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128-514: The compound was originally the site of a pagan burial ground upon which the first bishop of Novgorod, Ioakim Korsunianin , built the Cathedral of Holy Wisdom upon his arrival in the area in 989 or so. Thus the compound was and remained largely an ecclesiastical site, although many Novgorodian boyars built their houses in the southern part of the Detinets . The first reference of the fortification on

256-576: A council hall for the nobility council and a clocktower were built in the episcopal compound in 1433 and 1436 respectively. The council hall, now called the Episcopal Chamber or the Chamber of Facets due to its elaborate Gothic vaults, is one of the easternmost examples of Brick Gothic . In 1437, part of Vasily's walls collapsed into the Volkhov River and were rebuilt by Evfimy II, too. The fortress

384-751: A monk from Thessalonica . He and his brother Saint Methodius were sent by the Byzantine Emperor Michael III in 863 to Great Moravia to spread Christianity there. After the deaths of Cyril and Methodius, their disciples were expelled and they moved to the First Bulgarian Empire instead. The Early Cyrillic alphabet , which developed gradually in the Preslav Literary School by Greek alphabet scribes who incorporated some Glagolitic letters, gradually replaced Glagolitic in that region. Glagolitic remained in use alongside Latin in

512-474: A 16th-century exclave in Putna . Its authorship by Cyril was forgotten, having been replaced with an attribution to St. Jerome by the early Benedictine adopters of Istria in a bid to secure the approval of the papacy. The bid was ultimately successful, though sporadic restrictions and repressions from individual bishops continued even after its official recognition by Pope Innocent IV . These had little effect on

640-487: A Balto-Slavic origin. Prĕgyni or peregyni , despite being rendered as bregynja or beregynja (from breg , bereg , meaning "shore") and reinterpreted as female water spirits in modern Russian folklore, were rather spirits of trees and rivers related to Perun, as attested by various chronicles and highlighted by the root * per . Slavic traditions preserved very ancient elements and intermingled with those of neighbouring European peoples. An exemplary case are

768-453: A Glagolitic type was confiscated, leading to a shift towards Latinic and Cyrillic literacy when coupled with the Tridentine requirement that priests be educated at seminaries. The result was its gradual death as a written script in most of its continental range, but also the unusually late survival of medieval scribal tradition for the reproduction of Glagolitic texts in isolated areas like

896-552: A boulder. It is very similar to mushroom idols from the local cities of Ples and Myshkin. Based on morphological details, the multifaceted cult function of this idol is assumed—fertility not only for the land and forest, but also fertility for humans. A form of the ancient, Slavic polytheistic religion was practised by the South Slavs (including the Croats and Serbs) prior to Christianisation. They came into contact with Christianity during

1024-686: A brief attempt at reintroduction was made in the West Slavic area in the 14th century through the Emmaus Benedictine Monastery in Prague , where it survived well into the 15th century, the last manuscript with Glagolitic script dating to 1450–1452. Its use for special applications continued in some Cyrillic areas, for example in the Bologna Psalter (1230–1241), the Sinodalna 895 Menaion (1260),

1152-634: A complex near the site of the Zbruch idol ). The main idea of paganism and mythology of the Slavs is given primarily by historical and documentary sources ( letopises and chronicles ). The Tale of Bygone Years under the year 980 contains a story about the sanctuary in Kiev , built by Vladimir Svyatoslavich, and the idols of pagan gods installed there are mentioned: And Vladimir began to reign alone in Kiev. And he placed idols on

1280-471: A cosmic duality was likely the reason that led to the exclusion of Veles from Vladimir's official temple in Kiev. Xors Dazhbog ("Radiant Giving-God") was the god of the life-bringing power of the sun. Stribog was identified by E. G. Kagarov as the god of wind, storm and dissension. Mokosh, the only female deity in Vladimir's pantheon, is interpreted as meaning the "Wet" or "Moist" by Jakobson, identifying her with

1408-486: A dangerous situation in the war, they promise, if they are saved, to immediately sacrifice to God for their soul; having escaped death, they sacrifice what they promised, and they think that their salvation has been bought at the price of this sacrifice. They worship rivers, and nymphs, and all sorts of other deities, offer sacrifices to all of them and with the help of these sacrifices they also produce divination. Al-Masudi , an Arab historian, geographer and traveler, equates

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1536-596: A few monasteries and academic institutions, in addition to a small population of enthusiasts, whose numbers grew and shrank with the prevalence of the script in literature, but grew exponentially in pious and nationalist circles in the years leading up to and following Independence of Croatia , and again more broadly with the Internet . The word glagolitic comes from Neo-Latin glagoliticus and Croatian glagoljica , from Old Church Slavonic ⰳⰾⰰⰳⱁⰾⱏ ( glagolŭ ), meaning "utterance" or "word". The name glagolitsa

1664-409: A god of flocks and herds, and still worshipped in this function in early twentieth-century Russia. Many gods were regarded as the ancestors of individual kins ( rod or pleme ), and the idea of ancestrality was so important that Slavic religion may be epitomised as a "manism" (i.e. worship of ancestors), though the Slavs did not keep genealogical records. The Slavs also worshipped star-gods, including

1792-510: A high liturgical script until a Glagolitic seminary was opened in Split in the 18th century, aside from a period of time in the parish of Kučiće-Vinišće. Bishoprics by size of 16th century Glagolitic inscriptional corpus (in letters). "Other" includes Senj , Koper , Novigrad , Otočac  [ hr ] , Zagreb , Osor , Aquileia , Đakovo , Nin , Assisi , Cazin , Rab . See list . The Ottoman Empire's repeated incursions into Croatia in

1920-486: A museum, elements of the rituals are still performed). The dating of stone mushrooms is only approximate, most dating back to about 1000 AD. The stone mushroom idols are very similar to two Slavic stone idols from the northeastern regions: Sheksna idol (in Novgorod museum, Novgorod region, Russia) and Sebej idol (Sebej museum, Pskov region , Russia). These Slavic idols have a face and a phallic shape. Their characteristic feature

2048-618: A number of reforms that he had already started by the 970s, and which were aimed at preserving the traditions of the kins and making Kiev the spiritual centre of East Slavdom . Perun was the god of thunder, law and war, symbolised by the oak and the mallet (or throwing stones), and identified with the Baltic Perkunas , the Germanic Thor and the Vedic Indra among others; his cult was practised not so much by commoners but mainly by

