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47-580: The Natural Park covers three geographically separated zones: The park is known internationally amongst conservationists for its biologically rich dense virgin rainforests. It is also characterized by a wide range of biotopes , from lowland and mountain forests, to mangroves and savanna area, which contribute to its unique ecosystem. The park includes virgin Atlantic high altitude rainforest and secondary rainforest (known to locals as capoeira ) which contains abandoned plantations. In 1988, scientists classified

94-441: A Lamarckian outlook with justification from the recapitulation theory. Freud also distinguished between physical and mental recapitulation, in which the differences would become an essential argument for his theory of neuroses . In the late 20th century, studies of symbolism and learning in the field of cultural anthropology suggested that "both biological evolution and the stages in the child's cognitive development follow much

141-415: A German zoologist famous for the recapitulation theory . In his book General Morphology (1866), which defines the term " ecology ", he stresses the importance of the concept of habitat as a prerequisite for an organism's existence. Haeckel also explains that with one ecosystem, its biota is shaped by environmental factors (such as water, soil, and geographical features) and interaction among living things;

188-411: A biotope (though a rather small one) since it enhances the experience of daily life. An area that has many functions, such as human living space, and is home to other living things, whether plant or animal, can be considered a biosphere reserve. When artificial items are introduced to a biotope setting, their design and arrangement is of great importance for biotope regeneration. Tree-planting areas where

235-410: A few, original ancestors. Since early in the twentieth century, Haeckel's "biogenetic law" has been refuted on many fronts. Haeckel formulated his theory as "Ontogeny recapitulates phylogeny". The notion later became simply known as the recapitulation theory. Ontogeny is the growth (size change) and development (structure change) of an individual organism; phylogeny is the evolutionary history of

282-456: A green belt along the river, small town parks, gardens, or even roadside trees, biotopes can exist in a network. In other words, a biotope is an open, not a closed, system and is a practicable strategy. The term "biotope" does not apply to biosphere reserves , which are completely separate from humans and become the object of human admiration. Instead, it is an active part of human daily life. For example, an ornamental flower bed may be considered

329-474: A historical hypothesis that the development of the embryo of an animal, from fertilization to gestation or hatching ( ontogeny ), goes through stages resembling or representing successive adult stages in the evolution of the animal's remote ancestors ( phylogeny ). It was formulated in the 1820s by Étienne Serres based on the work of Johann Friedrich Meckel , after whom it is also known as Meckel–Serres law . Since embryos also evolve in different ways ,

376-413: A part in these activities, including architecture, civil engineering, urban planning, traffic, agriculture, river engineering, limnology , biology , education, landscape gardening , and domestic gardening. In all fields, all sorts of people are seeking a viable way for humans to respect other living things. The term "biotope" would include a complete environmental approach. The following four points are

423-419: A particular real-world biotope. An example of one South American biotope type might be "Forest creek tributary of Rio Negro near Barcelos, Brazil" with many branches, twigs, roots, dead leaves, light sandy substrate, tannin-stained water and subdued lighting with floating plants, along with Nannostomus eques , Paracheirodon axelrodi , Hemigrammus bleheri , and Dicrossus filamentosus . "South American"

470-444: A place in which diverse organisms live. So one of the most effective strategies for regenerating biotopes is to plan a stretch of biotopes, not just a point where animals and plants come and go. (Such an organic traffic course is called a corridor .) In the stretch method, the centre of the network would be large green tracts of land: a forest, natural park, or cemetery. By connecting parcels of land with smaller biotope areas such as

517-521: A significant means of changing the morphology of adult bodies. Two of the key principles of evo-devo, namely that changes in the timing ( heterochrony ) and positioning ( heterotopy ) within the body of aspects of embryonic development would change the shape of a descendant's body compared to an ancestor's, were first formulated by Haeckel in the 1870s. These elements of his thinking about development have thus survived, whereas his theory of recapitulation has not. The Haeckelian form of recapitulation theory

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564-406: A species. Haeckel claimed that the development of advanced species passes through stages represented by adult organisms of more primitive species. Otherwise put, each successive stage in the development of an individual represents one of the adult forms that appeared in its evolutionary history. For example, Haeckel proposed that the pharyngeal grooves between the pharyngeal arches in the neck of

611-420: A specific variety should not be harmed by development. So there is a law that mandates the protection of biotopes. There is also a provincial law corresponding to the federal one. Such developments were uncommon in those times. Many German states are obliged by law to produce a landscape plan ( Landschaftsplan ) as part of their urban planning, though these plans vary somewhat from place to place. The purpose of

