Obstructive lung disease is a category of respiratory disease characterized by airway obstruction . Many obstructive diseases of the lung result from narrowing (obstruction) of the smaller bronchi and larger bronchioles, often because of excessive contraction of the smooth muscle itself. It is generally characterized by inflamed and easily collapsible airways, obstruction to airflow, problems exhaling, and frequent medical clinic visits and hospitalizations. Types of obstructive lung disease include asthma , bronchiectasis , bronchitis and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). Although COPD shares similar characteristics with all other obstructive lung diseases, such as the signs of coughing and wheezing , they are distinct conditions in terms of disease onset, frequency of symptoms, and reversibility of airway obstruction. Cystic fibrosis is also sometimes included in obstructive pulmonary disease.
78-402: A nightmare , also known as a bad dream , is an unpleasant dream that can cause a strong emotional response from the mind, typically fear but also despair , anxiety , disgust or sadness . The dream may contain situations of discomfort, psychological or physical terror, or panic . After a nightmare, a person will often awaken in a state of distress and may be unable to return to sleep for
156-494: A "quasi-therapeutic" function, enabling the dreamer to process trauma in a safe place. Revonsuo's 2000 threat simulation hypothesis, whose premise is that during much of human evolution, physical and interpersonal threats were serious, giving reproductive advantage to those who survived them. Dreaming aided survival by replicating these threats and providing the dreamer with practice in dealing with them. In 2015, Revonsuo proposed social simulation theory, which describes dreams as
234-559: A belief that people frequently distressed by nightmares could be re-experiencing some stressful event from the past. Both perspectives on dreams suggest that therapy can provide relief from the dilemma of the nightmarish experience. Halliday (1987) grouped treatment techniques into four classes. Direct nightmare interventions that combine compatible techniques from one or more of these classes may enhance overall treatment effectiveness: Recurring post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) nightmares in which traumas are re-experienced respond well to
312-411: A diary. This prevented the selective memory effect, and the dreams no longer seemed accurate about the future. Another experiment gave subjects a fake diary of a student with apparently precognitive dreams. This diary described events from the person's life, as well as some predictive dreams and some non-predictive dreams. When subjects were asked to recall the dreams they had read, they remembered more of
390-673: A divine revelation. For example, the Hebrew prophet Samuel would "lie down and sleep in the temple at Shiloh before the Ark and receive the word of the Lord", and Joseph interpreted a Pharaoh's dream of seven lean cows swallowing seven fat cows as meaning the subsequent seven years would be bountiful, followed by seven years of famine. Most of the dreams in the Bible are in the Book of Genesis . Christians mostly shared
468-427: A dream is one of three states that the soul experiences during its lifetime, the other two states being the waking state and the sleep state. The earliest Upanishads , written before 300 BCE, emphasize two meanings of dreams. The first says that dreams are merely expressions of inner desires. The second is the belief of the soul leaving the body and being guided until awakened. In Judaism, dreams are considered part of
546-421: A dream must first be reduced to a verbal report, which is an account of the subject's memory of the dream, not the subject's dream experience itself. So, dreaming by non-humans is currently unprovable, as is dreaming by human fetuses and pre-verbal infants. Preserved writings from early Mediterranean civilizations indicate a relatively abrupt change in subjective dream experience between Bronze Age antiquity and
624-514: A dream of a dim star high in the night sky indicated problems in the head region, while low in the night sky indicated bowel issues. Greek philosopher Plato (427-347) wrote that people harbor secret, repressed desires, such as incest, murder, adultery, and conquest, which build up during the day and run rampant during the night in dreams. Plato's student, Aristotle (384–322 BCE), believed dreams were caused by processing incomplete physiological activity during sleep, such as eyes trying to see while
702-399: A lead role in psychotherapy. The scientific study of dreams is called oneirology . Most modern dream study focuses on the neurophysiology of dreams and on proposing and testing hypotheses regarding dream function. It is not known where in the brain dreams originate, if there is a single origin for dreams or if multiple regions of the brain are involved, or what the purpose of dreaming is for
780-414: A mechanism to awaken a person who is in danger. Lucid-dreaming advocate Stephen LaBerge has outlined a possible reason for how dreams are formulated and why nightmares occur. To LaBerge, a dream starts with an individual thought or scene, such as walking down a dimly lit street. Since dreams are not predetermined, the brain responds to the situation by either thinking a good thought or a bad thought, and
