Misplaced Pages

#889110

51-466: First introduced in 1989, Nisus was the first word processor for Macintosh able to handle multiple type systems within one document, e.g. Arabic , Hebrew , Japanese , etc., thanks to WorldScript . Other distinguishing features of the program were non-contiguous text selection, multiple editable clipboards, one of the earliest implementations of multiple undo , voice recording, and inline annotations. It also offers grep search and replace accessed through

102-406: A fatḥah alif + tāʾ = ـَات ‎) Gemination is the doubling of a consonant. Instead of writing the letter twice, Arabic places a W -shaped sign called shaddah , above it. Note that if a vowel occurs between the two consonants the letter will simply be written twice. The diacritic only appears where the consonant at the end of one syllable is identical to the initial consonant of

153-583: A sign ( fatḥah ) on the consonant plus an ʾalif after it; long ī is written as a sign for short i ( kasrah ) plus a yāʾ ; and long ū as a sign for short u ( ḍammah ) plus a wāw . Briefly, ᵃa = ā ; ⁱy = ī ; and ᵘw = ū . Long ā following a hamzah may be represented by an ʾalif maddah or by a free hamzah followed by an ʾalif (two consecutive ʾalif s are never allowed in Arabic). The table below shows vowels placed above or below

204-606: A critic of Daniels and of the abjad terminology, argues that this terminology can confuse alphabets with "transcription systems", and that there is no reason to relegate the Hebrew, Aramaic or Phoenician alphabets to second-class status as an "incomplete alphabet". However, Daniels's terminology has found acceptance in the linguistic community. The first abjad to gain widespread usage was the Phoenician abjad . Unlike other contemporary scripts, such as cuneiform and Egyptian hieroglyphs ,

255-439: A dotted circle replacing a primary consonant letter or a shaddah sign. For clarity in the table, the primary letters on the left used to mark these long vowels are shown only in their isolated form. Most consonants do connect to the left with ʾalif , wāw and yāʾ written then with their medial or final form. Additionally, the letter yāʾ in the last row may connect to the letter on its left, and then will use

306-540: A grapheme denotes a complete syllable, that is, either a lone vowel sound or a combination of a vowel sound with one or more consonant sounds. The contrast of abjad versus alphabet has been rejected by other scholars because abjad is also used as a term for the Arabic numeral system. Also, it may be taken as suggesting that consonantal alphabets, in contrast to e.g. the Greek alphabet , were not yet true alphabets. Florian Coulmas ,

357-452: A graphical dialog box instead of command line options . These features, which were more advanced than those typically found in word processors of the day, were also present in Nisus' QUED/M text editor . An unusual feature of the Nisus file format was that all font and formatting information was saved in the file's resource fork , with the data fork containing only plain text . Thus, if

408-402: A letter, or with a carrier, when it becomes a diacritic . For the writing rule of each form, check Hamza . The hamzat al-waṣl ( هَمْزَةُ ٱلْوَصْلِ , ' hamza of connection') is a variant of the letter hamza ( ء ) resembling part of the letter ṣād ( ص ) that is rarely placed over the letter ʾalif at the beginning of the word ( ٱ ). It indicates that the ʾalif

459-484: A letter, since they distinguish between letters that represent different sounds. For example, the Arabic letters ب b , ت t , and ث th have the same basic shape, but with one dot added below, two dots added above, and three dots added above respectively. The letter ن n also has the same form in initial and medial forms, with one dot added above, though it is somewhat different in its isolated and final forms. Historically, they were often omitted, in

510-596: A limited number of distinct vowel glyphs, or both. The name abjad is based on the Arabic alphabet 's first (in its original order ) four letters —  corresponding to a , b , j , and d  —  to replace the more common terms "consonantary" and "consonantal alphabet" in describing the family of scripts classified as " West Semitic ". It is similar to other Semitic languages such as Phoenician , Hebrew and Semitic proto-alphabets: specifically, aleph , bet , gimel , dalet . In Indonesian and Malay ,

561-413: A medial or initial form. Use the table of primary letters to look at their actual glyph and joining types. In unvocalized text (one in which the short vowels are not marked), the long vowels are represented by the vowel in question: ʾalif mamdūdah/maqṣūrah , wāw , or yāʾ . Long vowels written in the middle of a word of unvocalized text are treated like consonants with a sukūn (see below) in