2176-477: A reference to a kind of property mark or alternatively fortune-telling signs. Some "Ruthenian letters" found in one version of St. Cyril's life are explainable as misspelled "Syrian letters" (in Slavic, the roots are very similar: rus- vs. sur- or syr- ), etc. Glagolitic script is the writing system used in the world of The Witcher books and video game series. It is also featured, in various uses, in several of

2304-559: A silver dome. It was built in the 18th century, and its name is of Swedish origin. Today it is possible to enter this tower and climb to the top. The walls are 1,487 metres in circumference. The main buildings in the Detinets are the Cathedral of Holy Wisdom and the archiepiscopal/metropolitan compound in the northwestern corner. To the south of this, across the plaza in which stands the Monument to

2432-404: A single heavenly God begetting all the lesser spirits governing nature, and worshipped it by their means. According to Helmold, "obeying the duties assigned to them, [the deities] have sprung from his [the supreme God's] blood and enjoy distinction in proportion to their nearness to the god of the gods". According to Rybakov's studies, wheel symbols such as the "thunder marks" ( gromovoi znak ) and

2560-423: A small number of priests fought to keep its liturgical use alive, encountering difficulties but eventually succeeding to the point that its area expanded in the early 20th century. Latinic translations and transliterations of the matter of the missal in this period led to its decline in the decades before Vatican II , whose promulgation of the vernacular had the effect of confining regular use of Glagolitic to

2688-510: A top level with four figures representing them, facing the four cardinal directions; a middle level with representations of a human ritual community ( khorovod ); and a bottom level with the representation of a three-headed chthonic god, Veles, who sustains the entire structure. The scholar Jiří Dynda studied the figure of Triglav (literally "the Three-Headed One") and Svetovid, which are widely attested in archaeological testimonies, as

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2816-498: Is a hat. An ancient Slavic stone idol was discovered on the territory of the Nikolo-Babaevsky monastery (Nekrasovsky district) in 2020. An ancient pagan place that existed before the monastery and churches is mentioned in the ethnographic materials of Bogdanovich. In that place, on Babayki, the idol of the supreme heavenly god was worshiped. The discovered Babaevsky idol has a clear shape of a large mushroom, completely carved from

2944-555: Is said that this idol was overthrown during the baptism of Kievan Rus in 988: "And Veles idol ... ordered to throw off the river in Pochaina". Ancient Russian teachings against paganism can also serve as sources. In this genre, three of the most famous monuments are known: The Word of St. Gregory about idols , The word of a certain Christ-lover and the punishment of the spiritual father (about submission and obedience) and The Walking of

3072-1259: Is speculated to have developed in Croatia , around the 14th century, and was derived from the word glagoljati , literally "verb ( glagol ) using ( jati )", meaning to say Mass in Old Church Slavonic liturgy. In the languages now spoken in the places where Glagolitic script was once used, the script is known as глаголица (romanized as glagolitsa or glagolica , depending on which language) in Bulgarian , Macedonian and Russian ; glagoljica (глагољица) in Croatian and Serbian ; глаголиця ( hlaholytsia ) in Ukrainian ; глаголіца ( hlaholitsa ) in Belarusian ; hlaholice in Czech ; hlaholika in Slovak ; głagolica in Polish ; and glagolica in Slovene and Sorbian . The creation of

3200-565: Is the religious beliefs, myths , and ritual practices of the Slavs before Christianisation , which occurred at various stages between the 8th and the 13th century. The South Slavs , who likely settled in the Balkans during the 6th–7th centuries AD, bordering with the Byzantine Empire to the south, came under the sphere of influence of Eastern Christianity relatively early, beginning with

3328-438: Is to say a threefold conception of the social order, represented by the three castes of priests, warriors and farmers. According to Marija Gimbutas , Slavic religion represented an unmistakable overlap of any purported Indo-European-originated themes with ancient religious themes dating back to time immemorial. The latter were particularly hardwearing in Slavic religion, represented by the widespread devotion to Mat Syra Zemlya ,

3456-503: Is to say, belonging to the Slavs was chiefly determined by conforming to certain beliefs and practices rather than by having a certain racial ancestry or being born in a certain place. Ivanov and Toporov identified the Slavic religion as an outgrowth of a purported common Proto-Indo-European religion , sharing strong similarities with other neighbouring belief systems such as those of the Balts , Thracians and Phrygians . Local development of

3584-870: The Bohemian dukes followed in 845, and the Slovaks accepted Christianity somewhere between the years 828 and 863, but the first historical Polish ruler, Mieszko I , accepted it much later, in 966, around the same time as the Sorbs , while the Polabian Slavs only came under the significant influence of the Catholic Church from the 12th century onwards. For the Polabian Slavs and the Sorbs, Christianisation went hand in hand with full or partial Germanisation . The Christianisation of

3712-608: The Bulgarian Empire from Byzantine Constantinople . As a result of Boris' measures, two academies, one in Ohrid and one in Preslav , were founded. From there, the students travelled to other places and spread the use of their alphabet. Students of the two apostles who were expelled from Great Moravia in 886, notably Clement of Ohrid and Saint Naum , brought the Glagolitic alphabet to

3840-537: The Byzantine emperor at the request of Prince Rastislav , who wanted to weaken the dependence of his country on East Frankish priests. The Glagolitic alphabet, however it originated, was used between 863 and 885 for government and religious documents and books and at the Great Moravian Academy ( Veľkomoravské učilište ) founded by the missionaries, where their followers were educated. The Kiev Missal , found in

3968-577: The Byzantines , Glagolitic gradually ceased to be used there at all. Nevertheless, particular passages or words written with the Glagolitic alphabet appeared in Bulgarian Cyrillic manuscripts till the end of the 14th century. Some students of the Ohrid academy went to Bohemia where the alphabet was used in the 10th and 11th centuries, along with other scripts. It is not clear whether the Glagolitic alphabet

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4096-541: The First Bulgarian Empire on Balkans and were received and accepted officially by Boris I of Bulgaria . This led to the establishment of the two literary schools: the Preslav Literary School and the Ohrid Literary School . Some went to Croatia ( Dalmatia ), where the squared variant arose and where Glagolitic remained in use for a long time. In 1248, Pope Innocent IV granted the Croatians of southern Dalmatia

