Misplaced Pages

#817182

98-658: Excavations at the Obłazowa Cave started in 1985 by a team of archaeologists led by professor Paweł Valde-Nowak of the Institute of Archaeology at the Jagiellonian University in Kraków . Research has shown that Obłazowa Cave was inhabited by humans at several periods. Scientists distinguished ten layers of occupation, six associated with the presence of Neanderthals and the remaining four showing activities of modern humans. In

196-627: A legal deposit library, comparable to the Bodleian Library at the University of Oxford or Cambridge University Library or Trinity College Library in Dublin , and thus has the right to receive a copy of any book issued by Polish publishers within Poland. In 1940, the library finally obtained a new building of its own, which has subsequently been expanded on two occasions, most recently in 1995–2001. During

294-511: A basis for the calendar reform instituted in 1582 by Pope Gregory XIII . They were also used by sailors and maritime explorers, whose 15th-century predecessors had used Regiomontanus ' Table of the Stars . In England, Robert Recorde , John Dee , Thomas Digges and William Gilbert were among those who adopted his position; in Germany, Christian Wurstisen , Christoph Rothmann and Michael Mästlin ,

392-571: A complex system of epicycles similar to those of the Ptolemaic system. Despite Copernicus' adherence to this aspect of ancient astronomy, his radical shift from a geocentric to a heliocentric cosmology was a serious blow to Aristotle 's science—and helped usher in the Scientific Revolution . Rheticus left Nürnberg to take up his post as professor in Leipzig . Andreas Osiander had taken over

490-466: A correction, but this was not done, and the matter was forgotten. Jan Broscius , a supporter of Copernicus, also despaired of the Ad lectorem , writing "Ptolemy's hypothesis is the earth rests. Copernicus' hypothesis is that the earth is in motion. Can either, therefore, be true? ... Indeed, Osiander deceives much with that preface of his ... Hence, someone may well ask: How is one to know which hypothesis

588-540: A few annotations in it. However, Maestlin already suspected Osiander, because he had bought his De revolutionibus from the widow of Philipp Apian ; examining his books, he had found a note attributing the introduction to Osiander. Johannes Praetorius (1537–1616), who learned of Osiander's authorship from Rheticus during a visit to him in Kraków , wrote Osiander's name in the margin of the foreword in his copy of De revolutionibus . All three early editions of De revolutionibus included Osiander's foreword. Even before

686-449: A great distance. The most impressive findings like the boomerang and human bones were located in a circle made of granite and quartzite pebbles. Because of the arrangement of the artifacts and their great value this is interpreted as a place of some cult or ritual. The presence of human bones may suggest a partial or symbolic burial or some kind of sacrifice. The site contains a number of other important archaeological findings as well as

784-522: A major centre for education in the independent Republic of Poland , the university attained government support for the purchase of building plots for new premises, as a result of which a number of residencies were built for students and professors alike. However, of all the projects begun during this era, the most important would have to be the creation of the Jagiellonian Library . The library's monumental building, construction of which began in 1931,

882-614: A number of additional institutes: Jagiellonian University Collegium Medicum is affiliated with the following hospitals and clinics: The new seat of the University Hospital has been recently opened at Prokocim in 2019, as a result of more than 1.2 billion zloty investment projects. As 2022 the University Hospital in Krakow is the biggest supra-regional public hospital in Poland and comprises: 37 clinical departments, 12 diagnostic and research institutes, and 71 out-patient units. In 1851,

980-419: A pendant of unknown purpose, possibly a whistle, made of a perforated cone snail shell on which traces of ochre were found. The tool inventory of layer VIII contained a wide range of raw material: Jurassic Kraków flint , chocolate flint, both imported from northern regions, local radiolarite , and rock crystal probably from northern Slovakia . Some of the stone tools were made of raw material imported from

1078-658: A rich and diversified fauna of mollusks , amphibians , reptiles , birds and small and large mammals of the Late Pleistocene Age. Before the discoveries in the Obłazowa Cave all Carpathian Paleolithic sites were dated to the Late Paleolithic . No traces of earlier settlements were apparent. This situation has changed with the discovery of the Middle Paleolithic sequence in the Obłazowa Cave. The cave

SECTION 10

#1732852219818

1176-686: A significant number of medieval and Renaissance art pieces and manuscripts, including the landmark De revolutionibus orbium coelestium by the university alumnus Nicolaus Copernicus . In addition to Copernicus, the university's notable alumni include heads of state King John III Sobieski , Pope John Paul II , and Andrzej Duda ; Polish prime ministers Beata Szydło and Józef Cyrankiewicz ; renowned cultural figures Jan Kochanowski , Stanisław Lem , and Krzysztof Penderecki ; and leading intellectuals and researchers such as Hugo Kołłątaj , Bronisław Malinowski , Carl Menger , Leo Sternbach , and Norman Davies . Four Nobel laureates have been affiliated with