SECTION 10

#1732855738890

612-553: A secondary function as vowel markers, called matres lectionis . This practice was at first rare and limited in scope but became increasingly common and more developed in later times. In the 9th century BC the Greeks adapted the Phoenician script for use in their own language. The phonetic structure of the Greek language created too many ambiguities when vowels went unrepresented, so the script

663-599: A slightly different route. The basic consonantal symbol was considered to have an inherent "a" vowel sound. Hooks or short lines attached to various parts of the basic letter modify the vowel. In this way, the South Arabian abjad evolved into the Ge'ez abugida of Ethiopia between the 5th century BC and the 5th century AD. Similarly, the Brāhmī abugida of the Indian subcontinent developed around

714-414: A text that has full diacritics. Here also, the table shows long vowel letters only in isolated form for clarity. Combinations وا and يا are always pronounced wā and yā respectively. The exception is the suffix ـوا۟ in verb endings where ʾalif is silent, resulting in ū or aw . In addition, when transliterating names and loanwords, Arabic language speakers write out most or all

765-505: A writing style called rasm . Both printed and written Arabic are cursive , with most letters within a word directly joined to adjacent letters. There are two main collating sequences ('alphabetical orderings') for the Arabic alphabet: Hija'i , and Abjadi . The Hija'i order ( هِجَائِيّ Hijāʾiyy /hid͡ʒaːʔijj/ ) is the more common order and it is used when sorting lists of words and names, such as in phonebooks, classroom lists, and dictionaries. The ordering groups letters by

816-525: Is a writing system in which only consonants are represented, leaving the vowel sounds to be inferred by the reader. This contrasts with alphabets , which provide graphemes for both consonants and vowels. The term was introduced in 1990 by Peter T. Daniels . Other terms for the same concept include partial phonemic script , segmentally linear defective phonographic script , consonantary , consonant writing , and consonantal alphabet . Impure abjads represent vowels with either optional diacritics ,

867-530: Is commonly used to represent the word Allāh . The only ligature within the primary range of Arabic script in Unicode (U+06xx) is lām + alif . This is the only one compulsory for fonts and word-processing. Other ranges are for compatibility to older standards and contain other ligatures, which are optional. Note: Unicode also has in its Presentation Form B FExx range a code for this ligature. If your browser and font are configured correctly for Arabic,

918-520: Is considered an impure abjad . The basic Arabic alphabet contains 28 letters . Forms using the Arabic script to write other languages added and removed letters: for example ⟨پ⟩ is often used to represent /p/ in adaptations of the Arabic script. Unlike Greek -derived alphabets, Arabic has no distinct upper and lower case letterforms. Many letters look similar but are distinguished from one another by dots ( ʾiʿjām ) above or below their central part ( rasm ). These dots are an integral part of

969-532: Is installed on a computer (Iranian Sans is supported by Wikimedia web-fonts), the word will appear without diacritics. An attempt to show them on the faulty fonts without automatically adding the gemination mark and the superscript alif, although may not display as desired on all browsers, is by adding the U+200d (Zero width joiner) after the first or second lām Users of Arabic usually write long vowels but omit short ones, so readers must utilize their knowledge of

1020-534: Is not pronounced as a glottal stop (written as the hamza ), but that the word is connected to the previous word (like liaison in French ). Outside of vocalised liturgical texts, the waṣla is usually not written. e.g. Abdullah عَبْدُ ٱلله can be written with hamzat al-wasl on the first letter of the word ٱلله but it is mostly written without it عَبْدُ الله . The following are not individual letters, but rather different contextual variants of some of

1071-460: Is optional and not the dominant (or literate) form. Abugidas mark all vowels (other than the "inherent" vowel ) with a diacritic , a minor attachment to the letter, a standalone glyph , or (in Canadian Aboriginal syllabics ) by rotation of the letter. Some abugidas use a special symbol to suppress the inherent vowel so that the consonant alone can be properly represented. In a syllabary ,