4224-595: The First French Empire and Austrian Empire left the script without legal status and its last remaining centers of education were abolished, concurrent with the weakening of the script in the few remaining seminaries that used the cursive form in instruction, resulting in a rapid decline. But when the Slavicists discovered the script and established it as the original script devised by Cyril, Glagolitic gained new niche applications in certain intellectual circles, while

4352-590: The Khazars in Cherson . For writing numbers, the Glagolitic numerals use letters with a numerical value assigned to each based on their native alphabetic order. This differs from Cyrillic numerals , which inherited their numeric value from the corresponding Greek letter (see Greek numerals ). The two brothers from Thessaloniki , who were later canonized as Saints Cyril and Methodius, were sent to Great Moravia in 862 by

4480-699: The Kingdom of Croatia and alongside Cyrillic until the 14th century in the Second Bulgarian Empire and the Serbian Empire , and later mainly for cryptographic purposes. Glagolitic also spread to the Kievan Rus' and the Kingdom of Bohemia , though its use declined there in the 12th century, although some manuscripts in the territory of the former retained Glagolitic inclusions for centuries. It had also spread to Duklja and Zachlumia , from which it reached

4608-929: The Malalas Chronicle and the Alexandreis . The West Slavs who dwelt in the area between the Vistula and the Elbe stubbornly resisted the Northern Crusades , and the history of their resistance is written down in the eleventh- and twelfth-century Latin Chronicles by Thietmar of Merseburg , Adam of Bremen , and Helmold , three German clergymen, as well as in the twelfth-century biographies of Otto of Bamberg , and in Saxo Grammaticus ' thirteenth-century Gesta Danorum . These documents, together with minor German writings and

4736-691: The March of Verona where the Investiture Controversy afforded it refuge from the opposition of Latin rite prelates, and allowed it to entrench itself in Istria , spreading from there to nearby lands. It survived there and as far south as Dalmatia without interruption into the 20th century for Church Slavonic in addition to its use as a secular script in parts of its range, which at times extended into Bosnia , Slavonia , and Carniola , in addition to 14th-15th century exclaves in Prague and Kraków , and

4864-552: The Slavic language . After the adoption of Christianity in Bulgaria in 865, religious ceremonies and Divine Liturgy were conducted in Greek by clergy sent from the Byzantine Empire , using the Byzantine rite . Fearing growing Byzantine influence and weakening of the state, Boris viewed the introduction of the Slavic alphabet and language into church use as a way to preserve the independence of

4992-680: The Slavs and the Antes , are not ruled by one person, but since ancient times they have lived in the people's rule (democracy), and therefore their happiness and unhappiness in life is considered a common cause. And in all other respects, both of these barbarian tribes have the same life and laws. They believe that one of the gods, the creator of lightning, is the lord over all, and bulls are sacrificed to him and other sacred rites are performed. They do not know fate and generally do not recognize that it has any power in relation to people, and when they are about to face death, whether they are seized by illness or in

5120-496: The psychopomp in the underworld. Svetovid is interpreted by Dynda as the incarnation of the axis mundi in the four dimensions of space. Helmold defined Svetovid as deus deorum ("god of all gods"). Alongside Triglav and Svetovid, other deities were also represented with many heads. This is attested by chroniclers who wrote about West Slavs, including Saxo Grammaticus ( c. 1160–1220). According to him, Rugievit in Charenza

5248-414: The "Damp Mother Earth". Rybakov said the continuity and gradual complexification of Slavic religion started from devotion to life-giving forces ( bereginy ), ancestors and the supreme God , Rod ("Generation" itself), and developed into the "high mythology" of the official religion of the early Kievan Rus' . As attested by Helmold ( c. 1120–1177) in his Chronica Slavorum , the Slavs believed in

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5376-539: The "six-petaled rose inside a circle" (e.g. [REDACTED] ), which are quite common in Slavic folk crafts and which were still carved on edges and peaks of roofs in northern Russia in the nineteenth century, were symbols of the supreme life-giver Rod. Before its conceptualisation as Rod, Rybakov claims, this supreme God was known as Deivos (cognate with Sanskrit Deva , Latin Deus , Old High German Ziu and Lithuanian Dievas ). The Slavs believed that from this God

5504-454: The 13th century) ascribing its invention to St. Jerome (342–429). The legend was partly based on the saint's place of birth on the border of Dalmatia and Pannonia . He was viewed as a "compatriot" and anachronistically as belonging to the same ethnic group; this helped the spread of the cult of the saint in Dalmatia and was later used to support the idea of the presence of Slavic communities in

5632-510: The 15th and 16th centuries posed the first major existential threat to the script's survival. The Counter-Reformation, alongside other factors, led to the suppression of Glagolitic in Istria in the 16th–17th centuries as well as in the Zagreb archdiocese. The Latinisation of the coastal cities and islands took much longer, where the script continued to be used by the notaries of Krk into the first decade of

5760-555: The 19th and 20th century, although some of these studies are contested due to historical inaccuracies. Many traces of Slavic paganism are thought to be left in European toponymy, including the names of settlements, rivers, mountains, and villages, but ethnologists such as Vitomir Belaj warn against hasty assumptions that the toponyms truly originate in pre-Christian mythological beliefs, with some potentially being derived from common vocabulary instead. Twentieth-century scholars who pursued

5888-583: The 19th century in Jerusalem, was dated to the 10th century. In 885, Pope Stephen V issued a papal bull to restrict spreading and reading Christian services in languages other than Latin or Greek. Around the same time, Svatopluk I , following the interests of the Frankish Empire and its clergy, persecuted the students of Cyril and Methodius, imprisoned and expelled them from Great Moravia . In 886, an East Frankish bishop of Nitra named Wiching banned

6016-480: The 19th century, with education by rural chapters on that island ensuring the survival of the script until well after their abolition by the Napoleon administration in the second decade of the 19th century. Novitiates continued to be educated primarily in the Glagolitic script as late as the third decade of the 19th century. But without centres of education, Latin script and Italian rapidly took over, so that very little

6144-581: The 19th century. A once common belief was that the Glagolitic was created or used in the 4th century by St. Jerome , hence the alphabet was sometimes named "Hieronymian". It has also acrophonically been called azbuka from the names of its first two letters, on the same model as "alpha" + "beta" (the same name can also refer to Cyrillic and in some modern languages it simply means "alphabet" in general). The Slavs of Great Moravia (present-day Slovakia and Moravia ), Hungary , Slovenia and Slavonia were called Slověne at that time, which gives rise to

