quetzalcoatl himself—a belief which has been contested by a few modern historians. But quickly Cortés learned that several Spaniards on the coast had been killed by Aztecs while supporting the Totonacs, and decided to take Moctezuma as a hostage in his palace, indirectly ruling Tenochtitlán through him. Meanwhile, Velázquez sent another expedition, led by Pánfilo de Narváez , to oppose Cortés, arriving in Mexico in April 1520 with 1,100 men. Cortés left 200 men in Tenochtitlán and took

18602-400: Was described by Gómara as ruthless, haughty, and mischievous. The 16-year-old youth had returned home to feel constrained life in his small provincial town. By this time, news of the exciting discoveries of Christopher Columbus in the New World was streaming back to Spain. Plans were made for Cortés to sail to the Americas with a family acquaintance and distant relative, Nicolás de Ovando ,

18744-414: Was effectively stopped by this appeal to the King who sent out a decree forbidding Garay to interfere in the politics of New Spain, causing him to give up without a fight. Although Cortés had flouted the authority of Diego Velázquez in sailing to the mainland and then leading an expedition of conquest, Cortés's spectacular success was rewarded by the crown with a coat of arms, a mark of high honor, following

18886-568: Was first cousin of Pizarro's father Gonzalo Pizarro y Rodriguez.) Through his father, Hernán was related to Nicolás de Ovando , the third governor of Hispaniola . His paternal great-grandfather was Rodrigo de Monroy y Almaraz, 5th Lord of Monroy . According to his biographer and chaplain, Francisco López de Gómara , Cortés was pale and sickly as a child. At the age of 14, he was sent to study Latin under an uncle in Salamanca. Later historians have misconstrued this personal tutoring as time enrolled at

19028-688: Was he who caused the Indians to revere the holy sacraments and respect the ministers of the church. In Fray Bernardino de Sahagún 's 1585 revision of the conquest narrative first codified as Book XII of the Florentine Codex , there are laudatory references to Cortés that do not appear in the earlier text from the indigenous perspective. Whereas Book XII of the Florentine Codex concludes with an account of Spaniards' search for gold, in Sahagún's 1585 revised account, he ends with praise of Cortés for requesting

19170-508: Was important for religious ritual and provided a means by which soldiers could distinguish themselves during campaigns. In 1426, the Tepanec king Tezozomoc died, and the resulting succession crisis precipitated a civil war between potential successors. The Mexica supported Tezozomoc's preferred heir Tayahauh , who was initially enthroned as king. But his son Maxtla soon usurped the throne and turned against factions that opposed him, including

19312-417: Was known also as Malinalli [maliˈnalːi], Malintzin [maˈlintsin] or Doña Marina [ˈdoɲa maˈɾina]). Aguilar translated from Spanish to Mayan, and La Malinche translated from Mayan to Nahuatl. Malinche became Cortés' translator for both language and culture once she learned Spanish, and she was a key figure in interactions with Nahua rulers. Cortés then sailed from Campeche to Cempoala , a tributary province of

19454-573: Was murdered by the Spaniards once they realized his inability to placate the locals). Faced with a hostile population, Cortés decided to flee for Tlaxcala. During the Noche Triste (June 30 – July 1, 1520), the Spaniards managed a narrow escape from Tenochtitlán across the Tlacopan causeway, while their rearguard was being massacred. Much of the treasure looted by Cortés was lost (as well as his artillery) during this panicked escape from Tenochtitlán. After

19596-467: Was not until he had been almost 15 years in the Indies that Cortés began to look beyond his substantial status as mayor of the capital of Cuba and as a man of affairs in the thriving colony. He missed the first two expeditions, under the orders of Francisco Hernández de Córdoba and then Juan de Grijalva , sent by Diego Velázquez to Mexico in 1518. News reached Velázquez that Juan de Grijalva had established

19738-436: Was replaced by his brother Tizoc . Tizoc's reign was notoriously brief. He proved to be ineffectual and did not significantly expand the empire. Tizoc was likely assassinated by his own nobles five years into his rule, apparently due to his incompetence. Tizoc was succeeded by his brother Ahuitzotl in 1486. Like his predecessors, the first part of Ahuitzotl's reign was spent suppressing rebellions that were commonplace due to

19880-477: Was similarly expanding. In 1455, the Purépecha under their king Tzitzipandaquare had invaded the Toluca Valley, claiming lands previously conquered by Motecuzoma and Itzcoatl. In 1472, Axayacatl re-conquered the region and successfully defended it from Purépecha's attempts to take it back. In 1479, Axayacatl launched a major invasion of the Purépecha Empire with 32,000 Aztec soldiers. Purépecha met them just across

20022-425: Was to be held by the three cities together. A tribute was divided so that two kings of the alliance would go to Tenochtitlan and Texcoco and one would go to Tlacopan. The three kings assumed the title "huetlatoani" ("Elder Speaker", often translated as "Emperor") in turn. Each temporarily held a de jure position above the rulers of other city-states ("tlatoani") in this role. In the following one hundred years,

20164-652: Was understood as the Ollintonatiuh , or Sun of Movement, which was believed to have been the final age after which humanity would be destroyed. It was under Tlacaelel that Huitzilopochtli assumed his elevated role in the state pantheon and who argued that it was through blood sacrifice that the Sun would be maintained and thereby stave off the end of the world. It was under this new, militaristic interpretation of Huitzilopochtli that Aztec soldiers were encouraged to fight wars and capture enemy soldiers for sacrifice. Though blood sacrifice

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