53-433: Noctuoidea is the superfamily of noctuid ( Latin "night owl") or "owlet" moths , and has more than 70,000 described species , the largest number of any Lepidopteran superfamily . Its classification has not yet reached a satisfactory or stable state. Since the end of the 20th century, increasing availability of molecular phylogenetic data for this hugely successful radiation has led to several competing proposals for
106-492: A BioCode that would regulate all taxon names, but this attempt has so far failed because of firmly entrenched traditions in each community. Consider a particular species, the red fox , Vulpes vulpes : in the context of the Zoological Code , the specific epithet vulpes (small v ) identifies a particular species in the genus Vulpes (capital V ) which comprises all the "true" foxes. Their close relatives are all in
159-559: A rearrangement at least of the latter family (by simply including anything disputed within it). This is quite unwieldy, and various more refined treatments have been proposed in response to it. While there is general agreement on what the basal families of Noctuoidea are, the more diverse advanced group may be treated as one all-encompassing Noctuidae, two huge and two smaller, or even (if Arctiinae or Lymantriidae are kept distinct) more than four families, which are in some cases still quite sizeable. There are several recent studies suggesting
212-420: A "hybrid formula" that specifies the parentage, or may be given a name. For hybrids receiving a hybrid name , the same ranks apply, prefixed with notho (Greek: 'bastard'), with nothogenus as the highest permitted rank. If a different term for the rank was used in an old publication, but the intention is clear, botanical nomenclature specifies certain substitutions: Classifications of five species follow:
265-506: A bear). Some species within the Arctiinae have the word "tussock"' in their common names because they have been misidentified as members of the Lymantriinae subfamily based on the characteristics of the larvae. The subfamily was previously classified as the family Arctiidae of the superfamily Noctuoidea and is a monophyletic group. Recent phylogenetic studies have shown that the group
318-560: A fast evolutionary radiation that occurred long ago, such as the main taxa of placental mammals . In his landmark publications, such as the Systema Naturae , Carl Linnaeus used a ranking scale limited to kingdom, class, order, genus, species, and one rank below species. Today, the nomenclature is regulated by the nomenclature codes . There are seven main taxonomic ranks: kingdom, phylum or division, class, order, family, genus, and species. In addition, domain (proposed by Carl Woese )
371-638: A lower level may be denoted by adding the prefix " infra ", meaning lower , to the rank. For example, infra order (below suborder) or infra family (below subfamily). Botanical ranks categorize organisms based (often) on their relationships ( monophyly is not required by that clade, which does not even mention this word, nor that of " clade "). They start with Kingdom, then move to Division (or Phylum), Class, Order, Family, Genus, and Species. Taxa at each rank generally possess shared characteristics and evolutionary history. Understanding these ranks aids in taxonomy and studying biodiversity. There are definitions of
424-399: A new rank at will, at any time, if they feel this is necessary. In doing so, there are some restrictions, which will vary with the nomenclature code that applies. The following is an artificial synthesis, solely for purposes of demonstration of absolute rank (but see notes), from most general to most specific: Ranks are assigned based on subjective dissimilarity, and do not fully reflect
477-459: A particular organism, it is usually not necessary to specify names at ranks other than these first two, within a set of taxa covered by a given rank-based code. However, this is not true globally because most rank-based codes are independent from each other, so there are many inter-code homonyms (the same name used for different organisms, often for an animal and for a taxon covered by the botanical code). For this reason, attempts were made at creating
530-529: A radical change in the traditional family level classification. Recent works in redefining the families within the Noctuoidea has been carried out by Kitching (1984), Poole (1995), Kitching and Rawlins [1998], Speidel et al. (1996), Mitchell et al. (1997, 2000, 2006), Fibiger and Lafontaine (2005), Lafontaine and Fibiger (2006), Zahiri et al. (2010), Kobayashi & Nonaka (2016), and Zahiri et al. (2023). The Noctuoidea can be divided into two broad groups, those with
583-576: A taxon in a category above the species level). It should be a natural group (that is, non-artificial, non- polyphyletic ), as judged by a biologist, using all the information available to them. Equally ranked higher taxa in different phyla are not necessarily equivalent in terms of time of origin, phenotypic distinctiveness or number of lower-ranking included taxa (e.g., it is incorrect to assume that families of insects are in some way evolutionarily comparable to families of mollusks). Of all criteria that have been advocated to rank taxa, age of origin has been