6272-416: The Ancient Slavs and other works. Among earlier, nineteenth-century scholars there was Bernhard Severin Ingemann , known for his study of Fundamentals of a North Slavic and Wendish mythology . Historical documents about Slavic religion include the Primary Chronicle , compiled in Kiev around 1111, and the Novgorod First Chronicle compiled in the Novgorod Republic . They contain detailed reports of

6400-417: The Church Slavic language. Twenty-four of the 41 original Glagolitic letters (see table below) probably derive from graphemes of the medieval cursive Greek small alphabet but have been given an ornamental design. The source of the other consonantal letters is unknown. If they were added by Cyril, it is likely that they were taken from an alphabet used for Christian scripture. It is frequently proposed that

6528-405: The Church of St. Andrew Stratilates near the southeastern wall, and other buildings are found south of the museum, an area of the Detinets that has been left a park. There are numerous references in the chronicles to no longer extant buildings, including chapels over the gates (there were six in the republican period) and the Church of Sts. Boris and Gleb, built by Sitko Sitinits, who is thought to be

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6656-415: The East Slavs. All the bright male deities were regarded as the hypostases, forms or phases in the year, of the active and masculine divine force personified by Perun ("Thunder"). Perun's name, from the Indo-European root * per or * perk ("to strike", "splinter"), signified both the splintering thunder and the splintered tree (especially the oak ; the Latin name of this tree, quercus , comes from

6784-408: The Eastern Adriatic Coast from ancient times, but the legend was probably firstly introduced for other reasons, like giving a more solid religious justification for the use of this script and Slavic liturgy. The theory nevertheless gained much popularity and spread to other countries before being resolutely disproven. Until the end of the 18th century, a strange but widespread opinion dominated that

6912-416: The Glagolitic alphabet. The decision by a great assembly of notables summoned by Boris in the year 893 in favor of Cyrillic created an alphabetical difference between the two literary centres of the Bulgarian state in Pliska and Ohrid. In the western part the Glagolitic alphabet remained dominant at first. However, subsequently in the next two centuries, mostly after the fall of the First Bulgarian Empire to

7040-456: The Glagolitic writing system, which was in use in Dalmatia and Istria along with neighboring islands, including the translation of the Holy Scripture, owe their existence to the famous church father St. Jerome. Knowing him as the author of the Latin Vulgate , considering him – by his own words, born on the border between Dalmatia and Pannonia (remembering that the Dalmatian borders extended well into Istria at that time) – presumed to be an Illyrian,

7168-493: The Greeks Cyril and Methodius but unknown. We do not know who was the first to put in motion this unscientifically-based tradition about Jerome's authorship of the Glagolitic script and translation of the Holy Scripture, but in 1248 this version came to the knowledge of Pope Innocent IV. <...> The belief in Jerome as an inventor of the Glagolitic lasted many centuries, not only in his homeland, i.e. in Dalmatia and Croatia, not only in Rome, due to Slavs living there... but also in

7296-422: The Hludov Gospel (17th/18th). The early development of the Glagolitic minuscule script alongside the increasingly square majuscule is poorly documented, but a mutual relationship evolved between the two varieties; the majuscule being used primarily for inscriptions and higher liturgical uses, and the minuscule being used in both religious and secular documents. Ignoring the problematic early Slavonian inscriptions,

7424-452: The Icelandic Knýtlinga saga , provide a detailed description of northwestern Slavic religion. The religions of other Slavic populations are less well-documented as texts about them, such as the fifteenth-century Polish Chronicle , were only produced later, after Christianisation, and contain a lot of sheer inventions. In the times preceding Christianisation, however, some Greek and Roman chroniclers, such as Procopius and Jordanes in

7552-408: The Mat Syra Zemlya ("Damp Mother Earth") of later folk religion. Glagolitic The Glagolitic script ( / ˌ ɡ l æ ɡ ə ˈ l ɪ t ɪ k / GLAG -ə- LIT -ik , ⰳⰾⰰⰳⱁⰾⰻⱌⰰ , glagolitsa ) is the oldest known Slavic alphabet . It is generally agreed that it was created in the 9th century for the purpose of translating liturgical texts into Old Church Slavonic by Saint Cyril ,

7680-402: The Prague NM IX.F.38 Psalter (18th) and in the initials of many manuscripts of the Prophets with Commentary dating to the late 15th and early 16th centuries from Muscovy and Russia . Most later use in the Cyrillic world was for cryptographic purposes, such as in the Krushedol Miscellany (15th), the RNB F.п.I.48 Prologue (1456), the Piskarev 59 Isaac (1472), the Shchukin 511 Miscellany (1511) and

7808-513: The Preslav Literary School, where the Bulgarian capital, along with the school, was transferred to in 893) – is often credited, at least by supporters of glagolitic precedence , for the "creation" or wider adoption of the Cyrillic script , which almost entirely replaced Glagolitic during the Middle Ages . The Cyrillic alphabet is derived from the Greek alphabet used at that time, with some additional letters for sounds peculiar to Slavic languages (like ⟨ш⟩, ⟨ц⟩, ⟨ч⟩, ⟨ъ⟩, ⟨ь⟩, ⟨ѣ⟩), likely derived from

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7936-399: The RPK 312 Gospel (13th), the Karakallou Epistolary (13th), the NBKM 933 Triodion (13th), the Skopje 1511 Octoechos (13th), the BRAN 4.9.39 Miscellany (13th), the Hilandar Chrysorrhoas (13th/14th), the Mazurin 1698 Pandects (13th/14th), the Sofia Psalter (1337), the SANU 55 Epistolary (1366–1367), the RNB F.п.I.2 Psalter (14th), the Čajniče Gospel (late 14th), the Radosav Miscellany (1444–1461),

8064-428: The Slavic indigenous religion were officially incorporated into Slavic Christianity (which manifested itself in the architecture of the Russian Church, icon painting, etc.), and the worship of Slavic gods has persisted in unofficial folk religion into modern times. The Slavs' resistance to Christianity gave rise to a "whimsical syncretism", which was called dvoeverie , "double faith", in Old Church Slavonic . Since