658-411: Is commonly emphasised that biotopes should not be isolated (although there are exceptions, such as manmade closed ecological systems which are specifically designed for no exchange of materials with the outside world). Instead biotopes need to be connected to each other and other surrounding life for without these connections to life-forms such as animals and plants, biotopes would not effectively work as

705-456: Is considered defunct. Embryos do undergo a period or phylotypic stage where their morphology is strongly shaped by their phylogenetic position, rather than selective pressures, but that means only that they resemble other embryos at that stage, not ancestral adults as Haeckel had claimed. The modern view is summarised by the University of California Museum of Paleontology : Embryos do reflect

752-412: Is generalized in many histories into a "phylogeny" – a historical development ("evolution") of Western music toward atonal styles of which Schoenberg is a representative. Such historiographies of the "collapse of traditional tonality" are faulted by music historians as asserting a rhetorical rather than historical point about tonality's "collapse". Taruskin also developed a variation of the motto into

799-676: Is not itself a biotope, as South America contains thousands of distinct biotopes in different regions. The term "biotope" can be also used to describe manmade closed ecological systems , occasionally also referred to as CES systems. Examples of these include the Biosphere 2 project and to a lesser degree the Eden Project , which contain areas of uniform environmental conditions and house numerous species of plants, animals and fungi. Therefore these can be considered biotopes. Homemade ecological systems, often incorrectly referred to as ecospheres (due to

846-432: Is now generally considered racist. Developmental psychologist Jean Piaget favored a weaker version of the formula, according to which ontogeny parallels phylogeny because the two are subject to similar external constraints. The Austrian pioneer of psychoanalysis , Sigmund Freud , also favored Haeckel's doctrine. He was trained as a biologist under the influence of recapitulation theory during its heyday, and retained

893-554: The Landschaftsplan is to protect the region's environment and landscape. These plans use text and figures to describe the present environmental state and proposed remedies. They consider, for example, the regional lie of the land, climate, wind direction, soil, ground water, type of biotope, distribution of animals and plants, inhabitants' welfare and competition with development projects. Biotope preservation in cities also emphasises recreation and relaxation for citizens and improving

940-422: The specific genes that control development . The idea that ontogeny recapitulates phylogeny has been applied to some other areas. English philosopher Herbert Spencer was one of the most energetic proponents of evolutionary ideas to explain many phenomena. In 1861, five years before Haeckel first published on the subject, Spencer proposed a possible basis for a cultural recapitulation theory of education with

987-515: The 1720s, was appropriated by the Nazi regime in the 1930s for propaganda . Taruskin claims the historical development of the St John Passion (its ontogeny) as a work with an anti-Semitic message does, in fact, inform the work's identity (its ontology), even though that was an unlikely concern of the composer. Music or even an abstract visual artwork can not be truly autonomous ("absolute") because it

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1034-653: The anatomist Wilhelm His Sr. (1831–1904), who had developed a rival "causal-mechanical theory" of human embryonic development. His's work specifically criticised Haeckel's methodology, arguing that the shapes of embryos were caused most immediately by mechanical pressures resulting from local differences in growth. These differences were, in turn, caused by "heredity". He compared the shapes of embryonic structures to those of rubber tubes that could be slit and bent, illustrating these comparisons with accurate drawings. Stephen Jay Gould noted in his 1977 book Ontogeny and Phylogeny that His's attack on Haeckel's recapitulation theory

1081-469: The ant Tetramorium renae . Biotope A biotope is an area of uniform environmental conditions providing a living place for a specific assemblage of plants and animals . Biotope is almost synonymous with the term "habitat" , which is more commonly used in English-speaking countries. However, in some countries these two terms are distinguished: the subject of a habitat is a population ,

1128-624: The authorities take the initiative in conserving biotopes, maintaining consistency with urban or rural planning and considering the regions' history and landscape. Since 1976, the federal nature protection law, Bundesnaturschutzgesetz (BNUM), requires that wild animals and plants and their community should be protected as part of the ecosystem in the specific diversity that has grown naturally and historically, and their biotope and other living conditions should be protected, preserved, developed, and restored. (Number 9, Clause 1, Article 2). The law also requires that some kinds of biotope that are full of

1175-524: The chief characteristics of biotopes. A biotope is generally not considered to be a large-scale phenomenon. For example, a biotope might be a neighbouring park, a back garden, potted plant, a terrarium or a fish tank on a porch. In other words, the biotope is not a macroscopic but a microscopic approach to preserving the ecosystem and biological diversity. So biotopes fit into ordinary people's daily activities and lives, with more people being able to take part in biotope creation and continuing management. It