1274-571: A simultaneous document was issued by the city council granting privileges to the Studium Generale . Development of the University of Kraków stalled upon the death of Casimir III, and lectures were held in various places across the city, including, amongst others, in professors' houses, churches and in the cathedral school on the Wawel Hill. It is believed that the construction of a building to house

1372-722: A useful mathematical model without necessarily being true about causes, thereby somewhat shielding it from accusations of blasphemy. Among some astronomers, the book "at once took its place as a worthy successor to the Almagest of Ptolemy, which had hitherto been the Alpha and Omega of astronomers". Erasmus Reinhold hailed the work in 1542 and by 1551 had developed the Prutenic Tables ("Prussian Tables"; Latin : Tabulae prutenicae ; German : Preußische Tafeln ) using Copernicus' methods. The Prutenic Tables , published in 1551, were used as

1470-512: Is a public research university in Kraków, Poland . Founded in 1364 by King Casimir III the Great , it is the oldest university in Poland and one of the oldest universities in continuous operation in the world . The university grounds contain the Kraków Old Town , a UNESCO World Heritage Site . The university has been viewed as a vanguard of Polish culture as well as a significant contributor to

1568-550: Is almost certainly the one during which the closure of the institution seemed most imminent. After the third partition of Poland in 1795 and the ensuing Napoleonic Wars , Kraków became a free city under the protection of the Austrian Empire ; this, however, was not to last long. In 1846, after the Kraków Uprising , the city and its university became part of the Austrian Empire . The Austrians were in many ways hostile to

1666-510: Is divided into six "books" (sections or parts), following closely the layout of Ptolemy's Almagest which it updated and replaced: Copernicus argued that the universe comprised eight spheres. The outermost consisted of motionless, fixed stars, with the Sun motionless at the center. The known planets revolved about the Sun, each in its own sphere, in the order: Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn. The Moon, however, revolved in its sphere around

1764-464: Is open to visitors, but in the near future it will be secured with bars to protect the archaeological layers. In 2017 the Nowy Targ commune office started working on a project whose goal is to create an Obłazowa Cave Archaeological Park to present the results of years of research to the public. Jagiellonian University The Jagiellonian University ( Polish : Uniwersytet Jagielloński , UJ )

1862-731: Is organized by the Zaremba Association of Mathematicians. De revolutionibus orbium coelestium De revolutionibus orbium coelestium (English translation: On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres ) is the seminal work on the heliocentric theory of the astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus (1473–1543) of the Polish Renaissance . The book, first printed in 1543 in Nuremberg , Holy Roman Empire , offered an alternative model of

1960-451: Is the easiest to grasp. The philosopher will perhaps rather seek the semblance of the truth. But neither of them will understand or state anything certain, unless it has been divinely revealed to him ... Let no one expect anything certain from astronomy, which cannot furnish it, lest he accept as the truth ideas conceived for another purpose, and depart this study a greater fool than when he entered. As even Osiander's defenders point out,

2058-669: Is truer, the Ptolemaic or the Copernican?" Petreius had sent a copy to Hieronymus Schreiber , an astronomer from Nürnberg who had substituted for Rheticus as professor of mathematics in Wittenberg while Rheticus was in Nürnberg supervising the printing. Schreiber, who died in 1547, left in his copy of the book a note about Osiander's authorship. Via Michael Mästlin , this copy came to Johannes Kepler, who discovered what Osiander had done and methodically demonstrated that Osiander had indeed added

SECTION 20

#1732852219818

2156-727: The Narratio Prima in Danzig in 1540. Rheticus' friend and mentor Achilles Gasser published a second edition of the Narratio in Basel in 1541. Due to its friendly reception, Copernicus finally agreed to publication of more of his main work—in 1542, a treatise on trigonometry , which was taken from the second book of the still unpublished De revolutionibus . Rheticus published it in Copernicus' name. Under strong pressure from Rheticus, and having seen that

2254-543: The Ad lectorem "expresses views on the aim and nature of scientific theories at variance with Copernicus' claims for his own theory". Many view Osiander's letter as a betrayal of science and Copernicus, and an attempt to pass his own thoughts off as those of the book's author. An example of this type of claim can be seen in the Catholic Encyclopedia , which states "Fortunately for him [the dying Copernicus], he could not see what Osiander had done. This reformer, knowing