8192-409: The Slavic peoples was, however, a slow and—in many cases—superficial phenomenon, especially in what is today Russia. It was vigorous in western and central parts of what is today Ukraine, since they were closer to Kiev , the capital of Kievan Rus'. Even there, however, popular resistance led by volkhv s , pagan priests or shamans, recurred periodically for centuries. Popular resistance to Christianity

8320-626: The South Slavic still-living rain rituals of the couple Perun – Perperuna , Lord and Lady Thunder, shared with the neighbouring Albanians , Greeks and Arumanians . The West Slavs, especially those of the Baltic, prominently worshipped Svetovid ("Lord of Power"), while the East Slavs prominently worshipped Perun himself, especially after Vladimir's 970s–980s reforms. The various spirits were believed to manifest in certain places, which were revered as numinous and holy; they included springs, rivers, groves, rounded tops of hills and flat cliffs overlooking rivers. Calendrical rituals were attuned with

8448-425: The Thousand Years of Russia , is the Novgorod Museum and the Novgorod Regional Library, housed in what had in the imperial period been the administrative building of Novgorod. The museum houses a fine icon collection and other artifacts from the city's history. Several smaller churches (the Church of the Intercession of the Mother of God along the southwestern wall near the Pokrovskii (Intercession) and Kokui towers, and

8576-521: The Virgin in torment . In the absence of original mythological texts, Slavic paganism can only be understood through secondary sources, such as archaeological findings and non-Slavic historical texts, which then have to be analyzed via the comparative method and subsequent reconstruction, a means used by many historians, including Evgeny Anichkov , Dmitry Zelenin , Lubor Niederle , Henryk Łowmiański , Aleksander Gieysztor , Stanisław Urbańczyk and others. Reconstruction, however, only gained momentum at

8704-488: The West. In the 14th century, Croatian monks brought the legend to the Czechs, and even the Emperor Charles IV believed them. The epoch of traditional attribution of the script to Jerome ended probably in 1812. In modern times, only certain marginal authors share this view, usually "re-discovering" one of the already-known mediaeval sources. The phonetic values of many of the letters are thought to have been displaced under Cyrillic influence or to have become confused through

8832-402: The ancient Slavic religion, especially in places like Russia, likely also included several influences from the neighbouring Finnic peoples , which contributed to local ethnogenesis. Slavic (and Baltic) religion and mythology is considered more conservative and closer to the purported original Proto-Indo-European religion than other Indo-European derived traditions, due to the fact that, throughout

8960-441: The annihilation of the official Slavic religion of Kiev and Novgorod, and the subsequent "double faith". The Primary Chronicle also contains the authentic text of Rus'-Greek treatises (dated 945 and 971) with native pre-Christian oaths. From the eleventh century onwards, various Rus' writings were produced against the survival of Slavic religion, and Slavic gods were interpolated in the translations of foreign literary works, such as

9088-401: The aristocracy . Veles was the god of horned livestock ( Skotibog ), of wealth and of the underworld. Perun and Veles symbolised an oppositional and yet complementary duality similar to that of the Vedic Mitra and Varuna , an eternal struggle between heavenly and chthonic forces. Roman Jakobson himself identified Veles as the Vedic Varuna, god of oaths and of the world order. This belief in

9216-452: The beginning of the 20th century, with Slavic sources being compared to sources on other Indo-European cultural traditions (Baltic, Iranian, German, etc.), where the works of Vechaslav Ivanov and Vladimir Toporov are among the most prominent. The richest sources for the study of Slavic paganism as a cultural model and the reconstruction of Ancient Slavic ideas remain the linguistic, ethnographic and folklore studies of Slavic traditions from

9344-535: The characters is popularly attributed to Saints Cyril and Methodius , who may have created them to facilitate the introduction of Christianity. It is believed that the original letters were fitted to Slavic dialects in geographical Macedonia specifically (the Byzantine theme of Thessalonica ). The words of that language could not be easily written by using either the Greek or Latin alphabets. The number of letters in

9472-407: The colours that were attributed to the three worlds, also studied by Karel Jaromír Erben (1811–1870): white for Heaven, green for Earth and black for the underworld. It also represents the three dimensions of time, mythologically rendered in the figure of a three-threaded rope. Triglav is Perun in the heavenly plane, Svetovid in the centre from which the horizontal four directions unfold, and Veles

9600-483: The confluences of rivers. The biographers of Otto of Bamberg (1060/1061–1139) inform that these temples were known as continae , "dwellings", among West Slavs, testifying that they were regarded as the houses of the gods. They were wooden buildings with an inner cell with the god's statue, located in wider walled enclosures or fortifications; such fortifications might contain up to four continae . Different continae were owned by different kins, and used for

9728-718: The creation of writing systems for Slavic languages (first Glagolitic , and then Cyrillic script ) in 855 by the brothers Saints Cyril and Methodius and the adoption of Christianity in Bulgaria in 864 and 863 in Great Moravia . The East Slavs followed with the official adoption in 988 by Vladimir the Great of Kievan Rus' . The process of Christianising the West Slavs was more gradual and complicated compared to their eastern counterparts. The Moravians accepted Christianity as early as 831,

9856-517: The death of sinners, on that hill stands today the church of Saint Vasilij, as we will relate later. The text mentions the deities Svarog , Yarilo and Veles . It is known that the idol of Veles stood in Kiev "under the mountain", probably on the Kiev Podol , in the lower part of the city, that is, in the trade and craft part of Kiev at the pier on the Pochain River. In the "Life of Vladimir " it

9984-520: The deity was believed to manifest in nature itself. Such locations were characterised by the combined presence of trees and springs, according to the description of one such sites in Szczecin by Otto of Bamberg. A shrine of the same type in Kobarid , contemporary Slovenia , was stamped out in a "crusade" as recently as 1331. Usually, common people were not allowed into the presence of the images of their gods,

10112-443: The early 20th century, Slavic folk religion has undergone an organised reinvention and reincorporation in the movement of Slavic Native Faith (Rodnovery). One of the first written sources on the religion of the ancient Slavs is the description of the Byzantine historian Procopius of Caesarea (6th century), who mentioned sacrifices to the supreme god-the thunderer of the Slavs , river spirits ("nymphs") and others: These tribes,