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#1732851253811636-510: A taxonomic arrangement that correctly represents the relationships between the major lineages. Briefly, the disputes center on the fact that in old treatments (which were just as unable to reach a general consensus) the distinctness of some groups, such as the Arctiinae or Lymantriidae , was overrated due to their characteristic appearance, while some less-studied lineages conventionally held to be Noctuidae are in fact quite distinct. This requires
689-462: A tight spiral or drop from their perch suspended by a strand of silk. Isabella tiger moths ( Pyrrharctia isabella ) overwinter in the caterpillar stage. They can survive freezing at moderate subzero temperatures by producing a cryoprotectant chemical. The larvae of another species, Phragmatobia fuliginosa , may be found on snow seeking a place to pupate. Species in Arctic and temperate belts overwinter in
742-488: A trifid forewing venation ( Oenosandridae , and Notodontidae ), and those with a quadrifid forewing venation (e.g., Arctiinae , Lymantriidae , Nolidae , Noctuidae ). What has emerged from these investigations is that the quadrifid Noctuoidea form a monophyletic group. In 2005, Fibiger and Lafontaine arranged the quadrifid (forewing) group into several families, including the quadrifine (hindwing) Erebidae and trifine (hindwing) Noctuidae, based on evidence that suggested that
795-564: Is also called a binomial , that is, a two-term name. For example, the zoological name for the human species is Homo sapiens . This is usually italicized in print or underlined when italics are not available. In this case, Homo is the generic name and it is capitalized; sapiens indicates the species and it is not capitalized. While not always used, some species include a subspecific epithet. For instance, modern humans are Homo sapiens sapiens , or H. sapiens sapiens . In zoological nomenclature, higher taxon names are normally not italicized, but
848-533: Is most closely related to litter moths Herminiinae and the Old World Aganainae , which are subfamilies of the family Erebidae . The Arctiidae as a whole have been reclassified to represent this relationship. The family was lowered to subfamily status as the Arctiinae within the Erebidae. The subfamilies and tribes of Arctiidae were lowered to tribes and subtribes, respectively, of this new Arctiinae to preserve
901-462: Is not a requirement of the zoological and botanical codes. A classification in which all taxa have formal ranks cannot adequately reflect knowledge about phylogeny. Since taxon names are dependent on ranks in rank-based (Linnaean) nomenclature, taxa without ranks cannot be given names. Alternative approaches, such as phylogenetic nomenclature , as implemented under the PhyloCode and supported by
954-435: Is now widely used as a fundamental rank, although it is not mentioned in any of the nomenclature codes, and is a synonym for dominion ( Latin : dominium ), introduced by Moore in 1974. A taxon is usually assigned a rank when it is given its formal name. The basic ranks are species and genus. When an organism is given a species name it is assigned to a genus, and the genus name is part of the species name. The species name
1007-406: Is part of nomenclature rather than taxonomy proper, according to some definitions of these terms) is the relative or absolute level of a group of organisms (a taxon ) in a hierarchy that reflects evolutionary relationships. Thus, the most inclusive clades (such as Eukarya and Opisthokonta ) have the highest ranks, whereas the least inclusive ones (such as Homo sapiens or Bufo bufo ) have
1060-443: Is usually associated with a certain body plan , which is also, however, an arbitrary criterion. Enigmatic taxa are taxonomic groups whose broader relationships are unknown or undefined. (See Incertae sedis .) There are several acronyms intended to help memorise the taxonomic hierarchy, such as "King Phillip came over for great spaghetti". (See taxonomy mnemonic .) Arctiinae The Arctiinae (formerly called
1113-621: The American Northeast and South hold that "woolly bears" (or "woolly worms" in the South) help humans predict the weather, similar to the groundhog . The forthcoming severity of a winter may be indicated by the amount of black on the Isabella tiger moth 's caterpillar—the most familiar woolly bear in North America. More brown than black is said to mean a mild winter, while more black than brown
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#17328512538111166-762: The Botanical Code , the Prokaryotic Code , the Code for Viruses , the draft BioCode and the PhyloCode all recommend italicizing all taxon names (of all ranks). There are rules applying to the following taxonomic ranks in the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature : superfamily, family, subfamily, tribe, subtribe, genus, subgenus, species, subspecies. The International Code of Zoological Nomenclature divides names into "family-group names", "genus-group names" and "species-group names". The Code explicitly mentions