SECTION 20

#1732855738890

1122-560: Is the addition of a final -n   to a noun or adjective . The vowel before it indicates grammatical case . In written Arabic nunation is indicated by doubling the vowel diacritic at the end of the word; e.g. شُكْرًا šukr an [ʃukran] "thank you". The use of ligature in Arabic is common. There is one compulsory ligature, that for lām ل + alif ا, which exists in two forms. All other ligatures, of which there are many, are optional. A more complex ligature that combines as many as seven distinct components

1173-452: Is the special code for glyph for the ligature Allāh ("God"), U+FDF2 ARABIC LIGATURE ALLAH ISOLATED FORM: This is a work-around for the shortcomings of most text processors, which are incapable of displaying the correct vowel marks for the word Allāh in the Quran . Because Arabic script is used to write other texts rather than Quran only, rendering lām + lām + hā’ as

1224-498: The Arabic abjad , is the Arabic script as specifically codified for writing the Arabic language. It is written from right-to-left in a cursive style, and includes 28 letters, of which most have contextual letterforms. Unlike the Latin alphabet , the script has no concept of letter case . The Arabic alphabet is considered an abjad , with only consonants required to be written; due to its optional use of diacritics to notate vowels, it

1275-579: The cantillation signs . In the Arabic handwriting of everyday use, in general publications, and on street signs, short vowels are typically not written. On the other hand, copies of the Qur’ān cannot be endorsed by the religious institutes that review them unless the diacritics are included. Children's books, elementary school texts, and Arabic-language grammars in general will include diacritics to some degree. These are known as " vocalized " texts. Short vowels may be written with diacritics placed above or below

1326-612: The 3rd century BC (from the Aramaic abjad , it has been hypothesized). The other major family of abugidas, Canadian Aboriginal syllabics , was initially developed in the 1840s by missionary and linguist James Evans for the Cree and Ojibwe languages. Evans used features of Devanagari script and Pitman shorthand to create his initial abugida. Later in the 19th century, other missionaries adapted Evans's system to other Canadian aboriginal languages. Canadian syllabics differ from other abugidas in that

1377-555: The Abjadi order to sort alphabetically; instead, the newer Hija'i order is used wherein letters are partially grouped together by similarity of shape. The Hija'i order is never used as numerals. Other hijāʾī order used to be used in the Maghreb but now it is considered obsolete, the sequence is: In Abu Muhammad al-Hasan al-Hamdani 's encyclopedia الإكليل من أخبار اليمن وأنساب حمير Kitāb al-Iklīl min akhbār al-Yaman wa-ansāb Ḥimyar ,

1428-699: The Arabic letters. ( تَاءْ مَرْبُوطَة ) used in final position, often for denoting singular feminine noun/word or to make the noun/word feminine, it has two pronunciations rules; often unpronounced or pronounced /h/ as in مدرسة madrasa [madrasa] / madrasah [madrasah] "school" and pronounced /t/ in construct state as in مدرسة سارة madrasatu sāra "Sara's school". In rare irregular noun/word cases, it appears to denote masculine singular nouns as in أسامة ʾusāma , or some masculine plural noun forms as in بَقَّالَة baqqāla plural of بَقَّال baqqāl . plural nouns: āt (a preceding letter followed by

1479-559: The Arabic root ك‌ت‌ب K-T-B (to write) can be derived the forms كَتَبَ kataba (he wrote), كَتَبْتَ katabta (you (masculine singular) wrote), يَكْتُبُ⁩ yaktubu (he writes), and مَكْتَبَة⁩ maktabah (library). In most cases, the absence of full glyphs for vowels makes the common root clearer, allowing readers to guess the meaning of unfamiliar words from familiar roots (especially in conjunction with context clues) and improving word recognition while reading for practiced readers. By contrast,

1530-447: The Mac version of Microsoft Word. It supported more file formats and by 2011 it had features such as comments, mail merge, go to page, track changes, drawing tools and watermarks. As of December 2023, the latest versions of the two word processors, Nisus Writer Express 4.2 and Nisus Writer Pro 3.2, are both compatible with macOS Sonoma . Arabic alphabet The Arabic alphabet , or

1581-469: The Phoenician script consisted of only a few dozen symbols. This made the script easy to learn, and seafaring Phoenician merchants took the script throughout the then-known world. The Phoenician abjad was a radical simplification of phonetic writing, since hieroglyphics required the writer to pick a hieroglyph starting with the same sound that the writer wanted to write in order to write phonetically, much as man'yōgana ( kanji used solely for phonetic use)