858-452: A nightmare during the night has been found to be very similar to that of insomnia . This is thought to be caused by frequent nocturnal awakenings and fear of falling asleep. When awoken from REM sleep by a nightmare, the dreamer can usually recall the nightmare in detail. They may also awaken in a heightened state of distress, with an elevated heart rate or increased perspiration. Nightmare disorder symptoms include repeated awakenings from
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#1732851976972936-464: A number of works by Philip K. Dick , such as The Three Stigmata of Palmer Eldritch and Ubik . Similar themes were explored by Jorge Luis Borges , for instance in The Circular Ruins . Obstructive lung disease Asthma is an obstructive lung disease where the bronchial tubes (airways) are extra sensitive ( hyperresponsive ). The airways become inflamed and produce excess mucus and
1014-573: A physician from Hamburg, was the first who suggested that dreams are a need and that they have the function to erase (a) sensory impressions that were not fully worked up, and (b) ideas that were not fully developed during the day. In dreams, incomplete material is either removed (suppressed) or deepened and included into memory. Freud , whose dream studies focused on interpreting dreams, not explaining how or why humans dream, disputed Robert's hypothesis and proposed that dreams preserve sleep by representing as fulfilled those wishes that otherwise would awaken
1092-442: A positive dream about a friend to be meaningful than a positive dream about someone they disliked, for example, and were more likely to view a negative dream about a person they disliked as meaningful than a negative dream about a person they liked. According to surveys, it is common for people to feel their dreams are predicting subsequent life events. Psychologists have explained these experiences in terms of memory biases , namely
1170-536: A potential stimulus for nightmares. The prevalence of nightmares in children (5–12 years old) is between 20 and 30%, and for adults between 8 and 30%. In common language, the meaning of nightmare has extended as a metaphor to many bad things, such as a bad situation or a scary monster or person. The word nightmare is derived from the Old English mare , a mythological demon or goblin who torments others with frightening dreams. The term has no connection with
1248-656: A prominent forebear, commands the dreamer to take specific actions, and which may predict future events. Framing the dream experience varies across cultures as well as through time. Dreaming and sleep are intertwined. Dreams occur mainly in the rapid-eye movement (REM) stage of sleep —when brain activity is high and resembles that of being awake. Because REM sleep is detectable in many species, and because research suggests that all mammals experience REM, linking dreams to REM sleep has led to conjectures that animals dream. However, humans dream during non-REM sleep, also, and not all REM awakenings elicit dream reports. To be studied,
1326-516: A result of observation of his dreams. Ignorant as he was, he could have come to no other conclusion but that, in dreams, he left his sleeping body in one universe and went wandering off into another. It is considered that, but for that savage, the idea of such a thing as a 'soul' would never have even occurred to mankind.... In the Mandukya Upanishad , part of the Veda scriptures of Indian Hinduism ,
1404-575: A rite of passage, fasting and praying until an anticipated guiding dream was received, to be shared with the rest of the tribe upon their return. Beginning in the late 19th century, Austrian neurologist Sigmund Freud , founder of psychoanalysis , theorized that dreams reflect the dreamer's unconscious mind and specifically that dream content is shaped by unconscious wish fulfillment. He argued that important unconscious desires often relate to early childhood memories and experiences. Carl Jung and others expanded on Freud's idea that dream content reflects
1482-465: A selective memory for accurate predictions and distorted memory so that dreams are retrospectively fitted onto life experiences. The multi-faceted nature of dreams makes it easy to find connections between dream content and real events. The term "veridical dream" has been used to indicate dreams that reveal or contain truths not yet known to the dreamer, whether future events or secrets. In one experiment, subjects were asked to write down their dreams in
1560-400: A short period of time. Recurrent nightmares may require medical help, as they can interfere with sleeping patterns and cause insomnia . Nightmares can have physical causes such as sleeping in an uncomfortable position or having a fever, or psychological causes such as stress or anxiety. Eating before going to sleep, which triggers an increase in the body's metabolism and brain activity, can be
1638-524: A simulation for training social skills and bonds. Eagleman's and Vaughn's 2021 defensive activation theory, which says that, given the brain's neuroplasticity , dreams evolved as a visual hallucinatory activity during sleep's extended periods of darkness, busying the occipital lobe and thereby protecting it from possible appropriation by other, non-vision, sense operations. Erik Hoel proposes, based on artificial neural networks, that dreams prevent overfitting to past experiences; that is, they enable