1222-489: The course of evolution, but that course is far more intricate and quirky than Haeckel claimed. Different parts of the same embryo can even evolve in different directions. As a result, the Biogenetic Law was abandoned, and its fall freed scientists to appreciate the full range of embryonic changes that evolution can produce—an appreciation that has yielded spectacular results in recent years as scientists have discovered some of

1269-530: The embryo, rather than on the adult as in Lamarckism . These naturalistic ideas led to disagreements with Georges Cuvier . The theory was widely supported in the Edinburgh and London schools of higher anatomy around 1830, notably by Robert Edmond Grant , but was opposed by Karl Ernst von Baer 's ideas of divergence , and attacked by Richard Owen in the 1830s. Ernst Haeckel (1834–1919) attempted to synthesize

1316-504: The first pharyngeal arch develops into the lower jaw ( Meckel's cartilage ), the malleus and the stapes . Haeckel produced several embryo drawings that often overemphasized similarities between embryos of related species. Modern biology rejects the literal and universal form of Haeckel's theory, such as its possible application to behavioural ontogeny, i.e. the psychomotor development of young animals and human children. Haeckel's theory and drawings were criticised by his contemporary,

1363-720: The following claim: If there be an order in which the human race has mastered its various kinds of knowledge, there will arise in every child an aptitude to acquire these kinds of knowledge in the same order... Education is a repetition of civilization in little. G. Stanley Hall used Haeckel's theories as the basis for his theories of child development. His most influential work, "Adolescence: Its Psychology and Its Relations to Physiology, Anthropology, Sociology, Sex, Crime, Religion and Education" in 1904 suggested that each individual's life course recapitulated humanity's evolution from "savagery" to "civilization". Though he has influenced later childhood development theories, Hall's conception

1410-495: The forests of São Tomé and Príncipe as the second most important in terms of biological interest out of 75 forests of Africa; most of the species found in the islands are found in the national park. The WWF has listed the forests of the national park as among the Global 200 , the 200 most important biological areas on the planet. The forest of Obo is listed as an Important Bird Area (IBA) of Africa. There are about 700 plant species on

1457-412: The human embryo not only roughly resembled gill slits of fish, but directly represented an adult "fishlike" developmental stage, signifying a fishlike ancestor. Embryonic pharyngeal slits, which form in many animals when the thin branchial plates separating pharyngeal pouches and pharyngeal grooves perforate, open the pharynx to the outside. Pharyngeal arches appear in all tetrapod embryos: in mammals ,

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1504-433: The idea of having an entire ecosystem on their windowsill, or by those interested in studying the viability of small scale, closed loop ecological systems for the purpose potentially creating life support systems . Recapitulation theory The theory of recapitulation , also called the biogenetic law or embryological parallelism —often expressed using Ernst Haeckel 's phrase " ontogeny recapitulates phylogeny "—is

1551-483: The ideas of Lamarckism and Goethe 's Naturphilosophie with Charles Darwin 's concepts. While often seen as rejecting Darwin's theory of branching evolution for a more linear Lamarckian view of progressive evolution, this is not accurate: Haeckel used the Lamarckian picture to describe the ontogenetic and phylogenetic history of individual species, but agreed with Darwin about the branching of all species from one, or

1598-832: The island of São Tomé, of which 95 are endemic . Flora includes the evergreen coniferous Afrocarpus mannii . Orchids, ferns and mosses are common in the area. There are 16 endemic bird species on the island, including São Tomé olive pigeon ( Columba thomensis ), São Tomé ibis ( Bostrychia bocagei ), São Tomé fiscal ( Lanius newtoni ), São Tomé shorttail ( Amaurocichlia bocagei ), São Tomé grosbeak ( Crithagra concolor ), Giant sunbird ( Dreptes thomensis ), São Tomé oriole ( Oriolus crassirostris ) and São Tomé thrush ( Turdus olivaceofuscus ). The park has been recognised as an Important Bird Area (IBA) by BirdLife International . The amphibians Ptychadena newtoni , Hyperolius thomensis , Hyperolius molleri , Phrynobatrachus leveleve , and Schistometopum thomense are found in

1645-428: The landscape. The term "biotope" is also often used by aquarium hobbyists to describe an aquarium setup that tries to simulate the natural habitat of a specific assemblage of fish. The idea is to replicate conditions such as water parameters, natural plants, substrate, water type ( fresh , saline or brackish ), lighting, and to include other native fish which usually live together in nature and as such, represent