1219-474: The International Society for Phylogenetic Nomenclature , or using circumscriptional names , avoid this problem. The theoretical difficulty with superimposing taxonomic ranks over evolutionary trees is manifested as the boundary paradox which may be illustrated by Darwinian evolutionary models. There are no rules for how many species should make a genus, a family, or any other higher taxon (that is,
1272-727: The Prokaryotic Code , and the Code for Viruses ) require them. However, absolute ranks are not required in all nomenclatural systems for taxonomists; for instance, the PhyloCode , the code of phylogenetic nomenclature , does not require absolute ranks. Taxa are hierarchical groups of organisms, and their ranks describes their position in this hierarchy. High-ranking taxa (e.g. those considered to be domains or kingdoms, for instance) include more sub-taxa than low-ranking taxa (e.g. those considered genera, species or subspecies). The rank of these taxa reflects inheritance of traits or molecular features from common ancestors. The name of any species and genus are basic ; which means that to identify
1325-427: The fruit fly familiar in genetics laboratories ( Drosophila melanogaster ), humans ( Homo sapiens ), the peas used by Gregor Mendel in his discovery of genetics ( Pisum sativum ), the "fly agaric" mushroom Amanita muscaria , and the bacterium Escherichia coli . The eight major ranks are given in bold; a selection of minor ranks are given as well. Taxa above the genus level are often given names based on
1378-418: The type genus , with a standard termination. The terminations used in forming these names depend on the kingdom (and sometimes the phylum and class) as set out in the table below. Pronunciations given are the most Anglicized . More Latinate pronunciations are also common, particularly / ɑː / rather than / eɪ / for stressed a . There is an indeterminate number of ranks, as a taxonomist may invent
1431-612: The American Ornithologists' Union published in 1886 states "No one appears to have suspected, in 1842 [when the Strickland code was drafted], that the Linnaean system was not the permanent heritage of science, or that in a few years a theory of evolution was to sap its very foundations, by radically changing men's conceptions of those things to which names were to be furnished." Such ranks are used simply because they are required by
1484-527: The Arctiinae, which had previously been treated as a separate family, were more closely related to groups within the Noctuidae than to non-noctuid families. In order to address this, a revised classification would have meant either recognizing over 20 (often weakly defined) families, or a single well-defined family with numerous subfamilies. The latter was adopted (Lafontaine and Fibiger 2006). More recent evidence from nuclear genes (Zahiri et al. 2010) confirms that
1537-539: The Lepidoptera, but the location and structure is distinctive to the subfamily. Other distinctive traits are particular setae (hairs) on the larvae, wing venation, and a pair of glands near the ovipositor. The sounds are used in mating and for defense against predators. Another good distinguishing character of the subfamily is presence of anal glands in females. Many species retain distasteful or poisonous chemicals acquired from their host plants. Some species also have
1590-484: The ability to make their own defenses. Common defenses include cardiac glycosides (or cardenolides ), pyrrolizidine alkaloids , pyrazines , and histamines . Larvae usually acquire these chemicals, and may retain them in the adult stage, but adults can acquire them, too, by regurgitating decomposing plants containing the compounds and sucking up the fluid. Adults can transfer the defenses to their eggs, and males sometimes transfer them to females to help with defense of
1643-495: The caterpillars and adults are active during the daytime, but most species of this taxon are night-flying. Moths are attracted by light, but one species, Borearctia menetriesii , never comes to the light. Basking to accelerate digestion is common in the larval stages, and social behaviour may range from solitary to gregarious. Like most Lepidoptera, larvae produce a small silk pad before each moult, in which their prolegs are engaged. If disturbed, woolly bear caterpillars roll into
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1696-439: The eggs. Larval "hairs" may be stinging in some species, due to histamines their caterpillars make. The insects advertise these defenses with aposematic bright coloration, unusual postures, odours, or in adults, ultrasonic vibrations. Some mimic moths that are poisonous or wasps that sting. The ultrasound signals help nocturnal predators to learn to avoid the moths, and for some species can jam bat echolocation . Many of