2352-679: The Charles University in Prague . By 1520 Greek philology was introduced by Constanzo Claretti and Wenzel von Hirschberg; Hebrew was also taught. At this time, the Collegium Maius consisted of seven reading rooms, six of which were named for the great ancient scholars: Aristotle , Socrates , Plato , Galen , Ptolemy , and Pythagoras . Furthermore, it was during this period that the faculties of Law, Medicine, Theology, and Philosophy were established in their own premises; two of these buildings,

2450-461: The Collegium Iuridicum and Collegium Minus , survive to this day. The golden era of the University of Kraków took place during the Polish Renaissance , between 1500 and 1535, when it was attended by 3,215 students in the first decade of the 16th century, and it was in these years that the foundations for the Jagiellonian Library were set, which allowed for the addition of a library floor to

2548-421: The Collegium Maius . The library's original rooms in which all books were chained to their cases in order to prevent theft are no longer used as such. However, they are still occasionally open to hosting visiting lecturers' talks. As the university's popularity, along with that of the ever more provincial Kraków's, declined in later centuries, the number of students attending the university also fell and, as such,

2646-564: The Commentariolus after his return from Italy, possibly only after 1510. At this time, Copernicus anticipated that he could reconcile the motion of the Earth with the perceived motions of the planets easily, with fewer motions than were necessary in the version of the Ptolemaic system current at the time. Among other techniques, the heliocentric Copernican model made use of the Urdi Lemma developed in

2744-710: The Index of Forbidden Books by a decree of the Sacred Congregation of March 5, 1616 (more than 70 years after Copernicus' publication): This Holy Congregation has also learned about the spreading and acceptance by many of the false Pythagorean doctrine, altogether contrary to the Holy Scripture, that the earth moves and the sun is motionless, which is also taught by Nicholaus Copernicus' De revolutionibus orbium coelestium and by Diego de Zúñiga's In Job  ... Therefore, in order that this opinion may not creep any further to

2842-745: The Jagiellonian Library ( Biblioteka Jagiellońska ), is one of Poland's largest, with almost 6.5 million volumes; it is a constituent of the Polish National Libraries system. It is home to a world-renowned collection of medieval manuscripts, which includes Copernicus' De Revolutionibus , the Balthasar Behem Codex and the Berlinka . The library also has an extensive collection of underground political literature (so-called drugi obieg or samizdat ) from Poland's period of Communist rule between 1945 and 1989. The beginning of

2940-565: The Second World War , library workers cooperated with underground universities . Since the 1990s, the library's collection has become increasingly digitised. In addition to the Jagiellonian Library, the university maintains a large medical library ( Biblioteka Medyczna ) and many other subject specialised libraries in its various faculties and institutes. Finally, the collections of the university libraries' collections are enriched by

3038-489: The Studium Generale began on Plac Wolnica in what is today the district of Kazimierz. After a period of low interest and lack of funds, the institution was restored in the 1390s by Jadwiga , king of Poland, the daughter of Louis the Great . The royal couple, Jadwiga and her husband Władysław II Jagiełło decided that, instead of building new premises for the university, it would be better to buy an existing edifice; it

Obłazowa Cave - Misplaced Pages Continue

3136-1031: The University of Cambridge , University of Melbourne , University of Chicago , University of California, Los Angeles , London School of Economics , University of Rochester , University of California, Irvine , Case Western Reserve University . In the French-speaking world, partner universities include the Sorbonne , University of Montpellier . UJ also maintains strong academic partnership with Heidelberg University , Germany's oldest university. The Jagiellonian University offers specializations in German law, in conjunction with Heidelberg University and Johannes Gutenberg University of Mainz . Other cooperation agreements exist with Charles University Prague , University of Vienna , University of Tokyo , Saint Petersburg State University , Technical University of Munich , and Free University of Berlin . The university's main library,

3234-718: The 13th century by the Arab astronomer Mu'ayyad al-Din al-'Urdi , the first of the Maragha astronomers to develop a geocentric but non- Ptolemaic model of planetary motion. Observations of Mercury by Bernhard Walther (1430–1504) of Nuremberg , a pupil of Regiomontanus , were made available to Copernicus by Johannes Schöner , 45 observations in total, 14 of them with longitude and latitude . Copernicus used three of them in De revolutionibus , giving only longitudes, and erroneously attributing them to Schöner. Copernicus' values differed slightly from

3332-503: The 1543 publication of De revolutionibus , rumors circulated about its central theses. In one of his Tischreden (Table Talks), Martin Luther is quoted as saying in 1539: People gave ear to an upstart astrologer who strove to show that the earth revolves, not the heavens or the firmament, the sun and the moon ... This fool wishes to reverse the entire science of astronomy; but sacred Scripture tells us [Joshua 10:13] that Joshua commanded

3430-401: The 19th century. Close examination of the manuscript, including the different types of paper used, helped scholars construct an approximate timetable for its composition. Apparently Copernicus began by making a few astronomical observations to provide new data to perfect his models. He may have begun writing the book while still engaged in observations. By the 1530s a substantial part of the book

