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59-543: In 1982, responding to concerns about the increasing crack epidemic , President Ronald Reagan intensified the war on drugs . In January 1982, Reagan designated Vice President George H. W. Bush to lead a cross-agency drug interdiction team called the South Florida Task Force. The impetus was a surge of cocaine and cannabis entering through the Miami region, and the sharp rise in related crime. The operation involved

118-512: A minimum mandatory sentence of 5 years in federal prison. On the other hand, possession of 500 grams of powder cocaine carries the same sentence. In 2010, the Fair Sentencing Act cut the sentencing disparity to 18:1. In 2012, 88% of imprisonments from crack cocaine were African American. Further, the data shows the discrepancy between lengths of sentences of crack cocaine and heroin. The majority of crack imprisonments are placed in

177-458: A crack index was calculated using information on cocaine-related arrests, deaths, and drug raids, along with low birth rates and media coverage in the United States. The crack index aimed to create a proxy for the percentage of cocaine related incidents that involved crack. Crack was an almost unknown drug until 1985. This abrupt introductory date allows for the estimation and use of the index with

236-527: A decision to convert the powder to "crack", a solid smokable form of cocaine, that could be sold in smaller quantities, to more people. It was cheap, simple to produce, ready to use, and highly profitable for dealers to develop. As early as 1981, reports of crack were appearing in Los Angeles , Oakland , Chicago , New York , Miami , Houston , and in the Caribbean . The word "crack" may have first appeared in

295-509: A lighter, the vapors are inhaled (but the substance was dangerously flammable). A less volatile but similar process was developed by dealers around 1980 where street cocaine is dissolved in a solution of water and baking soda and then dried out into "crack rocks". As the rocks are heated, it makes a crackling sound and this is how the substance got its name. It was not until 1985 after an article in The New York Times describing crack use in

354-436: A media publication in the sub-headline of a Rolling Stone article on May 1, 1980, titled "Freebase: A Treacherous Obsession: The rise of crack cocaine and the fall of addicts destroyed by the drug". The article said that freebase made its "strongest inroads" in the music industry of Los Angeles and at this time, in 1980, the similar crack form had just been starting (and in a few years would become predominant and also move to

413-498: A multi-agency target list of "command and control" elements of the most prolific international drug trafficking and money laundering organizations nationally. The OCDETF also requires its participants to identify major Regional Priority Organization Targets (RPOT) as part of an annual Regional Strategic Plan process. Established by the Organized Crime Drug Enforcement Task Forces (OCDETF) Program in 2004,

472-732: A part of the United States Department of Justice budget with the Further Continuing Appropriations Act, 1983, introduced in December 1982. The OCDETF is the centerpiece of the Attorney General's drug supply reduction strategy. It is funded through the annual Interagency Crime and Drug Enforcement (ICDE) appropriation of the Department of Justice. It describes its mission is "to reduce the supply of illegal drugs in

531-424: A result of the low-skill levels and minimal initial resource outlay required to sell crack, systemic violence flourished as a growing army of young, enthusiastic inner-city crack sellers attempt to defend their economic investment." Once the drug became embedded in the particular communities, the economic environment that was best suited for its survival caused further social disintegration within that city. In 1986,

590-527: A resulting backlash in the form of tough on crime policies, and a massive spike in incarceration rates . In the early 1980s, the majority of cocaine being shipped to the United States was landing in Miami , and originated in Colombia , trafficked through The Bahamas . Soon there was a huge glut of cocaine powder in these islands, which caused the price to drop by as much as 80 percent. Faced with dropping prices for their illegal product, drug dealers made

649-699: A small part of the prison population, and non-violent drug offenders an even smaller portion; that people convicted of violent crimes make up the majority of prisoners; that county and state justice systems account for the large majority of American prisoners and not the federal system that handles most drug cases; and, subsequently, "national" statistics tell a distorted story when differences in enforcement, conviction, and sentencing are widely disparate between states and counties. San Jose Mercury News journalist Gary Webb sparked national controversy with his 1996 Dark Alliance series which alleged that Nicaraguan dealers with Contra ties started and significantly fueled

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708-541: A whole) on the failures of the criminal justice system, it obscures African-American support for tougher crime laws and downplays the role of violent crime in the story of incarceration. John Pfaff , in his book Locked In: The True Causes of Mass Incarceration and How to Achieve Real Reform , criticizes Alexander's assertion that the Drug War, including sentencing disparities for crack, is responsible for mass incarceration. Among his findings are that drug offenders make up only