Nisus Writer - Misplaced Pages Continue

1632-452: The consonant that precedes them in the syllable, called ḥarakāt . All Arabic vowels, long and short, follow a consonant; in Arabic, words like "Ali" or "alif", for example, start with a consonant: ‘Aliyy , alif . ــِـ ‎ In the fully vocalized Arabic text found in texts such as the Quran, a long ā following a consonant other than a hamzah is written with a short

1683-472: The end. This is commonly vocalized as follows: Another vocalization is: This can be vocalized as: The Arabic alphabet is always cursive and letters vary in shape depending on their position within a word. Letters can exhibit up to four distinct forms corresponding to an initial, medial (middle), final, or isolated position ( IMFI ). While some letters show considerable variations, others remain almost identical across all four positions. Generally, letters in

1734-422: The file were to be opened in another program on the Mac, or on a Windows PC , the text would be readable (although style information would be lost). This predates cross-platform file formats as used by word processors like Microsoft Word . Contemporary editions of Word had different formats between the Mac and Windows versions and required a translator if the file were to be readable at all. The technique of using

1785-415: The following syllable. (The generic term for such diacritical signs is ḥarakāt ), e. g. , درس darasa (with full diacritics: دَرَسَ ) is a Form I verb meaning to study , whereas درّس darrasa (with full diacritics: دَرَّسَ ) is the corresponding Form II verb, with the middle r consonant doubled, meaning to teach . ــّـ ‎ Nunation ( Arabic : تنوين tanwīn )

1836-559: The graphical similarity of the glyphs' shapes. The original Abjadi order ( أَبْجَدِيّ ʾabjadiyy /ʔabd͡ʒadijj/ ) derives from that used by the Phoenician alphabet , and is therefore reminiscent of the orderings of other alphabets, such as those in Hebrew and Greek . With this ordering, letters are also used as numbers known as abjad numerals , possessing the same numerological codes as in Hebrew gematria and Greek isopsephy . Modern dictionaries and other reference books do not use

1887-487: The language in order to supply the missing vowels. However, in the education system and particularly in classes on Arabic grammar these vowels are used since they are crucial to the grammar. An Arabic sentence can have a completely different meaning by a subtle change of the vowels. This is why in an important text such as the Qur’ān the three basic vowel signs are mandated, like the Arabic diacritics and other types of marks, like

1938-468: The last classic version of Nisus, was released. It ran under Mac OS 9.2.2 and PowerPC -based Mac OS X , but only in the Classic environment, and is no longer available for purchase. In 2003, Nisus Software released a fundamentally new product, called Nisus Writer Express . Rather than porting Nisus Writer to Mac OS X, it was based on Cocoa and complied with Apple's Mac OS X user interface guidelines. It

1989-451: The letter sequence is: The Abjadi order is not a simple correspondence with the earlier north Semitic alphabetic order, as it has a position corresponding to the Aramaic letter samek 𐡎‎ , which has no cognate letter in the Arabic alphabet historically. The loss of sameḵ was compensated for by: The six other letters that do not correspond to any north Semitic letter are placed at

2040-480: The ligature displayed above should be identical to this one, U+FEFB ARABIC LIGATURE LAM WITH ALEF ISOLATED FORM: Note: Unicode also has in its Presentation Form B U+FExx range a code for this ligature. If your browser and font are configured correctly for Arabic, the ligature displayed above should be identical to this one: Another ligature in the Unicode Presentation Form A range U+FB50 to U+FDxx

2091-438: The previous ligature is considered faulty. This simplified style is often preferred for clarity, especially in non-Arabic languages, but may not be considered appropriate in situations where a more elaborate style of calligraphy is preferred. – SIL International If one of a number of the fonts (Noto Naskh Arabic, mry_KacstQurn, KacstOne, Nadeem, DejaVu Sans, Harmattan, Scheherazade, Lateef, Iranian Sans, Baghdad, DecoType Naskh)

Nisus Writer - Misplaced Pages Continue

2142-521: The resource fork to store style information was later implemented by Apple Inc. for the standard Macintosh styled text format as used in SimpleText . In 1992, Nisus Compact , was released. It was an extra-lean variant of Nisus for Apple's 68K PowerBooks . It was designed to fit entirely within RAM to avoid accessing the hard disk and thereby draining the laptop's battery. It was at first a commercial product but