10240-514: The early spread to different dialects, so the original values are not always clear. For instance, the letter yu Ⱓ is thought to have perhaps originally had the sound /u/ but was displaced by the adoption of the ligature Ⱆ under the influence of later Cyrillic oѵ , mirroring the Greek ου . Other letters were late creations after a Cyrillic model. It should also be noted that Ⱑ corresponds to two different Cyrillic letters (Ѣ and Я), present even in older manuscripts, and not to different later variants of

10368-430: The existence of any pre-Glagolitic Slavic writing system has been found, except for a few brief and vague references in old chronicles and "lives of the saints". All artifacts presented as evidence of pre-Glagolitic Slavic inscriptions have later been identified as texts in known scripts and in known non-Slavic languages, or as fakes. The well-known Chernorizets Hrabar 's strokes and incisions are usually considered to be

10496-399: The fact that these idols had no face, they were not destroyed. According to the beliefs of the local population, such stone idols had healing properties, so they were regularly visited. On certain days, people brought gifts to them, and in order to receive healing from an illness, they had to sit on an idol. The stone mushroom was respected and protected. Disrespectful attitude towards this idol

10624-532: The growing centralised state. Vladimir canonised a number of deities, to whom he erected a temple on the hills of the capital Kiev . These deities, recorded in the Primary Chronicle , were five: Perun , Xors Dazhbog , Stribog , Simargl and Mokosh . Various other deities were worshipped by the common people, notably Veles who had a temple in the merchant's district of Podil of the capital itself. According to scholars, Vladimir's project consisted of

10752-420: The hill outside the palace: Perun in wood with a silver head and a gold moustache, and Khors Dazhdbog and Stribog and Simargl and Mokosh . And they offered sacrifices and called them gods, and they took their sons and daughters to them and sacrificed them to the devils. And they profaned the earth with their sacrifices, and Rus’ and that hill were profaned by blood. But God the merciful, who does not wish

10880-596: The historic source for the legendary Sadko . An eternal flame to the soldiers of the German-Soviet War can be seen just inside the west gate of the fortress. A public beach has been formed between the southeastern part of the Kremlin and the Volkhov river. [REDACTED] Media related to Velikiy Novgorod Detinets at Wikimedia Commons Slavic paganism Slavic paganism , Slavic mythology , or Slavic religion

11008-399: The history of the Slavs, it remained a popular religion rather than being reworked and sophisticated by intellectual elites, as had happened to other Indo-European derived religious cultures. For this reason, Slavic religion is invaluable for understanding other Indo-European beliefs. The affinity to Proto-Indo-Iranian religion is evident in shared developments, including the elimination of

11136-575: The island of Krk and the Zadar Archipelago . Although the Propaganda Fide would eventually resume printing Glagolitic books, very few titles were published, so the majority of Glagolitic literary works continued to be written and copied by hand well into the 18th century. Of the major European scripts, only the Arabic script is comparable in this regard. In the early 19th century, the policies of

11264-517: The islands of Zadar, but there were also findings in inner Lika and Krbava , reaching to Kupa river, and even as far as Međimurje and Slovenia . Hrvoje's Missal from 1404 was illuminated in Split , and it is considered one of the most beautiful Croatian Glagolitic books. The 1483 Missale Romanum Glagolitice was the first printed Croatian Glagolitic book. It was believed that Glagolitsa in Croatia

11392-564: The law of reason. Western European authors of the 11th and 12th centuries gave detailed descriptions of the sanctuaries and cults of Redigost ( Radegast , Svarozhich ) in Rethra , Svyatovit (Svetovid) in Arkon ( Jaromarsburg ), Triglav in Szczecin , Chernobog , the sanctuary in Volyně , etc. The identification of a number of Eastern European monuments with Slavic sanctuaries is a matter of dispute ( Peryn ,

11520-498: The letters sha Ⱎ , tsi Ⱌ , and cherv Ⱍ were taken from the letters shin ש and tsadi צ of the Hebrew alphabet , and that Ⰶ zhivete derives from Coptic janja Ϫ. However, Cubberley suggests that if a single prototype were presumed, the most likely source would be Armenian . Other proposals include the Samaritan alphabet , which Cyril learned during his journey to

11648-504: The moon ( Russian : Mesyats ) and the sun ( Solntse ), the former regarded as male and the latter as female. The moon-god was particularly important, regarded as the dispenser of abundance and health, worshipped through round dances, and in some traditions considered the progenitor of humanity. The belief in the moon-god was still very much alive in the nineteenth century, and peasants in the Ukrainian Carpathians openly affirmed that

11776-516: The moon is their god. Some Slavic deities are related to Baltic mythology: Perun / Perkūnas , Veles / Velnias , Rod / Dievas , Yarilo / Saulė . There was an evident continuity between the beliefs of the East Slavs , West Slavs and South Slavs . They shared the same traditional deities, as attested, for instance, by the worship of Zuarasiz among the West Slavs, corresponding to Svarožič among

11904-570: The mostly similar Church Slavonic ones follow an approach more familiar to a generic English speaking reader. Several letters have no modern counterpart. The column for the angular variant, sometimes referred to as Croatian Glagolitic , is not complete as some of the letters were not used following the Croatian recension of Old Church Slavonic . In older texts, uk ( Ⱆ ) and three out of four yus es ( Ⱗ, Ⱘ, Ⱙ ) also can be written as digraphs, in two separate parts. The order of izhe ( Ⰹ, Ⰺ ) and i ( Ⰻ ) varies from source to source, as does

12032-526: The name "Slovenish" for the alphabet. Some other, rarer, names for this alphabet are Bukvitsa (from common Slavic word "bukva" meaning "letter", and a suffix "-itsa") and "Illyrian" (presumably similar to using the same anachronistic name for the Illyrian (Slavic) language). In the Middle Ages, Glagolitsa was also known as "St. Jerome's script" due to a popular mediaeval legend (created by Croatian scribes in

12160-600: The northeastern Slavs looked like mushrooms, without a face and with a clearly distinguished hat. Moreover, such idols were made by hand through turning a boulder upside-down and giving it the shape of a mushroom. The medieval manuscript of the 11th–14th centuries "The Word of St. Gregory, Invented in Toltsekh" contains a direct indication that the Slavs worshiped such phallic idols. According to some researchers, such idols were dedicated to Rod or Veles (according to local old folklore, stone mushrooms are dedicated to Veles). Due to