767-587: Is a broad term that may entail for example: Collection, analysis, and production of sensitive information to support national security leaders, including policymakers, military commanders, and members of Congress. Safeguarding these processes and this information through counterintelligence activities. Execution of covert operations approved by the president. The IC strives to provide valuable insight on important issues by gathering raw intelligence, analyzing that data in context, and producing timely and relevant products for customers at all levels of national security—from

826-687: Is counted as one of its 17 constituent agencies. The other members of the IC are: The IC performs under two separate programs: Since the definitions of the NIP and MIP overlap when they address military intelligence , the assignment of intelligence activities to the NIP and MIP sometimes proves problematic. The overall organization of the IC is primarily governed by the National Security Act of 1947 (as amended) and Executive Order 12333 . The statutory organizational relationships were substantially revised with

885-718: The Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA), Customs Service , the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) and other agencies, and Armed Forces ships and planes. It was called the "most ambitious and expensive drug enforcement operation" in US history. By 1986, the task force had made over 15,000 arrests and seized millions of pounds of drugs. However, law enforcement agents said their impact was minimal, and that cocaine imports had increased. A Bush spokesperson emphasized disrupting smuggling routes rather than seizure quantities as

944-455: The East Coast and elsewhere). The article describes both the earlier free base method of purifying cocaine to make it smokable which started in 1974 and the newer but similar crack making process. Freebase was made by users who would combine cocaine with baking soda and water and then extract the base salt, "freeing it" with ammonia . This achieves a lower melting point and when heated with

1003-585: The Federation of American Scientists , which provides analyses of national security issues, stated that "It was a titanic struggle just to get the top-line budget number disclosed, and that has only been done consistently since 2007 ... but a real grasp of the structure and operations of the intelligence bureaucracy has been totally beyond public reach. This kind of material, even on a historical basis, has simply not been available." Access to budget details will enable an informed public debate on intelligence spending for

1062-813: The Joint Intelligence Community Council , the Office of the Inspector General , and the Office of Management and Budget . Primary congressional oversight jurisdiction over the IC is assigned to two committees : the United States House Permanent Select Committee on Intelligence and the United States Senate Select Committee on Intelligence . The House Armed Services Committee and Senate Armed Services Committee draft bills to annually authorize

1121-478: The foreign policy and national security interests of the United States. Member organizations of the IC include intelligence agencies , military intelligence , and civilian intelligence and analysis offices within federal executive departments . The IC is overseen by the Office of the Director of National Intelligence (ODNI), which is headed by the director of national intelligence (DNI) who reports directly to

1180-613: The president of the United States . The IC was established by Executive Order 12333 ("United States Intelligence Activities"), signed on December 4, 1981, by President Ronald Reagan . The statutory definition of the IC, including its roster of agencies, was codified as the Intelligence Organization Act of 1992 ( Pub. L.   102–496 , H.R. 5095 , 106  Stat.   3188 ). The Washington Post reported in 2010 that there were 1,271 government organizations and 1,931 private companies in 10,000 locations in

1239-595: The procurement of technology and services (including analysis), according to the May 2007 chart from the ODNI. Intelligence spending has increased by a third over ten years ago, in inflation -adjusted dollars, according to the Center for Strategic and Budgetary Assessments . In a statement on the release of new declassified figures, DNI Mike McConnell said there would be no additional disclosures of classified budget information beyond

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1298-553: The 10–20 year range, while the imprisonments related to heroin use or possession range from 5–10 years. A number of authors have discussed race and the crack epidemic, including Memphis Black writer Demico Boothe, who spent 12 years in federal prison after being arrested for the first-time offense of selling crack cocaine at the age of 18, published the book, "Why Are So Many Black Men in Prison?" in 2007. Writer and lawyer Michelle Alexander 's book The New Jim Crow: Mass Incarceration in

1357-562: The 1980s crack epidemic. Investigating the lives and connections of Los Angeles crack dealers Ricky Ross , Oscar Danilo Blandón , and Norwin Meneses, Webb alleged that profits from these crack sales were funneled to the CIA-supported Contras. The United States Department of Justice Office of the Inspector General rejected Webb's claim that there was a "systematic effort by the CIA to protect

1416-401: The 2004 Intelligence Reform and Terrorism Prevention Act (IRTPA) amendments to the 1947 National Security Act. Though the IC characterizes itself as a federation of its member elements, its overall structure is better characterized as a confederation due to its lack of a well-defined, unified leadership and governance structure. Prior to 2004, the director of Central Intelligence (DCI)