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#17328519769721716-501: A technique called imagery rehearsal. This involves dreamers coming up with alternative, mastery outcomes to the nightmares, mentally rehearsing those outcomes while awake and then reminding themselves at bedtime that they wish these alternative outcomes should the nightmares recur. Research has found that this technique not only reduces the occurrence of nightmares and insomnia but also improves other daytime PTSD symptoms. The most common variations of imagery rehearsal therapy (IRT) "relate to
1794-408: Is a gradually progressive condition and usually only develops after about 20 pack-years of smoking. COPD may also be caused by breathing in other particles and gases. The diagnosis of COPD is established through spirometry although other pulmonary function tests can be helpful. A chest X-ray is often ordered to look for hyperinflation and rule out other lung conditions but the lung damage of COPD
1872-514: Is also performed for severe COPD in carefully chosen cases. Alpha 1-antitrypsin deficiency is a fairly rare genetic condition that results in COPD (particularly emphysema) due to a lack of the antitrypsin protein which protects the fragile alveolar walls from protease enzymes released by inflammatory processes . Diagnosis of obstructive disease requires several factors depending on the exact disease being diagnosed. However one commonality between them
1950-425: Is an increase in airway resistance , shown by a decrease in the forced expiratory volume in 1 second (FEV1) measured by spirometry . COPD is defined as a forced expiratory volume in 1 second divided by the forced vital capacity (FEV1/FVC) that is less than 0.7 (or 70%). The residual volume, the volume of air left in the lungs following full expiration, is often increased in COPD, as is the total lung capacity, while
2028-479: Is fraught with significant side effects. COPD is generally irreversible although lung function can partially recover if the patient stops smoking. Smoking cessation is an essential aspect of treatment. Pulmonary rehabilitation programmes involve intensive exercise training combined with education and are effective in improving shortness of breath. Severe emphysema has been treated with lung volume reduction surgery , with in carefully chosen cases. Lung transplantation
2106-507: Is freed from the body during slumber to journey in a dream realm, while the other remained in the body. This belief and dream interpretation had been questioned since early times, such as by the philosopher Wang Chong (27–97 CE ). The Babylonians and Assyrians divided dreams into "good," which were sent by the gods, and "bad," sent by demons. A surviving collection of dream omens entitled Iškar Zaqīqu records various dream scenarios as well as prognostications of what will happen to
2184-471: Is generally highly phantasmagoric; that is, different locations and objects continuously blend into each other. The visuals (including locations, people, and objects) are generally reflective of a person's memories and experiences, but conversation can take on highly exaggerated and bizarre forms. Some dreams may even tell elaborate stories wherein the dreamer enters entirely new, complex worlds and awakes with ideas, thoughts and feelings never experienced prior to
2262-457: Is not always visible on a chest x-ray. Emphysema, for example, can only be seen on CT scan . The main form of long term management involves the use of inhaled bronchodilators (specifically beta agonists and anticholinergics ) and inhaled corticosteroids . Many patients eventually require oxygen supplementation at home. In severe cases that are difficult to control, chronic treatment with oral corticosteroids may be necessary, although this
2340-459: Is the true dream (al-ru’ya), then the false dream, which may come from the devil ( shaytan ), and finally, the meaningless everyday dream (hulm). This last dream could be brought forth by the dreamer's ego or base appetite based on what they experienced in the real world. The true dream is often indicated by Islam's hadith tradition. In one narration by Aisha , the wife of the Prophet, it is said that
2418-565: The Society for Neuroscience , "Because no adequate alternatives exist, much of this research must [sic] be done on animal subjects." However, since animal dreaming can be only inferred, not confirmed, animal studies yield no hard facts to illuminate the neurophysiology of dreams. Examining human subjects with brain lesions can provide clues, but the lesion method cannot discriminate between the effects of destruction and disconnection and cannot target specific neuronal groups in heterogeneous regions like
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2496-791: The battle of the Milvian Bridge if he adopted the Chi-Rho as his battle standard ." In Buddhism, ideas about dreams are similar to the classical and folk traditions in South Asia. The same dream is sometimes experienced by multiple people, as in the case of the Buddha-to-be , before he is leaving his home . It is described in the Mahāvastu that several of the Buddha's relatives had premonitory dreams preceding this. Some dreams are also seen to transcend time:
2574-642: The Buddha-to-be has certain dreams that are the same as those of previous Buddhas , the Lalitavistara states. In Buddhist literature, dreams often function as a "signpost" motif to mark certain stages in the life of the main character. Buddhist views about dreams are expressed in the Pāli Commentaries and the Milinda Pañhā . In Chinese history, people wrote of two vital aspects of the soul of which one
2652-669: The Hall study favorably. In the Hall study, the most common emotion experienced in dreams was anxiety . Other emotions included abandonment , anger , fear , joy , and happiness . Negative emotions were much more common than positive ones. The Hall data analysis showed that sexual dreams occur no more than 10% of the time and are more prevalent in young to mid-teens. Another study showed that 8% of both men's and women's dreams have sexual content. In some cases, sexual dreams may result in orgasms or nocturnal emissions . These are colloquially known as "wet dreams". The visual nature of dreams
2730-724: The Looking-Glass . Unlike many dream worlds, Carroll's logic is like that of actual dreams, with transitions and flexible causality. Other fictional dream worlds include the Dreamlands of H. P. Lovecraft 's Dream Cycle and The Neverending Story ' s world of Fantastica, which includes places like the Desert of Lost Dreams, the Sea of Possibilities and the Swamps of Sadness. Dreamworlds, shared hallucinations and other alternate realities feature in
2808-613: The Modern English word for a female horse . The word nightmare is cognate with the Dutch term nachtmerrie and German Nachtmahr (dated). The sorcerous demons of Iranian mythology known as Divs are likewise associated with the ability to afflict their victims with nightmares. The mare of Germanic and Slavic folklore were thought to ride on people's chests while they sleep, causing nightmares. Those with nightmares experience abnormal sleep architecture. The impact of having
2886-497: The Prophet's dreams would come true like the ocean's waves. Just as in its predecessors, the Quran also recounts the story of Joseph and his unique ability to interpret dreams. In both Christianity and Islam dreams feature in conversion stories. According to ancient authors, Constantine the Great started his conversion to Christianity because he had a dream which prophesied that he would win
2964-519: The REM-related parasomnias subcategory of the Parasomnias cluster. Nightmares may be idiopathic without any signs of psychopathology or associated with disorders like stress, anxiety, substance abuse, psychiatric illness or PTSD (>80% of PTSD patients report nightmares). As regarding the dream content of the dreams they are usually imprinting negative emotions like sadness, fear or rage. According to
3042-484: The Solms 2000 paper that certified the separability of REM sleep and dream phenomena, many studies purporting to uncover the function of dreams have in fact been studying not dreams but measurable REM sleep. Theories of dream function since the identification of REM sleep include: Hobson's and McCarley's 1977 activation-synthesis hypothesis , which proposed "a functional role for dreaming sleep in promoting some aspect of
3120-628: The United States, invasive brain procedures with a human subject are allowed only when these are deemed necessary in surgical treatment to address medical needs of the same human subject. Non-invasive measures of brain activity like electroencephalogram (EEG) voltage averaging or cerebral blood flow cannot identify small but influential neuronal populations. Also, fMRI signals are too slow to explain how brains compute in real time. Scientists researching some brain functions can work around current restrictions by examining animal subjects. As stated by
3198-422: The airway walls. Bronchiectasis has three major anatomical patterns: cylindrical bronchiectasis, varicose bronchiectasis and cystic bronchiectasis. Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), previously known as chronic obstructive airways disease (COAD) or chronic airflow limitation (CAL), is a group of illnesses characterised by airflow limitation that is not fully reversible. The flow of air into and out of
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3276-468: The beginnings of the classical era . In visitation dreams reported in ancient writings, dreamers were largely passive in their dreams, and visual content served primarily to frame authoritative auditory messaging. Gudea , the king of the Sumerian city-state of Lagash (reigned c. 2144–2124 BCE), rebuilt the temple of Ningirsu as the result of a dream in which he was told to do so. After antiquity,
3354-577: The beliefs of the Hebrews and thought that dreams were of a supernatural character because the Old Testament includes frequent stories of dreams with divine inspiration. The most famous of these dream stories was Jacob's dream of a ladder that stretches from Earth to Heaven . Many Christians preach that God can speak to people through their dreams. The famous glossary, the Somniale Danielis , written in
3432-433: The best way to receive divine revelation, and thus they would induce (or "incubate") dreams. They went to sanctuaries and slept on special "dream beds" in hope of receiving advice, comfort, or healing from the gods. From a Darwinian perspective dreams would have to fulfill some kind of biological requirement, provide some benefit for natural selection to take place, or at least have no negative impact on fitness. Robert (1886),