1749-523: The family Arctiidae ) are a large and diverse subfamily of moths with around 11,000 species found all over the world, including 6,000 neotropical species. This subfamily includes the groups commonly known as tiger moths (or tigers), which usually have bright colours, footmen , which are usually much drabber, lichen moths , and wasp moths . Many species have "hairy" caterpillars that are popularly known as woolly bears or woolly worms . The scientific name Arctiinae refers to this hairiness (Gk. αρκτος =
1802-432: The family Canidae , which includes dogs, wolves, jackals, and all foxes; the next higher major taxon, Carnivora (considered an order), includes caniforms (bears, seals, weasels, skunks, raccoons and all those mentioned above), and feliforms (cats, civets, hyenas, mongooses). Carnivorans are one group of the hairy, warm-blooded, nursing members of the class Mammalia , which are classified among animals with notochords in
1855-595: The following ranks for these categories: The rules in the Code apply to the ranks of superfamily to subspecies, and only to some extent to those above the rank of superfamily. Among "genus-group names" and "species-group names" no further ranks are officially allowed, which creates problems when naming taxa in these groups in speciose clades, such as Rana . Zoologists sometimes use additional terms such as species group , species subgroup , species complex and superspecies for convenience as extra, but unofficial, ranks between
1908-461: The following taxonomic categories in the International Code of Nomenclature for Cultivated Plants : cultivar group , cultivar , grex . The rules in the ICN apply primarily to the ranks of family and below, and only to some extent to those above the rank of family. (See also descriptive botanical name .) Taxa at the rank of genus and above have a botanical name in one part (unitary name); those at
1961-480: The gradational nature of variation within nature. These problems were already identified by Willi Hennig , who advocated dropping them in 1969, and this position gathered support from Graham C. D. Griffiths only a few years later. In fact, these ranks were proposed in a fixist context and the advent of evolution sapped the foundations of this system, as was recognised long ago; the introduction of The Code of Nomenclature and Check-list of North American Birds Adopted by
2014-434: The hierarchy of taxa (hence, their ranks) does not necessarily reflect the hierarchy of clades . While older approaches to taxonomic classification were phenomenological, forming groups on the basis of similarities in appearance, organic structure and behavior, two important new methods developed in the second half of the 20th century changed drastically taxonomic practice. One is the advent of cladistics , which stemmed from
2067-400: The internal structure of the group. Many genera are classified into these tribes, while others remain unclassified ( incertae sedis ) . The most distinctive feature of the subfamily is a tymbal organ on the metathorax . This organ has membranes that are vibrated to produce ultrasonic sounds. They also have thoracic tympanal organs for hearing, a trait with a fairly broad distribution in
2120-541: The larval stage. Some tiger moths produce ultrasonic clicks in response to the echolocation of bats to protect themselves. Many species are polyphagous in the larval stage. Monophagous species, such as the cinnabar moth ( Tyria jacobaeae ), are scarce. Although abundant, few species in this subfamily are of economic importance. Even the fall webworm , an abundant and highly polyphagous tree-feeding species that has spread from North America to Asia and Europe, does not do lasting damage to healthy hosts. Local folklore of
2173-422: The lowest ranks. Ranks can be either relative and be denoted by an indented taxonomy in which the level of indentation reflects the rank, or absolute, in which various terms, such as species , genus , family , order , class , phylum , kingdom , and domain designate rank. This page emphasizes absolute ranks and the rank-based codes (the Zoological Code , the Botanical Code , the Code for Cultivated Plants ,
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2226-405: The most basic (or important) is the species, but this opinion is not universally shared. Thus, species are not necessarily more sharply defined than taxa at any other rank, and in fact, given the phenotypic gaps created by extinction, in practice, the reverse is often the case. Ideally, a taxon is intended to represent a clade , that is, the phylogeny of the organisms under discussion, but this
2279-409: The most frequently advocated. Willi Hennig proposed it in 1966, but he concluded in 1969 that this system was unworkable and suggested dropping absolute ranks. However, the idea of ranking taxa using the age of origin (either as the sole criterion, or as one of the main ones) persists under the name of time banding, and is still advocated by several authors. For animals, at least the phylum rank