1475-631: The 2005 National Intelligence Strategy . The United States intelligence budget (excluding the Military Intelligence Program) in fiscal year 2022 was appropriated as $ 65.7 billion, an increase of $ 3.4 billion from the $ 62.3 billion requested and up from $ 60.8 billion in fiscal year 2021. The total budget of the National Intelligence Program has been public since 2007, due to the Implementing Recommendations of

1534-552: The 9/11 Commission Act of 2007 , which required them to disclose the "aggregate amount of funds appropriated by Congress” for the NIP within 30 days of the end of the fiscal year. The requested budget of the NIP has been public since 2011 due to a requirement enacted by Congress in Section 364 of the Intelligence Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2010. About 70 percent of the intelligence budget went to contractors for

1593-790: The Age of Colorblindness (2010) argues that punitive laws against drugs like crack cocaine adopted under the Reagan administration's war on drugs resulted in harsh social consequences, including large numbers of young Black men imprisoned for long sentences, the exacerbation of drug crime despite a decrease in illegal drug use in the United States, and increased police brutality against the Black community resulting in injury and death for many black men, women, and children. According to Alexander, society turned to racist criminal justice policies to avoid exhibiting obvious racism. She writes that, since African Americans were

1652-1035: The Attorney General, will work closely with State and local law enforcement officials. Following the south Florida example, they'll utilize the resources of the Federal Government, including the FBI, the DEA, the IRS, the ATF, Immigration and Naturalization Service, United States Marshals Services, the U.S. Customs Service, and the Coast Guard. In addition, in some regions Department of Defense tracking and pursuit capability will be made available. I believe that these task forces will allow us to mount an intensive and coordinated campaign against international and domestic drug trafficking and other organized criminal enterprises. Organized Crime Drug Enforcement appeared in congressional appropriation legislation as

1711-482: The Black community also experienced a 20–100% increase in fetal death rates, low birth-weight babies, weapons arrests, and the number of children in foster care. A 2018 study found that the crack epidemic had long term consequences for crime, contributing to the doubling of the murder rate of young Black males soon after the start of the epidemic, and that the murder rate was still 70 percent higher 17 years after crack's arrival. The paper estimated that eight percent of

1770-481: The Bronx , New York titled "A new, purified form of cocaine causes alarm as abuse increases" that within a year, more than a thousand press stories were published. Initially, crack had higher purity than street powder. Around 1984, powder cocaine was available on the street at an average of 55 percent purity for $ 100 per gram (equivalent to $ 293 in 2023), and crack was sold at average purity levels of 80-plus percent for

1829-514: The DOJ Criminal Division; the 94 United States Attorneys Offices; and other Federal, State, local, tribal, and international law enforcement agencies. Geographically, the OCDETF is organized into nine regions, each with its own Advisory Council and Coordination Group. These groups set policies and priorities for their regions and conduct final review of cases proposed for OCDETF designation. At

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1888-648: The IC include technological, structural, procedural, and cultural dimensions. Examples include the Intellipedia wiki of encyclopedic security-related information; the creation of the Office of the Director of National Intelligence , National Intelligence Centers , Program Manager Information Sharing Environment , and Information Sharing Council ; legal and policy frameworks set by the Intelligence Reform and Terrorism Prevention Act of 2004 , information sharing Executive Order 13354 and Executive Order 13388 , and

1947-623: The IC primarily through statutory authorities under which he or she: Despite these responsibilities, the DNI has no authority to direct and control any element of the IC except his own staff—the Office of the DNI—nor does the DNI have the authority to hire or fire personnel in the IC except those on his or her own staff. The member elements in the executive branch are directed and controlled by their respective department heads, all cabinet-level officials reporting to

2006-652: The Intelligence Capabilities of the United States Regarding Weapons of Mass Destruction), the authorities and powers of the DNI and the overall organizational structure of the IC have become subject of intense debate in the United States. Previously, interagency cooperation and the flow of information among the member agencies was hindered by policies that sought to limit the pooling of information out of privacy and security concerns. Attempts to modernize and facilitate interagency cooperation within

2065-634: The OCDETF Fusion Center (OFC) is a multi-agency intelligence center designed to provide intelligence information to investigations and prosecutions focused on disrupting and dismantling drug trafficking and money laundering organizations. In May 2009, the Attorney General’s Organized Crime Council established the International Organized Crime Intelligence and Operations Center (IOC-2) to marshal