3528-415: The Earth. What appeared to be the daily revolution of the Sun and fixed stars around the Earth was actually the Earth's daily rotation on its own axis. Copernicus adhered to one of the standard beliefs of his time, namely that the motions of celestial bodies must be composed of uniform circular motions. For this reason, he was unable to account for the observed apparent motion of the planets without retaining

3626-450: The Great realised that the nation needed a class of educated people, especially lawyers, who could arrange a better set of the country's laws and administer the courts and offices. His efforts to found an institution of higher learning in Poland were rewarded when Pope Urban V granted him permission to set up a university in Kraków. A royal charter of foundation was issued on 12 May 1364, and

3724-476: The Jagiellonian Library is traditionally considered the same as that of the entire university – in 1364; however, instead of having one central library it had several smaller branches at buildings of various departments (the largest collection was in Collegium Maius , where works related to theology and liberal arts were kept). After 1775, during the reforms of Komisja Edukacji Narodowej , which established

3822-585: The Jagiellonian University successfully completed the purchase of its first building plot in Pychowice , Kraków, where, from 2000, construction began of a new complex of university buildings, the so-called Third Campus. The new campus, officially named the '600th Anniversary Campus', was developed in conjunction with the new LifeScience Park, which is managed by the Jagiellonian Centre for Innovation,

3920-492: The Nurnberg Gymnasium; Peter Apian of Ingolstadt University; Hieronymous Schreiber...Joachim Camerarius...Erasmus Reinhold...Joachim Rheticus...and finally, Hieronymous Cardan." The historian Wrightsman put forward that Osiander did not sign the letter because he "was such a notorious [Protestant] reformer whose name was well-known and infamous among Catholics", so that signing would have likely caused negative scrutiny of

4018-537: The Sun as the sphere turned, eliminating the seasons." To explain the seasons, he had to propose a third motion, "an annual contrary conical sweep of the terrestrial axis". It was not until the Great Comet of 1577 , which moved as if there were no spheres to crash through, that the idea was challenged. In 1609, Johannes Kepler fixed Copernicus' theory by stating that the planets orbit the Sun not in circles, but ellipses. Only after Kepler's refinement of Copernicus' theory

Obłazowa Cave - Misplaced Pages Continue

4116-559: The Universe and its Creator only came from divine inspiration rather than intellectual organization. From these influences, Osiander held that in the area of philosophical speculation and scientific hypothesis there are "no heretics of the intellect", but when one gets past speculation into truth-claims the Bible is the ultimate measure. By holding that Copernicianism was mathematical speculation, Osiander held that it would be silly to hold it up against

4214-445: The accounts of the Bible. Pico's influence on Osiander did not escape Rheticus, who reacted strongly against the Ad lectorem . As historian Robert S. Westman puts it, "The more profound source of Rheticus's ire however, was Osiander's view of astronomy as a disciple fundamentally incapable of knowing anything with certainty. For Rheticus, this extreme position surely must have resonated uncomfortably with Pico della Mirandola's attack on

4312-494: The attempt to produce an authentic, unaltered version of the book. The plan failed but the copy was found during the 18th century and was published later. It is kept at the Jagiellonian University Library in Kraków , where it remains bearing the library number BJ 10 000. From the first edition, Copernicus' book was prefixed with an anonymous preface which argues that the following is a calculus consistent with

4410-494: The attendance record set in the early 16th-century wasn't surpassed until the late 18th century. This phenomenon was recorded as part of a more general economic and political decline seen in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth , which was suffering from the effects of poor governance and the policies of hostile neighbors at the time. In fact, despite a number of expansion projects during the late 18th century, many of

4508-518: The attitude of Luther and Melanchthon against the heliocentric system ... without adding his own name, replaced the preface of Copernicus by another strongly contrasting in spirit with that of Copernicus." While Osiander's motives behind the letter have been questioned by many, he has been defended by historian Bruce Wrightsman, who points out he was not an enemy of science. Osiander had many scientific connections including "Johannes Schoner, Rheticus's teacher, whom Osiander recommended for his post at

4606-545: The beginning of the 15th century. The Collegium Maius' qualities, many of which directly contributed to the sheltered, academic atmosphere at the university, became widely respected, helping the university establish its reputation as a place of learning in Central Europe . For several centuries, almost the entire intellectual elite of Poland was educated at the university, where they enjoyed particular royal favors. While it was, and largely remains, Polish students who make up