1692-474: The original idea of a biotope was closely related to evolutional theory. Following this, F. Dahl, a professor at the Berlin Zoological Museum, referred to this ecological system as a "biotope" (biotop) (1908). Although the term "biotope" is considered to be a technical word with respect to ecology, in recent years the term is more generally used in administrative and civic activities. Since the 1970s

1739-410: The park. The shrew Crocidura thomensis is the only endemic terrestrial mammal. There are three endemic species of bats: São Tomé collared fruit bat ( Myonycteris brachycephala ), São Tomé free-tailed bat ( Chaerephon tomensis ), and São Tomé leaf-nosed bat ( Hipposideros thomensis ). Invertebrates include the moths Theretra viridis , Hyalobathra barnsalis and Pseudoclanis tomensis and

1786-621: The product, known as the EcoSphere ) or jarrariums also fall under the definition of biotope. These homemade ecosystems (which also include closed terrariums ) are often made by hobbyists in what are often jars (hence the name jarrarium) or sealed glass tanks with the intention of mimicking a larger ecosystem. They are often made by going out and collecting material (including soil, plants, small insects and water if an aquatic ecosystem) from said ecosystem and sealing it in an airtight container. These closed ecosystems are often made by hobbyists who enjoy

1833-401: The pun "ontogeny recapitulates ontology" to refute the concept of " absolute music " advancing the socio-artistic theories of the musicologist Carl Dahlhaus . Ontology is the investigation of what exactly something is, and Taruskin asserts that an art object becomes that which society and succeeding generations made of it. For example, Johann Sebastian Bach 's St. John Passion , composed in

1880-400: The same progression of evolutionary stages as that suggested in the archaeological record". The musicologist Richard Taruskin in 2005 applied the phrase "ontogeny becomes phylogeny" to the process of creating and recasting music history, often to assert a perspective or argument. For example, the peculiar development of the works by modernist composer Arnold Schoenberg (here an "ontogeny")

1927-596: The shortcomings of the theory had been recognized by the early 20th century, and it had been relegated to "biological mythology" by the mid-20th century. Analogies to recapitulation theory have been formulated in other fields, including cognitive development and music criticism . The idea of recapitulation was first formulated in biology from the 1790s onwards by the German natural philosophers Johann Friedrich Meckel and Carl Friedrich Kielmeyer , and by Étienne Serres after which, Marcel Danesi states, it soon gained

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1974-483: The status of a supposed biogenetic law. The embryological theory was formalised by Serres in 1824–1826, based on Meckel's work, in what became known as the "Meckel-Serres Law". This attempted to link comparative embryology with a "pattern of unification" in the organic world. It was supported by Étienne Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire , and became a prominent part of his ideas. It suggested that past transformations of life could have been through environmental causes working on

2021-631: The subject of a biotope is a biocoenosis or "biological community". It is an English loanword derived from the German Biotop , which in turn came from the Greek bios (meaning 'life') and topos ('place'). (The related word geotope has made its way into the English language by the same route, from the German Geotop .) The concept of a biotope was first advocated by Ernst Haeckel (1834–1919),

2068-467: The surface is uneven results in plants that sprout and the nesting of small insects. A mat or net made from natural fibres will gradually biodegrade as it is exposed to the weather. So there is no binomial opposition between the natural and the artificial in a biotope. Rather, such artificial materials are widely used. It is especially characteristic in Germany, which is the birthplace of the term biotope, that

2115-456: The term "biotope" has received great attention as a keyword throughout Europe (mainly Germany) for the preservation, regeneration, and creation of natural environmental settings. Used in this context, the term "biotope" often refers to a smaller and more specific ecology and is very familiar to human life. In Germany especially, activities related to regenerating biotopes are enthusiastically received. These activities include: Various sectors play

2162-501: The urban environment. For example, in the reserve of Karlsruhe in Baden-Württemberg people can cycle on the bike path or walk the dog, although it is forbidden to gather plants and animals there or walk in the exclusion zone. At the core of biotope preservation is the idea that if civic life is surrounded by a rich profusion of nature whose background is in local history and culture, it is improved by protecting nature and preserving

2209-705: Was far more fundamental than that of any empirical critic, as it effectively stated that Haeckel's "biogenetic law" was irrelevant. Darwin proposed that embryos resembled each other since they shared a common ancestor, which presumably had a similar embryo, but that development did not necessarily recapitulate phylogeny: he saw no reason to suppose that an embryo at any stage resembled an adult of any ancestor. Darwin supposed further that embryos were subject to less intense selection pressure than adults, and had therefore changed less. Modern evolutionary developmental biology (evo-devo) follows von Baer, rather than Darwin, in pointing to active evolution of embryonic development as

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