2124-473: The OCDETF has provided measurements of its Investigation and prosecution statistics. Official website Crack epidemic The crack epidemic was a surge of crack cocaine use in major cities across the United States throughout the entirety of the 1980s and the early 1990s. This resulted in a number of social consequences, such as increasing crime and violence in American inner city neighborhoods,

2183-682: The OFC and the Drug Enforcement Administration’s Special Operations Division (a member of the United States Intelligence Community ). The IOC-2 is co-located with the OFC and shares access to the OFC’s database. Its products are indistinguishable from OFC products except that they focus on targets under investigation for a broader variety of criminal activity than just illicit drug trafficking. From

2242-468: The U.S. Congress passed laws that created a 100 to 1 sentencing disparity for the possession or trafficking of crack when compared to penalties for powder cocaine , widely criticized as discriminatory against African-Americans and other racial minorities, who were more likely to use crack than powder cocaine. This 100:1 ratio was mandated by federal law in 1986. Persons convicted in federal court of possession of 5 grams of crack cocaine received

2301-440: The United States and diminish the associated violence and other transnational organized criminal activities, including violent street gangs, that present the greatest threat to public safety as well as economic and national security." The OCDETF consists of an Executive Office, which coordinates the drug enforcement efforts of multiple agencies from several cabinet departments including: Enforcement efforts are conducted through

2360-505: The United States that were working on counterterrorism , homeland security , and intelligence, and that the intelligence community as a whole would include 854,000 people holding top-secret clearances . The term Intelligence Community was first used during LTG Walter Bedell Smith 's tenure as Director of Central Intelligence (1950–1953). Intelligence is information that agencies collect, analyze, and distribute in response to government leaders' questions and requirements. Intelligence

2419-448: The United States. In cities with populations over 350,000 the instances of crack cocaine were twice as high as those in cities with a population less than 350,000. These indicators show that the use of crack cocaine was much higher in urban areas. States and regions with concentrated urban populations were affected at a much higher rate, while states with primarily rural populations were least affected. Maryland, New York and New Mexico had

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2478-560: The cause of the crack epidemic in Los Angeles, much less in the United States as a whole, or that they were a significant source of support for the Contras." United States Intelligence Community The United States Intelligence Community ( IC ) is a group of separate U.S. federal government intelligence agencies and subordinate organizations that work both separately and collectively to conduct intelligence activities which support

2537-539: The district level, District Coordination Groups review cases proposed for OCDETF designation, ensure appropriate resource allocation, and monitor local case progress. Each of the ninety-three federal judicial districts is placed into one of nine OCDETF regions based on geographic proximity. Within each region, a "core city" was designated. The OCDETF coordinates the annual formulation of the Consolidated Priority Organization Target (CPOT) List,

2596-456: The drug trafficking activities of the Contras". The DOJ/OIG reported: "We found that Blandon and Meneses were plainly major drug traffickers who enriched themselves at the expense of countless drug users and the communities in which these drug users lived, just like other drug dealers of their magnitude. They also contributed some money to the Contra cause. But we did not find that their activities were

2655-495: The first time, said the co-chair of the 9/11 Commission Lee H. Hamilton. He added that Americans should not be excluded from the budget process because the intelligence community has a profound impact on the life of ordinary Americans. Intelligence Community Oversight duties are distributed to both the executive and legislative branches. Primary executive oversight is performed by the President's Foreign Intelligence Advisory Board ,

2714-504: The formation of the organization to 2006, OCDETF operations have led to more than 44,000 drug-related convictions and the seizure of over $ 3 billion in monetary and property assets. The United States Department of Justice Criminal Division 's s Office of Enforcement Operations reviews DOJ components' Title III wiretap applications. In the three year span of calendar years 2016, 2017, and 2018 there were 6,964 OCDETF-related Title III applications. In budget materials submitted to Congress,

2773-487: The highest instances of crack cocaine use, while Idaho, Minnesota and Vermont had the lowest instances of crack cocaine use. African American families were largely located in low-income inner city neighborhoods. This led to crack impacting African American communities far more than others. Between 1984 and 1989, the homicide rate for Black males aged 14 to 17 more than doubled, and the homicide rate for Black males aged 18 to 24 increased nearly as much. During this period,