3510-402: The body or mind. The human dream experience and what to make of it has undergone sizable shifts over the course of history. Long ago, according to writings from Mesopotamia and Ancient Egypt , dreams dictated post-dream behaviors to an extent that was sharply reduced in later millennia. These ancient writings about dreams highlight visitation dreams, where a dream figure, usually a deity or
3588-446: The brain involves significant neural activity downstream from eye intake, and it is theorized that "the visual imagery of dreams is produced by activation during sleep of the same structures that generate complex visual imagery in waking perception." Dreams present a running narrative rather than exclusively visual imagery. Following their work with split-brain subjects, Gazzaniga and LeDoux postulated, without attempting to specify
3666-467: The brain stem. Denied precision tools and obliged to depend on imaging, much dream research has succumbed to the law of the instrument . Studies detect an increase of blood flow in a specific brain region and then credit that region with a role in generating dreams. But pooling study results has led to the newer conclusion that dreaming involves large numbers of regions and pathways, which likely are different for different dream events. Image creation in
3744-647: The brain's effort to make sense of sparse and distorted information.... The cortex combines this haphazard input with whatever other activity was already occurring and does its best to synthesize a story that makes sense of the information." Neuroscientist Indre Viskontas is even more blunt, calling often bizarre dream content "just the result of your interpreter trying to create a story out of random neural signaling." For many humans across multiple eras and cultures, dreams are believed to have functioned as revealers of truths sourced during sleep from gods or other external entities. Ancient Egyptians believed that dreams were
3822-427: The clinical studies the content can include being chased, injury or death of others, falling, natural disasters or accidents. Typical dreams or recurrent dreams may also have some of these topics. Scientific research shows that nightmares may have many causes. In a study focusing on children, researchers were able to conclude that nightmares directly correlate with the stress in children's lives. Children who experienced
3900-427: The death of a family member or a close friend or know someone with a chronic illness have more frequent nightmares than those who are only faced with stress from school or stress from social aspects of daily life. A study researching the causes of nightmares focuses on patients who have sleep apnea . The study was conducted to determine whether or not nightmares may be caused by sleep apnea, or being unable to breathe. In
3978-537: The dream framework follows from there. If bad thoughts in a dream are more prominent than good thoughts, the dream may proceed to be a nightmare. There is a view, possibly featured in the story A Christmas Carol , that eating cheese before sleep can cause nightmares, but there is little scientific evidence for this. A single, biased study conducted by the British Cheese Board in 2005 argued that consuming cheese could trigger more vivid dreams, but this study
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#17328519769724056-508: The dream. People who are blind from birth do not have visual dreams. Their dream contents are related to other senses, such as hearing , touch , smell , and taste , whichever are present since birth. Dream study is popular with scientists exploring the mind–brain problem . Some "propose to reduce aspects of dream phenomenology to neurobiology." But current science cannot specify dream physiology in detail. Protocols in most nations restrict human brain research to non-invasive procedures. In
4134-465: The dreamer may perceive the dream as being much longer than this. The content and function of dreams have been topics of scientific, philosophical and religious interest throughout recorded history . Dream interpretation , practiced by the Babylonians in the third millennium BCE and even earlier by the ancient Sumerians , figures prominently in religious texts in several traditions, and has played
4212-402: The dreamer to learn from novel situations. Dreams figure prominently in major world religions. The dream experience for early humans, according to one interpretation, gave rise to the notion of a human " soul ," a central element in much religious thought. J. W. Dunne wrote: But there can be no reasonable doubt that the idea of a soul must have first arisen in the mind of primitive man as
4290-501: The dreamer's unconscious desires. Dream interpretation can be a result of subjective ideas and experiences. One study found that most people believe that "their dreams reveal meaningful hidden truths". The researchers surveyed students in the United States, South Korea, and India, and found that 74% of Indians, 65% of South Koreans and 56% of Americans believed their dream content provided them with meaningful insight into their unconscious beliefs and desires. This Freudian view of dreaming
4368-520: The dreamer. Freud wrote that dreams "serve the purpose of prolonging sleep instead of waking up. Dreams are the GUARDIANS of sleep and not its disturbers. " A turning point in theorizing about dream function came in 1953, when Science published the Aserinsky and Kleitman paper establishing REM sleep as a distinct phase of sleep and linking dreams to REM sleep. Until and even after publication of
