The Numantine War (from Bellum Numantinum in Appian 's Roman History ) was the last conflict of the Celtiberian Wars fought by the Romans to subdue those people along the Ebro . It was a twenty-year conflict between the Celtiberian tribes of Hispania Citerior and the Roman government. It began in 154 BC as a revolt of the Celtiberians of Numantia on the Douro . The first phase of the war ended in 151, but in 143, war flared up again with a new insurrection in Numantia.
51-685: The first war was fought contemporaneously with the Lusitanian War in Hispania Ulterior . The Lusitanians were subdued by Sulpicius Galba , who betrayed their surrender and executed their leading men, and the Arevaci of Hispania Citerior continued the war and allied with the Lusitanian leader Viriathus . After open war reignited in 143, Rome sent a series of generals to the Iberian peninsula to deal with
102-518: A city named Ocile. Mummius followed them into Africa and defeated the Lusitanian rebels and ended the siege of Ocile. With this victory, Mummius returned to Rome and was awarded a triumph . Mummius was succeeded by Marcus Atilius, who fought the Lusitanians and conquered their largest city, Oxthracae . This terrified the neighboring tribes (including the Vettones) into offering their surrender. During
153-529: A city named Tribola. Vitilius, seeing the Lusitanian forces scattering, attacked Viriathus directly, but Viriathus and 1000 of his best men occupied Vitilus for two days while the others regrouped to safety. Viriathus then evaded the Romans and rejoined with his army. The success of Viriathus' campaign convinced neighboring Celtic tribes, such as the Gallaecians to support his cause. Viriathus gained renown throughout
204-430: A fixed vectigal or land-tax, the tributum and a certain quantity of cereals. Taxes were not the only source of income; mine exploitation and peace treaties were a source of denarius as well as war spoils and war prisoners who were sold as slaves. The indigenous towns had to deliver their own treasures to the Romans, which left them only with their yearly earnings to pay the taxes. In 174 BC, when Publius Furius Philus
255-463: A place called Venus mountain, but later returned to battle, slaying 1,000 of Quintus' men. Viriathus drove out the garrison of Ittuca and raided the Iberian Bastetani . Quintus wintered at Córdoba in the middle of autumn and sent Caius Marcius, a Hispanic from Italica , to fight Viriathus. In 142 BC, Fabius Maximus Servilianus succeeded Quintus, bringing two new legions and more allies, up to
306-539: A ring of seven fortresses around Numantia itself before beginning the siege proper . After suffering pestilence and famine, most of the surviving Numantines committed suicide rather than surrender to Rome. The decisive Roman victory over Numantia ushered in an era of lasting peace in Hispania until the Sertorian War over half a century later. This war also launched the careers of several important figures. Tiberius Gracchus
357-456: A short-lived denomination called the victoriatus . The denarius contained an average 4.5 grams, or 1 ⁄ 72 of a Roman pound, of silver, and was at first tariffed at ten asses , hence its name, which means 'tenner'. It formed the backbone of Roman currency throughout the Roman Republic and the early Empire. The denarius began to undergo slow debasement toward the end of
408-420: A term which survives in one or two ancient texts and is derived from the quadriga , or four-horse chariot, on the reverse. This, with a two-horse chariot or biga which was used as a reverse type for some early denarii , was the prototype for the most common designs used on Roman silver coins for a number of years. Rome overhauled its coinage shortly before 211 BC, and introduced the denarius alongside
459-574: A total of 18,000 men on foot and 1,600 on horse. Maximus was reinforced by 300 horse and ten elephants from Africa. Maximus defeated Viriathus, who still managed to inflict 3,000 deaths and drive the Romans back to camp. The Romans were saved by night time and managed to defend their camp initially, but constant attacks by Viriathus drove them back to Itucca. Viriathus returned to Lusitania, but Maximus, instead of following him, raided five towns against Lusitanian allies in Baeturia . Afterwards, he marched against
510-454: A truce and promised them fertile land. The Lusitanians, following the good news of the ambassadors, gathered at a place appointed by Galba and were divided into three parts in a plain. Galba approached each Lusitanian division separately, asked them to lay down their arms, and slaughtered them. Viriathus was one of the few Lusitanians who escaped. In 148 BC, the Lusitanians assembled a force of 10,000 and attacked Turdetania . Gaius Vetilius