2832-483: The knowledge that values prior to 1985 are essentially zero. This index showed that the Northeast U.S. was most affected by the crack epidemic. The U.S. cities with the highest crack index were New York (especially the city's Washington Heights neighborhood), Newark and Philadelphia . The same index used by Fryer, Levitt and Murphy was then implemented in a study that investigated the effects of crack cocaine across

2891-606: The majority users of crack cocaine, it provided a platform for the government to create laws that were specific to crack. She claims that this was an effective way to imprison Black people without having to do the same to white Americans. Alexander writes that felony drug convictions for crack cocaine fell disproportionately on young Black men, who then lost access to voting, housing, and employment opportunities, which then led to increased violent crime in poor Black communities. Legal Scholar James Forman Jr. argues that though Alexander's book has value in focusing scholars (and society as

2950-466: The measure of success According to an agency history by Rudy Giuliani , the task force was a success, while drug smuggling had moved to new ports as evidenced by larger seizures elsewhere. Desiring a more comprehensive, nationwide attack to reduce the supply of illegal drugs in the US, Reagan announced the formation of the OCDETF Program on October 14, 1982. These task forces, under the direction of

3009-503: The murders in 2000 are due to the long-run effects of the emergence of crack markets, and that the elevated murder rates for young Black males can explain a significant part of the gap in life expectancy between black and white males. Crack cocaine use and distribution became popular in cities that were in a state of social and economic chaos such as New York, Los Angeles and Atlanta, and particularly in their low-income inner city neighborhoods with high African American concentrations. "As

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3068-436: The overall spending figure because "such disclosures could harm national security". How the money is divided among the 16 intelligence agencies and what it is spent on is classified. It includes salaries for about 100,000 people, multi billion-dollar satellite programs , aircraft , weapons , electronic sensors, intelligence analysis , spies , computers , and software . On August 29, 2013 The Washington Post published

3127-537: The president. By law, only the director of the Central Intelligence Agency reports to the DNI. In light of major intelligence failures in recent years that called into question how well Intelligence Community ensures U.S. national security, particularly those identified by the 9/11 Commission (National Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States), and the " WMD Commission " (Commission on

3186-480: The resources and information of federal law enforcement agencies and prosecutors to collectively combat the threats posed by international criminal organizations. In recognition of the demonstrated interrelationship between criminal organizations that engage in illicit drug trafficking and those that engage in international organized crime involving a broader range of criminal activity, the IOC-2 works in close partnership with

3245-825: The same price. In some major cities, such as New York , Chicago , Los Angeles , San Francisco , Philadelphia , Baltimore , Houston and Detroit , one dose of crack could be obtained for as little as $ 2.50 (equivalent to $ 7 in 2023). According to the 1985–1986 National Narcotics Intelligence Consumers Committee Report, crack was available in Atlanta , Boston , Detroit , Kansas City , Miami , New York City , Newark , San Francisco , Seattle , St. Louis , Dallas , Denver , Minneapolis and Phoenix . In 1985, cocaine -related hospital emergencies rose by 12 percent, from 23,500 to 26,300. In 1986, these incidents increased 110 percent, from 26,300 to 55,200. Between 1984 and 1987, cocaine incidents increased to 94,000. By 1987, crack

3304-438: The summary of the Office of the Director of National Intelligence's multivolume FY 2013 Congressional Budget Justification, the U.S. Intelligence Community's top-secret "black budget". The IC's FY 2013 budget details how the 16 spy agencies use the money and how it performs against the goals set by the president and Congress. Experts said that access to such details about U.S. spy programs is without precedent. Steven Aftergood of

3363-541: The war-fighter on the ground to the president in Washington. Executive Order 12333 charged the IC with six primary objectives: Before the CIA's establishment, several military intelligence agencies, and the FBI to a limited extent, fulfilled its role. The IC is headed by the director of national intelligence (DNI), whose statutory leadership is exercised through the Office of the Director of National Intelligence (ODNI), and

3422-499: Was reported to be available in the District of Columbia and all but four states in the United States. Some scholars have cited the crack "epidemic" as an example of a moral panic , noting that the explosion in use and trafficking of the drug actually occurred after the media coverage of the drug as an "epidemic". In a study done by Roland Fryer , Steven Levitt , and Kevin Murphy ,

3481-460: Was the head of the IC, in addition to being the director of the CIA. A major criticism of this arrangement was that the DCI had little or no actual authority over the budgetary authorities of the other IC agencies and therefore had limited influence over their operations. Following the passage of IRTPA in 2004, the head of the IC is the director of national intelligence (DNI). The DNI exerts leadership of

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