4446-436: The dreamers, where they entered through a keyhole, exiting the same way after the divine message was given. Antiphon wrote the first known Greek book on dreams in the 5th century BCE. In that century, other cultures influenced Greeks to develop the belief that souls left the sleeping body. The father of modern medicine, Hippocrates (460–375 BCE ), thought dreams could analyze illness and predict diseases. For instance,
4524-416: The early morning. A peak flow meter can record variations in the severity of asthma over time. Spirometry , a measurement of lung function, can provide an assessment of the severity, reversibility, and variability of airflow limitation, and help confirm the diagnosis of asthma. Bronchiectasis refers to the abnormal, irreversible dilatation of the bronchi caused by destructive and inflammatory changes in
4602-548: The experience of the world that can be interpreted and from which lessons can be garnered. It is discussed in the Talmud, Tractate Berachot 55–60. The ancient Hebrews connected their dreams heavily with their religion, though the Hebrews were monotheistic and believed that dreams were the voice of one God alone. Hebrews also differentiated between good dreams (from God) and bad dreams (from evil spirits). The Hebrews, like many other ancient cultures, incubated dreams in order to receive
4680-439: The learning process...." In 2010 a Harvard study was published showing experimental evidence that dreams were correlated with improved learning. Crick's and Mitchison's 1983 " reverse learning " theory, which states that dreams are like the cleaning-up operations of computers when they are offline, removing (suppressing) parasitic nodes and other "junk" from the mind during sleep. Hartmann's 1995 proposal that dreams serve
4758-399: The lungs is impaired. This can be measured with breathing devices such as a peak flow meter or by spirometry . Most people with COPD have characteristics of emphysema and chronic bronchitis to varying degrees. Asthma being a reversible obstruction of airways is often considered separately, but many COPD patients also have some degree of reversibility in their airways. In COPD, there
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#17328519769724836-522: The major sleep period or naps with detailed recall of extended and extremely frightening dreams, usually involving threats to survival, security, or self-esteem. The awakenings generally occur during the second half of the sleep period. According to the International Classification of Sleep Disorders -Third Edition (ICSD-3), the nightmare disorder, together with REM sleep behaviour disorder (RBD) and recurrent isolated sleep paralysis , form
4914-506: The muscles around the airways tighten making the airways narrower. Asthma is usually triggered by breathing in things in the air such as dust or pollen that produce an allergic reaction. It may be triggered by other things such as an upper respiratory tract infection , cold air, exercise, or smoke. Asthma is a common condition and affects over 300 million people around the world. Asthma causes recurring episodes of wheezing, breathlessness, chest tightness, and coughing, particularly at night or in
4992-514: The name of Daniel , attempted to teach Christian populations to interpret their dreams. Iain R. Edgar has researched the role of dreams in Islam . He has argued that dreams play an important role in the history of Islam and the lives of Muslims, since dream interpretation is the only way that Muslims can receive revelations from God since the death of the last prophet, Muhammad . According to Edgar, Islam classifies three types of dreams. Firstly, there
5070-583: The narrative; The Book of the Duchess and The Vision Concerning Piers Plowman are two such dream visions . Even before them, in antiquity, the same device had been used by Cicero and Lucian of Samosata . Dreams have also featured in fantasy and speculative fiction since the 19th century. One of the best-known dream worlds is Wonderland from Lewis Carroll 's Alice's Adventures in Wonderland , as well as Looking-Glass Land from its sequel, Through
5148-411: The neural mechanisms, a " left-brain interpreter " that seeks to create a plausible narrative from whatever electro-chemical signals reach the brain's left hemisphere. Sleep research has determined that some brain regions fully active during waking are, during REM sleep, activated only in a partial or fragmentary way. Drawing on this knowledge, textbook author James W. Kalat explains, "[A] dream represents
5226-433: The night before flying (while awake), and that they would be as likely to miss their flight if they dreamt of their plane crashing the night before their flight as if there was an actual plane crash on the route they intended to take. Participants in the study were more likely to perceive dreams to be meaningful when the content of dreams was in accordance with their beliefs and desires while awake. They were more likely to view