4704-408: The book "was and is an all-time worst seller", despite the fact that it was reprinted four times. Owen Gingerich , an eminent astronomer and historian of science who has written on both Nicolaus Copernicus and Johannes Kepler , disproved this after a 35-year project to examine every surviving copy of the first two editions. Gingerich showed that nearly all the leading mathematicians and astronomers of

4802-403: The causes of the apparent [movement of the heavens]. And if any causes are devised by the imagination, as indeed very many are, they are not put forward to convince anyone that they are true, but merely to provide a reliable basis for computation. However, since different hypotheses are sometimes offered for one and the same ... the astronomer will take as his first choice that hypothesis which

4900-460: The era's mathematical astronomers) attempted to bridge the "fundamental incompatibility between Ptolemaic astronomy and Aristotlian physics, and the need to preserve both", by taking an 'instrumentalist' position. Only the handful of "Philosophical purists like the Averroists ... demanded physical consistency and thus sought for realist models." Copernicus was hampered by his insistence on preserving

4998-405: The first Ministry of Education in the world, various small libraries of the university were formally centralised into one public collection in Collegium Maius . During the partitions of Poland , the library continued to grow thanks to the support of such people as Karol Józef Teofil Estreicher and Karol Estreicher . Its collections were made public in 1812. Since 1932, it has been recognised as

SECTION 50

#1732852219818

5096-470: The first edition (by comparison, there are 228 extant copies of Shakespeare 's First Folio ) and 325 copies of the second. The research behind this book earned its author the Polish government's Order of Merit in 1981. Due largely to Gingerich's scholarship, De revolutionibus has been researched and catalogued better than any other first-edition historic text except for the original Gutenberg Bible . One of

5194-471: The first general reception of his work had not been unfavorable, Copernicus finally agreed to give the book to his close friend, Bishop Tiedemann Giese , to be delivered to Rheticus in Wittenberg for printing by Johannes Petreius at Nürnberg (Nuremberg). It was published just before Copernicus' death, in 1543. Copernicus kept a copy of his manuscript which, sometime after his death, was sent to Rheticus in

5292-410: The foreword. The most knowledgeable astronomers of the time had realized that the foreword was Osiander's doing. Owen Gingerich gives a slightly different version: Kepler knew of Osiander's authorship since he had read about it in one of Schreiber's annotations in his copy of De Revolutionibus ; Maestlin learned of the fact from Kepler. Indeed, Maestlin perused Kepler's book, up to the point of leaving

5390-510: The foundations of divinatory astrology." In his Disputations , Pico had made a devastating attack on astrology. Because those who were making astrological predictions relied on astronomers to tell them where the planets were, they also became a target. Pico held that since astronomers who calculate planetary positions could not agree among themselves, how were they to be held as reliable? While Pico could bring into concordance writers like Aristotle, Plato, Plotinus, Averroes, Avicenna, and Aquinas,

5488-418: The idea that celestial bodies had to travel in perfect circles — he "was still attached to classical ideas of circular motion around deferents and epicycles, and spheres." This was particularly troubling concerning the Earth because he "attached the Earth's axis rigidly to a Sun-centered sphere. The unfortunate consequence was that the terrestrial rotation axis then maintained the same inclination with respect to

5586-439: The institution and, soon after their arrival, removed many of the furnishings from the Collegium Maius' Auditorium Maximum in order to convert it into a grain store. However, the threat of closure of the University was ultimately dissipated by Ferdinand I of Austria 's decree to maintain it. By the 1870s the fortunes of the university had improved so greatly that many scholars had returned. The liquefaction of nitrogen and oxygen

5684-636: The intellectual heritage of Europe. The campus of the Jagiellonian University is centrally located within the city of Kraków . The university consists of thirteen main faculties, in addition to three faculties composing the Collegium Medicum . It employs roughly 4,000 academics and provides education to more than 35,000 students who study in 166 fields. The main language of instruction is Polish, although around 30 degrees are offered in English and some in German. The university library and Collegium Novium house

5782-415: The lack of consensus he saw in astronomy was a proof to him of its fallibility alongside astrology. Pico pointed out that the astronomers' instruments were imprecise and any imperfection of even a degree made them worthless for astrology, people should not trust astrologists because they should not trust the numbers from astronomers. Pico pointed out that astronomers couldn't even tell where the Sun appeared in

5880-509: The majority of the university's students, it has, over its long history, educated thousands of foreign students from countries such as Lithuania, Russia, Hungary, Bohemia , Germany, and Spain. During the second half of the 15th century, over 40 percent of students came from the outside of the Kingdom of Poland . The first chancellor of the university was Piotr Wysz , and the first professors were Czechs , Germans and Poles, most of them trained at