2332-544: The option of recognizing these four groups as families, namely Erebidae, Noctuidae, Nolidae, and Euteliidae, in addition to the basal trifid families. Subsequent research has largely followed suit, with refinements such as the exclusion of Doidae from the superfamily, and the addition of a new family, Scranciidae . This largely follows the work of Zahiri and colleagues and references cited therein, plus Kobayashi & Nonaka (2016) for groupings within Notodontidae. Note that
2385-474: The phylum Chordata , and with them among all animals in the kingdom Animalia . Finally, at the highest rank all of these are grouped together with all other organisms possessing cell nuclei in the domain Eukarya . The International Code of Zoological Nomenclature defines rank as: "The level, for nomenclatural purposes, of a taxon in a taxonomic hierarchy (e.g. all families are for nomenclatural purposes at
2438-531: The placement of Arctiinae , Erebidae , Euteliidae , Lymantriinae , and Nolidae as groups within Noctuidae has been largely rejected by recent authors, and that former families such as Dilobidae, Micronoctuidae, and Thyretidae are no longer recognized at ranks above subfamily, while Doidae is placed in the superfamily Drepanoidea . Taxonomic rank In biology , taxonomic rank (which some authors prefer to call nomenclatural rank because ranking
2491-509: The quadrifid (forewing) noctuoids form a monophyletic group, but also that this group can be further arranged into four monophyletic subgroups: 1) the quadrifine subfamilies; 2) the trifine subfamilies; 3) the Nolinae; and 4) the Euteliinae. Considering the massive size of the family, and the large number of subfamilies, tribes, and subtribes to arrange into a classification, Zahiri et al. (2010) chose
2544-455: The rank of species and above (but below genus) have a botanical name in two parts ( binary name ); all taxa below the rank of species have a botanical name in three parts (an infraspecific name ). To indicate the rank of the infraspecific name, a "connecting term" is needed. Thus Poa secunda subsp. juncifolia , where "subsp". is an abbreviation for "subspecies", is the name of a subspecies of Poa secunda . Hybrids can be specified either by
2597-653: The rank-based codes; because of this, some systematists prefer to call them nomenclatural ranks . In most cases, higher taxonomic groupings arise further back in time, simply because the most inclusive taxa necessarily appeared first. Furthermore, the diversity in some major taxa (such as vertebrates and angiosperms ) is better known that that of others (such as fungi , arthropods and nematodes ) not because they are more diverse than other taxa, but because they are more easily sampled and studied than other taxa, or because they attract more interest and funding for research. Of these many ranks, many systematists consider that
2650-460: The same rank, which lies between superfamily and subfamily)." Note that the discussions on this page generally assume that taxa are clades ( monophyletic groups of organisms), but this is required neither by the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature nor by the Botanical Code , and some experts on biological nomenclature do not think that this should be required, and in that case,
2703-481: The subgenus and species levels in taxa with many species, e.g. the genus Drosophila . (Note the potentially confusing use of "species group" as both a category of ranks as well as an unofficial rank itself. For this reason, Alain Dubois has been using the alternative expressions "nominal-series", "family-series", "genus-series" and "species-series" (among others) at least since 2000. ) At higher ranks (family and above)
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#17328512538112756-443: The trifine noctuid subfamilies were derived from within the quadrifine subfamilies, so the family Erebidae would not be strictly monophyletic. Lafontaine and Fibiger in 2006 then redefined the Noctuidae to include the entire quadrifid group, believing the Arctiinae , Lymantriidae , and Nolidae to be derived from within this expanded concept of Noctuidae (and closely related to the subfamily Catocalinae ). In essence, groups such as
2809-723: The works of the German entomologist Willi Hennig . Cladistics is a method of classification of life forms according to the proportion of characteristics that they have in common (called synapomorphies ). It is assumed that the higher the proportion of characteristics that two organisms share, the more recently they both came from a common ancestor. The second one is molecular systematics, based on genetic analysis , which can provide much additional data that prove especially useful when few phenotypic characters can resolve relationships, as, for instance, in many viruses , bacteria and archaea , or to resolve relationships between taxa that arose in
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