561-656: A war of resistance fought by the Lusitanian tribes of Hispania Ulterior against the advancing legions of the Roman Republic from 155 to 139 BC. The Lusitanians revolted in 155 BC, and again in 146 BC and were pacified. In 154 BC, a long war in Hispania Citerior , known as the Numantine War , was begun by the Celtiberians . It lasted until 133 and is an important event in the integration of what would become Portugal into
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#1732847563706612-547: A young Tiberius Gracchus . The Senate did not ratify this treaty either but only sent Mancinus to the Numantines as a prisoner. His successors Lucius Furius Philus and Gaius Calpurnius Piso avoided conflict with the Numantines. In 134 BC, the Consul Scipio Aemilianus was sent to Hispania Citerior to end the war. He recruited 20,000 men and 40,000 allies, including Numidian cavalry under Jugurtha . Scipio built
663-404: Is difficult to give even rough comparative values for money from before the 20th century, as the range of products and services available for purchase was so different. During the republic (509 BC – 27 BC), a legionary earned 112.5 denarii per year (0.3 denarii per day). Under Julius Caesar , this was doubled to 225 denarii /yr, with soldiers having to pay for their own food and arms, while in
714-538: The Cunei and only then into Lusitania. While moving against Viriathus, Maximus was attacked by an army of 10,000 led by Curius and Apuleius . Curius was killed in battle and Maximus succeeded in capturing the Lusitanian cities of Escadia, Gemella, and Obolcola. Maximus captured around 10,000 men. He beheaded 500 and sold the rest as slaves. While following Viriathus, Maximus' army rested in Erisana. Viriathus managed to infiltrate
765-401: The Sertorian War , when they recruited the outlaw ex-general Quintus Sertorius to lead a rebellion against Rome. The Lusitanian War, and Viriathus in particular, would become an enduring symbol of Portuguese nationality and independence (see Lusitanic ). Denarius The denarius ( Latin: [deːˈnaːriʊs] ; pl. : dēnāriī , Latin: [deːˈnaːriiː] )
816-534: The denarius can be seen in the use of "d" as the abbreviation for the British penny until 1971. It also survived in France as the name of a coin, the denier . The denarius also survives in the common Arabic name for a currency unit, the dinar used from pre-Islamic times, and still used in several modern Arab nations. The major currency unit in former Principality of Serbia , Kingdom of Serbia and former Yugoslavia
867-515: The denarius was first struck in 269 or 268 BC, five years before the First Punic War , with an average weight of 6.81 grams , or 1 ⁄ 48 of a Roman pound . Contact with the Greeks had prompted a need for silver coinage in addition to the bronze currency that the Romans were using at that time. This predecessor of the denarius was a Greek-styled silver coin of didrachm weight, which
918-440: The 1st century AD, the denarius fell to under 60% purity by 200 AD, and plummeted to 5% purity by 300 AD. By the reign of Gallienus , the antoninianus was a copper coin with a thin silver wash. In the final years of the 1st century BC Tincomarus , a local ruler in southern Britain, started issuing coins that appear to have been made from melted down denarii . The coins of Eppillus , issued around Calleva Atrebatum around
969-514: The Lusitanians killed 6,000 Romans, including a quaestor named Terentius Varro. After this first victory, the Lusitanians formed an alliance with the Vettones . Together, the Lusitanians and Vettones laid siege to the Blastophoenicians, a Phoenician settlement subject to Rome. Punicus was killed during this siege and was succeeded by Caesarus . Rome sent Mummius to fight Caesarus. Caesarus
1020-519: The Numantine envoys came to finish their obligations of the peace treaty, Pompeius disavowed negotiating any such peace. The matter was referred to the Senate for a judgment. Rome decided to ignore Pompeius' peace and sent Gaius Hostilius Mancinus to continue the war in 136 BC. He assaulted the city and was repulsed several times before being routed and encircled, and so forced to accept a treaty, negotiated by
1071-457: The Numantines. In that year, Quintus Caecilius Metellus Macedonicus tried and failed to take Numantia by siege, but subjugated all the other tribes of the Arevaci. His successor, Quintus Pompeius , was inept and suffered severe defeats at their hands, so he secretly negotiated a peace with the city abiding by the previous treaty. Yet in 138 BC a new general arrived, Marcus Pompillius Laenas, and when