5978-504: The notes of Michael Maestlin , "Rheticus...became embroiled in a very bitter wrangle with the printer [over the Ad lectorem]. Rheticus...suspected Osiander had prefaced the work; if he knew this for certain, he declared, he would rough up the fellow so violently that in future he would mind his own business." Objecting to the Ad lectorem , Tiedemann Giese urged the Nuremberg city council to issue

SECTION 60

#1732852219818

6076-450: The observations, and cannot resolve philosophical truths. Only later was this revealed to be the unauthorized interjection by Lutheran preacher Andreas Osiander , who lived in Nuremberg when the first edition was printed there. This is followed by Copernicus' own preface, where he dedicates his work to Pope Paul III and appeals to the latter's skill as a mathematician to recognize the truth of Copernicus' hypothesis. De revolutionibus

6174-532: The ones published by Schöner in 1544 in Observationes XXX annorum a I. Regiomontano et B. Walthero Norimbergae habitae, [4°, Norimb. 1544]. A manuscript of De revolutionibus in Copernicus' own hand has survived. After his death, it was given to his pupil, Rheticus , who for publication had only been given a copy without annotations. Via Heidelberg, it ended up in Prague, where it was rediscovered and studied in

6272-462: The order of the planets as they orbited the Earth (some put it close to the Moon, others among the planets). How, Pico asked, could astrologists possibly claim they could read what was going on when the astronomers they relied on could offer no precision on even basic questions? As Westman points out, to Rheticus "it would seem that Osiander now offered new grounds for endorsing Pico's conclusions: not merely

6370-564: The prejudice of Catholic truth, the Congregation has decided that the books by Nicolaus Copernicus [ De revolutionibus ] and Diego de Zúñiga [ In Job ] be suspended until corrected. De revolutionibus was not formally banned but merely withdrawn from circulation, pending "corrections" that would clarify the theory's status as hypothesis. Nine sentences that represented the heliocentric system as certain were to be omitted or changed. After these corrections were prepared and formally approved in 1620

6468-414: The presence of the university's archives, which date back to the university's own foundation and record the entire history of its development up to the present day. The university is divided into the following faculties, which have different organisational sub-structures partly reflecting their history and partly their operational needs. Teaching and research at UJ are organised by these faculties, including

6566-506: The reading of the book was permitted. But the book was never reprinted with the changes and was available in Catholic jurisdictions only to suitably qualified scholars, by special request. It remained on the Index until 1758, when Pope Benedict XIV (1740–58) removed the uncorrected book from his revised Index. Arthur Koestler described De revolutionibus as " The Book That Nobody Read " saying

6664-588: The rest of Poland's higher and secondary education, was closed for the remainder of World War II . Despite the university's reopening after the cessation of hostilities in 1945, the new government of Poland was hostile to the teachings of the pre-war university and the faculty was suppressed by the Communists in 1954. By 1957 the Polish government decided that it would invest in the establishment of new facilities near Jordan Park and expansion of other smaller existing facilities. Construction work proved slow and many of

6762-424: The same variations." Because of the use of similar terms and similar deficiencies, Osiander could see "little technical or physical truth-gain" between one system and the other. It was this attitude towards technical astronomy that had allowed it to "function since antiquity, despite its inconsistencies with the principles of physics and the philosophical objections of Averroists ." Writing Ad lectorem , Osiander

6860-514: The stated goals were never achieved; it was this poor management that eventually led a number of scholars to openly criticise the government for its apparent lack of interest in educational development and disregard for the university's future. A number of new buildings, such as the Collegium Paderevianum , were built with funds from the legacy of Ignacy Paderewski . By 1989, Poland had overthrown its Communist government. In that same year,

6958-448: The sun to stand still, and not the earth. When the book was finally published, demand was low, with an initial print run of 400 failing to sell out. Copernicus had made the book extremely technical, unreadable to all but the most advanced astronomers of the day, allowing it to disseminate into their ranks before stirring great controversy. And, like Osiander, contemporary mathematicians and astronomers encouraged its audience to view it as

7056-408: The task of supervising the printing and publication. In an effort to reduce the controversial impact of the book Osiander added his own unsigned letter Ad lectorem de hypothesibus huius operis ( To the reader concerning the hypotheses of this work ) printed in front of Copernicus' preface which was a dedicatory letter to Pope Paul III and which kept the title "Praefatio authoris" (to acknowledge that

7154-499: The teacher of Johannes Kepler ; in Italy, Giambattista Benedetti and Giordano Bruno whilst Franciscus Patricius accepted the rotation of the Earth. In Spain, rules published in 1561 for the curriculum of the University of Salamanca gave students the choice between studying Ptolemy or Copernicus. One of those students, Diego de Zúñiga , published an acceptance of Copernican theory in 1584. Very soon, nevertheless, Copernicus' theory