12288-402: The order of the various forms of yus ( Ⱔ, Ⱗ, Ⱘ, Ⱙ ). Correspondence between Glagolitic izhe ( Ⰹ, Ⰺ ) and i ( Ⰻ ) with Cyrillic И and І is unknown. The Proto-Slavic language did not have the phoneme /f/, and the letters fert ( Ⱇ ) and fita ( Ⱚ ) were used for transcribing words of Greek origin, and so was izhitsa ( Ⱛ ) for the Greek upsilon. The Glagolitic alphabet

12416-452: The original Glagolitic alphabet is not known, but it may have been close to its presumed Greek model. The 41 letters known today include letters for non-Greek sounds, which may have been added by Saint Cyril, as well as ligatures added in the 12th century under the influence of Cyrillic , as Glagolitic lost its dominance. In later centuries, the number of letters dropped dramatically, to fewer than 30 in modern Croatian and Czech recensions of

12544-629: The paganism of the Slavs and the Rus' with reason : There was a decree of the capital of the Khazar khaganate, and there are seven judges in it, two of them from Muslims, two from the Khazars, who judge according to the law of Taura , two from the Christians there, who judge according to the law of Injil , one of them from the Slavs, Russ and other pagans, he judges according to the law of paganism, that is, according to

12672-471: The reign of emperor Heraclius (610-641), continued by Rome, and baptization process ended during the rule of Basil I (867-886) by Byzantine missionaries of Constantinople Cyril and Methodius . In 980 CE, in Kievan Rus' , led by the Great Prince Vladimir , there was an attempt to unify the various beliefs and priestly practices of Slavic religion in order to bind together the Slavic peoples in

12800-474: The religious vocabulary of the Slavs, including vera (loosely translated as "faith", meaning "radiation of knowledge"), svet ("light"), mir ("peace", "agreement of parts", also meaning "world") and rai ("paradise"), is shared with Iranian . According to Adrian Ivakhiv, the Indo-European element of Slavic religion may have included what Georges Dumézil studied as the " trifunctional hypothesis ", that

12928-401: The respectively three-headed and four-headed representations of the same axis mundi , of the same supreme God. Triglav itself was connected to the symbols of the tree and the mountain, which are other common symbols of the axis mundi , and in this quality he was a summus deus (a sum of all things), as recorded by Ebbo ( c. 775–851). Triglav represents the vertical interconnection of

13056-593: The ritual banquets in honour of their own ancestor-gods. These ritual banquets are known variously, across Slavic countries, as bratchina (from brat , "brother"), mol'ba ("entreaty", "supplication") and kanun (short religious service) in Russia; slava ("glorification") in Serbia; sobor ("assembly") and kurban ("sacrifice") in Bulgaria. With Christianisation, the ancestor-gods were replaced with Christian patron saints. There also existed holy places with no buildings, where

13184-482: The same Cyrillic letter in different times or places. The following table lists each letter in its modern order, showing its Unicode representation, images of the letter in both the round and angular/squared variant forms, the corresponding modern Cyrillic letter, the approximate sound transcribed with the IPA , the name, and suggestions for its origin. The Old Church Slavonic names follow the scientific transliteration , while

13312-749: The same root), regarded as symbols of the irradiation of the force. This root also gave rise to the Vedic Parjanya , the Baltic Perkūnas , the Albanian Perëndi (now denoting "God" and "sky"), the Germanic Fjörgynn and the Greek Keraunós ("thunderbolt", rhymic form of * Peraunós , used as an epithet of Zeus ). From the exact same root comes the name of the Finnish deity Ukko , which has

13440-456: The script and jailed 200 followers of Methodius, mostly students of the original academy. They were then dispersed or, according to some sources, sold as slaves by the Franks. However, many of them, including Saints Naum , Clement , Angelar , Sava and Gorazd , reached the First Bulgarian Empire and were commissioned by Boris I of Bulgaria to teach and instruct the future clergy of the state in

13568-506: The self-styled Slavic intellectuals in Dalmatia very early began to ascribe to him the invention of glagolitsa , possibly with the intention of more successfully defending both Slavic writing and the Slavic holy service against prosecutions and prohibitions from Rome's hierarchy, thus using the opinion of the famous Latin Father of the Church to protect their church rituals which were inherited not from

13696-460: The sight of which was a privilege of the priests. Many of these images were seen and described only in the moment of their violent destruction at the hands of the Christian missionaries. The priests ( volkhv s ), who kept the temples and led rituals and festivals, enjoyed a great degree of prestige; they received tributes and shares of military booties by the kins' chiefs. Some of the stone idols of

13824-412: The site dates to 1044, with additional construction taking place in 1116. These were probably earthen embankments topped by a wooden palisade, although stone towers and walls were built in 1302. Archbishop Vasily Kalika (1330–1352) rebuilt the stone wall along the eastern side of the Detinets in 1331–1335. The rest was completed in stone only in 1400. Under the rule of Archbishop Evfimy II (1429–1458),

13952-406: The sixth century, sparsely documented some Slavic concepts and practices. The linguistic unity and negligible dialectal differentiation of the Slavs until the end of the first millennium AD, as well as the lexical uniformity of religious vocabulary, witness a uniformity of early Slavic religion. It has been argued that the essence of early Slavdom was ethnoreligious before being ethnonational; that

14080-415: The spirits, which were believed to have periods of waxing and waning throughout the year, determining the agrarian fertility cycle. The cosmology of ancient Slavic religion, which is preserved in contemporary Slavic folk religion, is visualised as a three-tiered vertical structure, or " world tree ", as is common in other Indo-European religions. At the top there is the heavenly plane, symbolised by birds,

14208-462: The study of ancient Slavic religion include Vyacheslav Ivanov , Vladimir Toporov , Marija Gimbutas , Boris Rybakov , and Roman Jakobson , among others. Rybakov is noted for his effort to re-examine medieval ecclesiastical texts, synthesizing his findings with archaeological data, comparative mythology, ethnography, and nineteenth-century folk practices. He also elaborated one of the most coherent pictures of ancient Slavic religion in his Paganism of