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#17328475637061122-755: The Roman and Latin-speaking world. And yet the country north of the Tagus, Lusitania, is the greatest of the nations in Hispania, and is the nation against which the Romans waged war for the longest times. In the sequence of the Second Punic War , the Roman Republic defeated Carthage and its colonies in the Mediterranean Coast of the Iberian Peninsula. This marked the first incursion of the Roman Republic into
1173-478: The Roman world as a guerrilla fighter . In the words of Theodor Mommsen , "It seemed as if, in that thoroughly prosaic age, one of the Homeric heroes had reappeared." In 148 BC, Vitilius followed Viriathus into Tribola. Viriathus' forces ambushed the Romans. About 6,000 Romans managed to flee to Carpessus with their quaestor , while the remaining of the original 10,000 were either killed or imprisoned. Vitilius himself
1224-502: The aftermath. Maximus pursued Viriathus into a place called Baecor, killing many of his men but failing to capture Viriathus. Maximus wintered in Córdoba and then left for Rome. He was succeeded by Quintus Pompeius Aulus . In 143 BC, Viriathus managed to persuade several other Celtic tribes ( Arevaci , Titii , and Belli ) to resist the Romans, leading to the Numantine War . Afterwards, Viriathus skirmished with Quintus. He took refuge in
1275-713: The first years of the reign of Diocletian . The emperor Tacitus in 276 briefly doubled the silver content of the aurelianianus and halved its tariffing to 2.5 d.c. (hence coins of Antioch and Tripolis (in Phoenicia) carry the value marks X.I), but Probus (276–282) immediately returned the aurelianianus to the standard and tariffing of Aurelian, and was the official tariffing until the reform of Diocletian in 293. 1 gold aureus = 2 gold quinarii = 25 silver denarii = 50 silver quinarii = 100 bronze sestertii = 200 bronze dupondii = 400 copper asses = 800 copper semisses = 1,600 copper quadrantes It
1326-521: The late 3rd century. The value at its introduction was 10 asses , giving the denarius its name, which translates as "containing ten". In about 141 BC, it was re-tariffed at 16 asses , to reflect the decrease in weight of the as . The denarius continued to be the main coin of the Roman Empire until it was replaced by the antoninianus in the early 3rd century AD. The coin was last issued, in bronze, under Aurelian between 270 and 275 AD, and in
1377-620: The normal income for a working-class family would buy enough food for only one person. The less costly barley would feed three people for one day's wages. The denarius is also mentioned in the Parable of the Unforgiving Servant & in Parable of the Good Samaritan ( Luke 10:25–37). The Render unto Caesar passage in Matthew 22:15–22 and Mark 12:13–17 uses the word (δηνάριον) to describe
1428-523: The peninsula and possibly the first clash between Lusitanians and Romans, as Lusitanian mercenaries fought on the Carthaginian side during the Punic Wars. In 194 BC, the Romans launched their first offensives in Lusitanian land. By 179 BC, the Romans had mostly succeeded in subduing most tribes in region and signed a peace treaty with the Lusitanians. The Romans charged the native tribes with heavy taxes:
1479-401: The price of silver, and assuming 0.999 purity, a 1 ⁄ 10 troy ounce denarius had a precious metal value of around US$ 2.60 in 2021. At the height of the Roman Empire a sextarius (546 ml or about 2 1 ⁄ 4 American cups) of ordinary wine cost roughly one dupondius ( 1 ⁄ 8 of a denarius ); after Diocletian's Edict on Maximum Prices was issued in 301 AD,
1530-437: The price of the wheat and barley as described in the vision appears to be ten to twelve times their normal cost in ancient times. Revelation thus describes a condition where basic goods are sold at greatly inflated prices. Thus, the black horse rider depicts times of deep scarcity or famine, but not of starvation. Apparently, a choinix of wheat was the daily ration of one adult. Thus, in the conditions pictured by Revelation 6 ,
1581-461: The reign of Augustus a Centurion received at least 3,750 denarii per year, and for the highest rank, 15,000 denarii . By the late Roman Republic and early Roman Empire ( c. 27 BC ), a common soldier or unskilled laborer would be paid 1 denarius /day (with no tax deductions), around 300% inflation compared to the early period. Using the cost of bread as a baseline, this pay equates to around US$ 20 in 2013 terms. Expressed in terms of