7252-548: The time owned and read the book; however, his analysis of the marginalia shows that almost all of them ignored the cosmology at the beginning of the book and were only interested in Copernicus' new equant -free models of planetary motion in the later chapters. Also, Nicolaus Reimers in 1587 translated the book into German. Gingerich's efforts and conclusions are recounted in The Book Nobody Read , published in 2004 by Walker & Co. His census included 276 copies of

7350-408: The true causes, he will adopt whatever suppositions enable the motions to be computed correctly ... The present author has performed both these duties excellently. For these hypotheses need not be true nor even probable. On the contrary, if they provide a calculus consistent with the observations, that alone is enough ... For this art, it is quite clear, is completely and absolutely ignorant of

7448-540: The universe to Ptolemy 's geocentric system , which had been widely accepted since ancient times. Copernicus initially outlined his system in a short, untitled, anonymous manuscript that he distributed to several friends, referred to as the Commentariolus . A physician's library list dating to 1514 includes a manuscript whose description matches the Commentariolus , so Copernicus must have begun work on his new system by that time. Most historians believe that he wrote

7546-403: The university's buildings had fallen into disrepair and were being used for a range of other purposes; in the university's archives, there is one entry which reads: 'Nobody lives in the building, nothing happens there. If the lecture halls underwent refurbishment they could be rented out to accommodate a laundry'. This period thus represents one of the darkest periods in the university's history and

7644-497: The university's first student scientific association was founded. In 2021, over 70 student scientific associations exist at the Jagiellonian University, most of them affiliated with Collegium Medicum. Usually, their purpose is to promote students' scientific achievements by organizing lecture sessions, science excursions , and international student conferences, such as the International Workshop for Young Mathematicians, which

7742-508: The university's research consortium. Public funds earmarked for the project amounted to 946.5 million zlotys , or 240 million euros . Poland's entry into the European Union in 2004 has proved instrumental in improving the fortunes of the Jagiellonian University, which has seen huge increases in funding from both central government and European authorities, allowing it to develop new departments, research centres, and better support

7840-648: The university, all in literature: Ivo Andrić and Wisława Szymborska , who studied there, and Czesław Miłosz and Olga Tokarczuk , who taught there. Faculty and graduates of the university have been elected to the Polish Academy of Arts and Sciences , the Royal Society , the British Academy , the American Academy of Arts and Sciences , and other honorary societies. In the mid-14th century, King Casimir III

7938-428: The unsigned letter was not by the book's author). Osiander's letter stated that Copernicus' system was mathematics intended to aid computation and not an attempt to declare literal truth: it is the duty of an astronomer to compose the history of the celestial motions through careful and expert study. Then he must conceive and devise the causes of these motions or hypotheses about them. Since he cannot in any way attain to

8036-530: The upper layers an iron arrowhead, a crossbow and pieces of ceramics from the late Middle Ages were found. The most important artifacts were discovered in layer VIII, associated with modern Homo sapiens and dated to about 30,000 BP. From this layer scientists excavated the oldest boomerang in the world, made from a mammoth tusk and the oldest bones of Homo sapiens in Poland (two finger bones). The layer also contained two antler wedges, pendants made of perforated canine teeth of fox or arctic fox , bone beads,

8134-429: The work of Copernicus (a loyal Catholic canon and scholar). Copernicus himself had communicated to Osiander his "own fears that his work would be scrutinized and criticized by the 'peripatetics and theologians'," and he had already been in trouble with his bishop, Johannes Dantiscus , on account of his former relationship with his mistress and friendship with Dantiscus's enemy and suspected heretic, Alexander Scultetus. It

8232-663: The work of its students and academics. The university's academic advancement in both Poland and abroad is illustrated by its widely recognized research achievements. The scientists and physicians from the Collegium Medicum carry out pioneer studies, e.g. in cardiac surgery, urology and neurology, often leading to the development of novel treatment methods. Their findings have been published in international journals such as European Journal of Cardio-Thoracic Medicine, New England Journal of Medicine , and The Lancet . UJ archaeologists lead explorations of ancient sites in various parts of

8330-510: The world, including Egypt, Cyprus, Central America, South Asia and Altay. The astronomers take part in major international projects, including H.E.S.S . and VIPERS. The work of UJ bio-technologists has been published in journals, such as Bioorganic & Medicinal Chemistry , Molecular Ecology Resources , and European Journal of Human Genetics . In the English-speaking world , the Jagiellonian University has international partnerships with

8428-523: Was also possible that Protestant Nurnberg could fall to the forces of the Holy Roman Emperor and since "the books of hostile theologians could be burned...why not scientific works with the names of hated theologians affixed to them? " Wrightsman also holds that this is why Copernicus did not mention his top student, Rheticus (a Lutheran) in the book's dedication to the Pope. Osiander's interest in astronomy