2193-551: The same word are linked together on both sides by short horizontal lines, but six letters ( و ,ز ,ر ,ذ ,د ,ا ) can only be linked to their preceding letter. In addition, some letter combinations are written as ligatures (special shapes), notably lām-alif لا , which is the only mandatory ligature (the unligated combination ل‍‌‍ا is considered difficult to read). Order (used in medial and final positions as an unlinked letter) Notes The Hamza / ʔ / (glottal stop) can be written either alone, as if it were

2244-460: The term abjad is synonymous to alphabet . According to the formulations of Peter T. Daniels , abjads differ from alphabets in that only consonants, not vowels, are represented among the basic graphemes . Abjads differ from abugidas , another category defined by Daniels, in that in abjads, the vowel sound is implied by phonology , and where vowel marks exist for the system, such as nikkud for Hebrew and ḥarakāt for Arabic , their use

2295-545: The vowel is indicated by rotation of the consonantal symbol, with each vowel having a consistent orientation. The abjad form of writing is well-adapted to the morphological structure of the Semitic languages it was developed to write. This is because words in Semitic languages are formed from a root consisting of (usually) three consonants , the vowels being used to indicate inflectional or derived forms. For instance, according to Classical Arabic and Modern Standard Arabic , from

2346-415: The vowel phonemes, although the said non-diacritic vowel letters are also used to write certain consonants, particularly approximants that sound similar to long vowels. A "pure" abjad is exemplified (perhaps) by very early forms of ancient Phoenician , though at some point (at least by the 9th century BC) it and most of the contemporary Semitic abjads had begun to overload a few of the consonant symbols with

2397-400: The vowels as long ( ā with ا ʾalif , ē and ī with ي yaʾ , and ō and ū with و wāw ), meaning it approaches a true alphabet. The diphthongs حروف اللين ḥurūfu l-līn /aj/ and /aw/ are represented in vocalized text as follows: Abjad An abjad ( / ˈ æ b dʒ æ d / , Arabic : أبجد , Hebrew : אבגד), also abgad ,

2448-467: Was from 1999 given away as a freemium with various books and magazines as part of a marketing campaign. "Upgrades" to Nisus Writer were offered at a discount. In 1994, with the release of version 4.0, the name of the program was changed from Nisus to Nisus Writer, together with a redesigned interface, support for sound, QuickTime, Publish & Subscribe, text-to-speech, autonumbering, color graphics and table and equation tools. In 2001, Nisus Writer 6.5,

2499-651: Was modified. They did not need letters for the guttural sounds represented by aleph , he , heth or ayin , so these symbols were assigned vocalic values. The letters waw and yod were also adapted into vowel signs; along with he , these were already used as matres lectionis in Phoenician. The major innovation of Greek was to dedicate these symbols exclusively and unambiguously to vowel sounds that could be combined arbitrarily with consonants (as opposed to syllabaries such as Linear B which usually have vowel symbols but cannot combine them with consonants to form arbitrary syllables). Abugidas developed along

2550-487: Was originally developed as Okito Composer by Charles Jolley. Nisus bought Okito Composer and hired Jolley as Managing Director, in which capacity he oversaw further development of the word processor he had created. Jolley left Nisus in 2005 and ended up working for Apple from 2006 to 2010 and Facebook from 2011 to 2013. In 2007, Nisus Software released Nisus Writer Pro , a more advanced version of Nisus Writer Express, intended more for business and designed as an alternative to

2601-705: Was used to represent Japanese phonetically before the invention of kana . Phoenician gave rise to a number of new writing systems, including the widely used Aramaic abjad and the Greek alphabet . The Greek alphabet evolved into the modern western alphabets, such as Latin and Cyrillic , while Aramaic became the ancestor of many modern abjads and abugidas of Asia. Impure abjads have characters for some vowels, optional vowel diacritics, or both. The term pure abjad refers to scripts entirely lacking in vowel indicators. However, most modern abjads, such as Arabic , Hebrew , Aramaic , and Pahlavi , are "impure" abjads – that is, they also contain symbols for some of

SECTION 50

#1732855738890
#889110