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1632-436: The republican period. Under the rule of Augustus (27 BC – 14 AD) its weight fell to 3.9 grams (a theoretical weight of 1 ⁄ 84 of a Roman pound). It remained at nearly this weight until the time of Nero (AD 37–68), when it was reduced to 1 ⁄ 96 of a pound, or 3.4 grams. Debasement of the coin's silver content continued after Nero. Later Roman emperors also reduced its weight to 3 grams around
1683-469: The same item cost 8 debased common denarii – 6300% inflation. Silver content plummeted across the lifespan of the denarius . Under the Roman Empire (after Nero ) the denarius contained approximately 50 grains , 3.24 grams, or 0.105 ozt (about 1 ⁄ 10 troy ounce ). The fineness of the silver content varied with political and economic circumstances. From a purity of greater than 90% silver in
1734-526: The same time, appear to have derived design elements from various denarii , such as those of Augustus and M. Volteius . Even after the denarius was no longer regularly issued, it continued to be used as a unit of account, and the name was applied to later Roman coins in a way that is not understood. The Arabs who conquered large parts of the land that once belonged to the Eastern Roman Empire issued their own gold dinar . The lasting legacy of
1785-405: The town and, in defeating Maximus' armies, asked for an end to the war. In 140 BC, Fabius Maximus Caepius succeeded Maximus and wrote to Rome complaining of the treaty made with Viriathus, saying it was unworthy of the dignity of the Roman people. The Senate first permitted Caepius only to fight Viriathus secretly before deciding to break the treaty and declare war against Viriathus. Caepius took
1836-716: The town of Arsa and won a battle over Viriathus, who fled in Carpetania. Although Viriathus escaped, Caepius turned against the Vettones and Callaici , destroying their fields. Afterwards, Viriathus sent his most trusted friends Audax, Ditalcus and Minurus to negotiate peace terms with Caepio. Caepio bribed them to assassinate Viriathus. Viriathus slept little and in his armor but allowed his friends to enter his tent at any time so he could be summoned to battle as soon as possible. Taking advantage of this, his friends entered his tent and killed him in his sleep by slitting his throat. Viriathus
1887-466: The winter of 152 BC, the Lusitanians rebelled again and besieged some Roman subjects. Servius Galba , the successor of Atilius, rushed to rescue them. After an initial victory, Galba was defeated while trying to pursue the fleeing Lusitanian forces. About 7,000 Romans were killed, forcing Galba to take refuge in a settlement called Carmone. Galba reassembled his forces and wintered in Conistorgis. Lucullus
1938-623: Was dinar , and it is still used in present-day Serbia . The Macedonian currency denar is also derived from the Roman denarius . The Italian word denaro , the Spanish word dinero , the Portuguese word dinheiro , and the Slovene word denar , all meaning money, are also derived from Latin denarius . The pre-decimal currency of the United Kingdom until 1970 of pounds, shillings and pence
1989-580: Was abbreviated as lsd , with "d" referring to denarius and standing for penny. In the New Testament , the gospels refer to the denarius as a day's wage for a common laborer ( Matthew 20:2, John 12:5). In the Book of Revelation , during the Third Seal: Black Horse, a choinix ("quart") of wheat and three quarts of barley were each valued at one denarius . Bible scholar Robert H. Mounce says
2040-497: Was accused of paying very little for the cereals that Iberia was compelled to deliver to Rome, Cato defended the interests of the native tribes. The exploitation and extortion reached such an extreme degree in the provinces that Rome had to create a special tribunal and laws, like the Lex Calpurnia created in 149 BC. The Lusitanian War began in 155 when Punicus attacked neighboring lands belonging to Roman subjects. In this raid,
2091-583: Was defeated by Viriathus, who then proceeded to raid Hispania Ulterior without check. In 145 BC, the general Quintus Fabius Maximus Aemilianus was sent by Rome to fight the Lusitanians. With the end of the wars against Carthago and Greece , Maximus managed to assemble a great force: 15,000 men on foot and 2,000 on horse. The forces assembled in Urso and skirmished frequently with the Lusitanians, but without full-scale battle. In 144 BC, Maximus attacked Viriathus and put him to flight, capturing two of his cities in