8526-432: Was attacked with Scripture and with the common Aristotelian proofs. In 1549, Melanchthon , Luther's principal lieutenant, wrote against Copernicus, pointing to the theory's apparent conflict with Scripture and advocating that "severe measures" be taken to restrain the impiety of Copernicans. The works of Copernicus and Zúñiga —the latter for asserting that De revolutionibus was compatible with Catholic faith—were placed on

8624-559: Was complete, but Copernicus hesitated to publish. In 1536, Cardinal Nikolaus von Schönberg wrote to Copernicus and urged him to publish his manuscript. In 1539, Georg Joachim Rheticus , a young mathematician from Wittenberg , arrived in Frauenburg (Frombork) to study with him. Rheticus read Copernicus' manuscript and immediately wrote a non-technical summary of its main theories in the form of an open letter addressed to Schöner, his astrology teacher in Nürnberg; he published this letter as

8722-491: Was finally completed towards the end of the interwar period, which allowed the university's many varied literary collections to be relocated to their new home by the outbreak of war in 1939. On November 6, 1939, following the Nazi invasion of Poland , 184 professors were arrested and deported to Sachsenhausen concentration camp during an operation codenamed Sonderaktion Krakau (Special Operation Krakow). The university, along with

8820-536: Was in the Grzegórzecka and the Kopernika areas that much of the university's expansion took place up to 1918; during this time the Collegium Medicum was relocated to a site just east of the centre, and was expanded with the addition of a number of modern teaching hospitals – this 'medical campus' remains to this day. By the late 1930s, the number of students at the university had increased dramatically to almost 6,000. Now

8918-500: Was influenced by Pico della Mirandola 's idea that humanity "orders [an intellectual] cosmos out of the chaos of opinions." From Pico's writings, Osiander "learned to extract and synthesize insights from many sources without becoming the slavish follower of any of them." The effect of Pico on Osiander was tempered by the influence of Nicholas of Cusa and his idea of coincidentia oppositorum . Rather than having Pico's focus on human effort, Osiander followed Cusa's idea that understanding

9016-516: Was one of Nicolaus Copernicus ' teachers. The university was the first university in Europe to establish independent chairs in Mathematics and Astronomy . This rapid expansion in the university's faculty necessitated the purchase of larger premises in which to house them; it was thus that the building known today as the Collegium Maius , with its quadrangle and beautiful arcade, came into being towards

9114-540: Was removed and destroyed by Polish students advocating the reestablishment of an independent Polish state. For the 500th anniversary of the university's foundation, a monument to Copernicus was placed in the quadrangle of the Collegium Maius ; this statue is now to be found in the direct vicinity of the Collegium Novum , outside the Collegium Witkowskiego , to where it was moved in 1953. Nevertheless, it

9212-470: Was successfully demonstrated by professors Zygmunt Wróblewski and Karol Olszewski in 1883. Thereafter the Austrian authorities took on a new role in the development of the university and provided funds for the construction of a number of new buildings, including the neo-gothic Collegium Novum , which opened in 1887. It was, conversely, from this building that in 1918 a large painting of Kaiser Franz Joseph

9310-410: Was the disagreement among astronomers grounds for mistrusting the sort of knowledge that they produced, but now Osiander proclaimed that astronomers might construct a world deduced from (possibly) false premises. Thus the conflict between Piconian skepticism and secure principles for the science of the stars was built right into the complex dedicatory apparatus of De Revolutionibus itself." According to

9408-632: Was the need for deferents and epicycles abolished. In his work, Copernicus "used conventional, hypothetical devices like epicycles...as all astronomers had done since antiquity. ...hypothetical constructs solely designed to 'save the phenomena' and aid computation". Ptolemy's theory contained a hypothesis about the epicycle of Venus that was viewed as absurd if seen as anything other than a geometrical device (its brightness and distance should have varied greatly, but they don't). "In spite of this defect in Ptolemy's theory, Copernicus' hypothesis predicts approximately

9506-405: Was theological, hoping for "improving the chronology of historical events and thus providing more accurate apocalyptic interpretations of the Bible... [he shared in] the general awareness that the calendar was not in agreement with astronomical movement and therefore, needed to be corrected by devising better models on which to base calculations." In an era before the telescope, Osiander (like most of

9604-496: Was thus that a building on Żydowska Street, which had previously been the property of the Pęcherz family, was acquired in 1399. The Queen donated all of her personal jewellery to the university, allowing it to enroll 203 students. The faculties of astronomy, law and theology attracted eminent scholars: for example, John Cantius , Stanisław of Skarbimierz , Paweł Włodkowic , Jan of Głogów , and Albert Brudzewski , who from 1491 to 1495

#817182