14336-476: The sun and the moon; the middle plane is that of earthly humanity, symbolised by bees and men; at the bottom of the structure there is the netherworld, symbolised by snakes and beavers, and by the chthonic god Veles . The Zbruch Idol found in western Ukraine (which was at first identified as a representation of Svetovid ) represents this theo-cosmology: the three-layered effigy of the four major deities— Perun , Dazhbog , Mokosh and Lada —is constituted by

14464-458: The term for the supreme God of Heaven, * Dyeus , and its substitution by the term for "sky" (Slavic Nebo ), the shift of the Indo-European descriptor of heavenly deities ( Avestan daeva , Old Church Slavonic div ; Proto-Indo-European * deiwos , "celestial", similar to Dyeus ) to the designation of evil entities, and the parallel designation of gods by the term meaning both "wealth" and its "giver" (Avestan baga , Slavic bog ). Much of

14592-474: The three worlds, reflected by the three social functions studied by Dumézil: sacerdotal, martial and economic. Ebbo himself documented that the Triglav was seen as embodying the connection and mediation between Heaven, Earth and the underworld. Adam of Bremen ( c. 1040s–1080s) described the Triglav of Wolin as Neptunus triplicis naturae (that is to say, " Neptune of the three natures/generations"), attesting

14720-591: The unique privilege of using their own language and this script in the Roman Rite liturgy. Formally granted to bishop Philip of Senj , permission to use the Glagolitic liturgy (the Roman Rite conducted in the Slavic language instead of Latin , not the Byzantine rite ), actually extended to all Croatian lands, mostly along the Adriatic coast. The Holy See had several Glagolitic missals published in Rome. Authorization for

14848-609: The use of the Glagolitic script at its peak before the Croatian-Ottoman wars corresponded roughly to the area that spoke the Chakavian dialect at the time, in addition to some adjacent Kajkavian regions within the Zagreb bishopric . As a result, vernacular impact on the liturgical language and script largely stems from Chakavian sub-dialects, although South Chakavian speakers mostly used Cyrillic, with Glagolitic only in certain parishes as

14976-596: The use of this language was extended to some other Slavic regions between 1886 and 1935. In missals, the Glagolitic script was eventually replaced with the Latin alphabet, but the use of the Slavic language in the Mass continued, until replaced by modern vernacular languages. At the end of the 9th century, one of these students of Methodius – Saint Naum , one of the founders of the Pliska Literary School (commonly known as

15104-584: The vitality of the script, which evolved from its original Rounded Glagolitic form into an Angular Glagolitic form, in addition to a cursive form developed for notary purposes. But the Ottoman conquests left the script without most of its continental population, and as a result of the Counter-Reformation its use was restricted in Istria and the Diocese of Zagreb , and the only active printing press with

15232-416: The world as inhabited by a variety of spirits, which they represented as persons and worshipped. These spirits included those of waters ( mavka and rusalka ), forests ( lisovyk ), fields ( polyovyk ), those of households ( domovoy ), those of illnesses, luck and human ancestors. For instance, Leshy is an important woodland spirit, believed to distribute food assigning preys to hunters, later regarded as

15360-664: Was added to the Unicode Standard in March 2005 with the release of version 4.1. The Unicode block for Glagolitic is U+2C00–U+2C5F. The Glagolitic combining letters for Glagolitic Supplement block (U+1E000–U+1E02F) was added to the Unicode Standard in June, 2016 with the release of version 9.0: A hypothetical pre-Glagolitic writing system is typically referred to as cherty i rezy (strokes and incisions) – but no material evidence of

15488-493: Was also widespread in early Poland, culminating in the pagan reaction . The West Slavs of the Baltic tenaciously withstood Christianity until it was violently imposed on them through the Northern Crusades . Among Poles and East Slavs, rebellions broke out throughout the 11th century. Christian chroniclers reported that the Slavs regularly re-embraced their original religion ( relapsi sunt denuo ad paganismus ). Many elements of

15616-402: Was not allowed. The keepers of traditions and rituals performed around the idol were elderly women, and the tradition was passed down through generations. There are also beliefs that such stone mushrooms provided fertility for the soil and people. Therefore, in some places, the worship of these idols persisted for centuries until the end of the 20th century (and even after being transferred to

15744-413: Was preceded by a cosmic duality, represented by Belobog ("White God") and Chernobog ("Black God", also named Tiarnoglofi , "Black Head/Mind"), representing the root of all the heavenly-masculine and the earthly-feminine deities, or the waxing light and waning light gods, respectively. In both categories, deities might be either Razi , "rede-givers", or Zirnitra , "wizards". The Slavs perceived

15872-649: Was present only in those areas. But, in 1992, the discovery of Glagolitic inscriptions in churches along the Orljava river in Slavonia totally changed the picture (churches in Brodski Drenovac , Lovčić , and some others), showing that use of the Glagolitic alphabet was spread from Slavonia also. Sporadic instances aside, Glagolitic survived beyond the 12th century as a primary script in Croatian lands alone, although from there

16000-509: Was rebuilt between 1484 and 1490 by Muscovite builders in the wake of Grand Prince Ivan III's conquest of the city in 1478; a third of it was paid for by the Novgorodian archbishop Gennady , a Muscovite appointee (1484–1504). It is a large oval 545 metres long and 240 metres wide with nine surviving towers (three additional towers have not survived). The tallest tower, the Kokui tower, is capped by

16128-406: Was represented with seven faces, which converged at the top in a single crown. These three-, four- or many-headed images, wooden or carved in stone, some covered in metal, which held drinking horns and were decorated with solar symbols and horses, were kept in temples, of which numerous archaeological remains have been found. They were built on upraised platforms, frequently on hills, but also at

16256-605: Was used in the Duchy of Kopnik before the Wendish Crusade , but it was certainly used in Kievan Rus' . Another use of Glagolitic is presumed in now southern Poland ( Duchy of Vistula / White Croats state) and the Transcarpathia region. In Croatia, from the 12th century, Glagolitic inscriptions appeared mostly in littoral areas: Istria , Primorje, Kvarner , and Kvarner islands, notably Krk , Cres , and Lošinj ; in Dalmatia, on

16384-476: Was written in the script after the third quarter of the 19th century except for ceremonial purposes, and soon very few could read the cursive script apart from a few scholars. The exact nature of relationship between the Glagolitic alphabet and the Early Cyrillic alphabet , their order of development, and influence on each other has been a matter of great study, controversy, and dispute in Slavic studies since

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