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2142-574: Was elected to succeed Viriathus and lead the Lusitanians. The Lusitanians' attempt to raid Saguntum failed. On crossing the river Baetis on their return, they were defeated by Caepio and became Roman subjects. This marked the end of the Lusitanian War. The end of the Lusitanian Wars began a period of relative peace in Lusitania. The Lusitanians rebelled against the Romans again in 80 to 72 BC, in
2193-445: Was found dead in the morning, long after the assassins had escaped. Unable to avenge him as they knew not who murdered him, the Lusitanians instead held a grand funeral: they dressed Viriathus in special garments, burned him in a pyre , held processions, gladiator battles and songs. The popular story of the traitors' fate says that the Roman general Servilius Caepio executed them, declaring that "Rome does not pay traitors". Tautalus
2244-486: Was initially defeated but, while fleeing, managed to turn the battle around, killing 9,000 Romans in the end. Mummius used his 5,000 remaining soldiers and attacked the Lusitanians by surprise, slaying a large number of them. The Lusitanians on the other side of the Tagus , led by Caucenus , invaded the Cunei , who were subject to Rome, and captured Conistorgis . Some of the Lusitanians then raided North Africa, laying siege to
2295-686: Was killed during this ambush, as he was considered to be of little worth as a slave (he supposedly was old and fat). The Quaestor asked for reinforcements from the Celtic tribes allied to Rome, the Belli and the Titii . However, the 5,000 Belli and Titii forces were all slain in skirmishes against the Lusitanian forces. In 146 BC, Viriathus raided the Roman vassal Iberians in Carpetania until Gaius Plautius Hypsaeus arrived with 10,000 men on foot and 1,300 on horse. Plautius
2346-677: Was originally of 10 assēs . The word for "money" descends from it in Italian ( denaro ), Slovene ( denar ), Portuguese ( dinheiro ), and Spanish ( dinero ). Its name also survives in the dinar currency. Its symbol is represented in Unicode as 𐆖 (U+10196), a numeral monogram that appeared on the obverse in the Republican period, denoting the 10 asses ("X") to 1 denarius ("I") conversion rate. However it can also be represented as X̶ (capital letter X with combining long stroke overlay). A predecessor of
2397-502: Was present as a quaestor during Mancinus's failed siege. Due to the reputation Gracchus's father had with the Numantines, Tiberius was selected to negotiate the treaty. Gaius Marius also fought in this war, as well as the later Roman enemy Jugurtha. Lusitanian War Roman Republic Lusitanian tribes The Lusitanian War , called Pyrinos Polemos ("the Fiery War") in Greek, was
2448-499: Was sent to deal with the raid. After he amassed a force equal to those of the Lusitanians in numbers, Vetilius defeated the Lusitanians, who ask for peace terms. As peace terms were being arranged, Viriathus reminded his fellow Lusitanians of the treachery of the Romans, which he had witnessed firsthand with Galba. The Lusitanians chose Viriathus as their leader and concocted an escape plan: they would organize as if going into battle, but then flee in every direction and later reassemble in
2499-605: Was struck in Neapolis and other Greek cities in southern Italy. These coins were inscribed with a legend that indicated that they were struck for Rome, but in style they closely resembled their Greek counterparts. They were rarely seen at Rome, to judge from finds and hoards, and were probably used either to buy supplies or to pay soldiers. The first distinctively Roman silver coin appeared around 226 BC. Classical historians have sometimes called these coins "heavy denarii ", but they are classified by modern numismatists as quadrigati ,
2550-526: Was the standard Roman silver coin from its introduction in the Second Punic War c. 211 BC to the reign of Gordian III (AD 238–244), when it was gradually replaced by the antoninianus . It continued to be minted in very small quantities, likely for ceremonial purposes, until and through the Tetrarchy (293–313). The word dēnārius is derived from the Latin dēnī "containing ten", as its value
2601-466: Was wintering in Turditania . Lucullus' forces discovered and attacked Lusitanians, killing 4,000 in the process. He then crossed the straits near Gades , killing another 1,500, and invaded Lusitania. Galba joined in the invasion of Lusitania. Lucullus and Galba's invasion convinced the Lusitanians to send ambassadors to Galba to renew the treaty they made with Atilius in 152 BC. Galba pretended to accept
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