5304-719: The nineteenth century, authors believed that nightmares were caused by not having enough oxygen, therefore it was believed that those with sleep apnea had more frequent nightmares than those without it. The results actually showed that healthy people have more nightmares than sleep apnea patients. Another study supports the hypothesis. In this study, 48 patients (aged 20–85 yrs) with obstructive airways disease (OAD), including 21 with and 27 without asthma, were compared with 149 sex- and age-matched controls without respiratory disease. OAD subjects with asthma reported approximately 3 times as many nightmares as controls or OAD subjects without asthma. The evolutionary purpose of nightmares then could be
5382-541: The number of sessions, duration of treatment, and the degree to which exposure therapy is included in the protocol". Trials have included hydrocortisone , gabapentin , paroxetine , tetrahydrocannabinol , eszopiclone , Sodium oxybate , and carvedilol . Dream A dream is a succession of images , ideas , emotions , and sensations that usually occur involuntarily in the mind during certain stages of sleep . Humans spend about two hours dreaming per night, and each dream lasts around 5–20 minutes, although
5460-500: The passive hearing of visitation dreams largely gave way to visualized narratives in which the dreamer becomes a character who actively participates. From the 1940s to 1985, Calvin S. Hall collected more than 50,000 dream reports at Western Reserve University . In 1966, Hall and Robert Van de Castle published The Content Analysis of Dreams , in which they outlined a coding system to study 1,000 dream reports from college students. Results indicated that participants from varying parts of
5538-623: The person who experiences each dream, apparently based on previous cases. Some list different possible outcomes, based on occasions in which people experienced similar dreams with different results. The Greeks shared their beliefs with the Egyptians on how to interpret good and bad dreams, and the idea of incubating dreams. Morpheus , the Greek god of dreams, also sent warnings and prophecies to those who slept at shrines and temples. The earliest Greek beliefs about dreams were that their gods physically visited
5616-511: The sleeper's eyelids were closed. Marcus Tullius Cicero , for his part, believed that all dreams are produced by thoughts and conversations a dreamer had during the preceding days. Cicero's Somnium Scipionis described a lengthy dream vision, which in turn was commented on by Macrobius in his Commentarii in Somnium Scipionis . Herodotus in his The Histories , writes "The visions that occur to us in dreams are, more often than not,
5694-964: The successful predictions than unsuccessful ones. Graphic artists, writers and filmmakers all have found dreams to offer a rich vein for creative expression. In the West, artists' depictions of dreams in Renaissance and Baroque art often were related to Biblical narrative. Especially preferred by visual artists were the Jacob's Ladder dream in Genesis and St. Joseph's dreams in the Gospel according to Matthew . Many later graphic artists have depicted dreams, including Japanese woodblock artist Hokusai (1760–1849) and Western European painters Rousseau (1844–1910), Picasso (1881–1973), and Dalí (1904–1989). In literature, dream frames were frequently used in medieval allegory to justify
5772-504: The things we have been concerned about during the day." The Dreaming is a common term within the animist creation narrative of indigenous Australians for a personal, or group, creation and for what may be understood as the "timeless time" of formative creation and perpetual creating. Some Indigenous American tribes and Mexican populations believe that dreams are a way of visiting and having contact with their ancestors . Some Native American tribes have used vision quests as
5850-405: The vital capacity remains relatively normal. The increased total lung capacity (hyperinflation) can result in the clinical feature of a barrel chest – a chest with a large front-to-back diameter that occurs in some individuals with emphysematous COPD . Hyperinflation can also be seen on a chest X-ray as a flattening of the diaphragm . The most common cause of COPD is cigarette smoking . COPD
5928-431: The world demonstrated similarity in their dream content. The only residue of antiquity's authoritative dream figure in the Hall and Van de Castle listing of dream characters is the inclusion of God in the category of prominent persons. Hall's complete dream reports were made publicly available in the mid-1990s by his protégé William Domhoff . More recent studies of dream reports, while providing more detail, continue to cite
6006-486: Was believed significantly more than theories of dreaming that attribute dream content to memory consolidation, problem-solving, or as a byproduct of unrelated brain activity. The same study found that people attribute more importance to dream content than to similar thought content that occurs while they are awake. Americans were more likely to report that they would intentionally miss their flight if they dreamt of their plane crashing than if they thought of their plane crashing
6084-512: Was not backed up with sufficient research, and contradicts existing studies which found that consuming dairy products is associated with better overall sleep quality. Severe nightmares are also likely to occur when a person has a fever ; these nightmares are often referred to as fever dreams. Recent research has shown that frequent nightmares may precede the development of neurodegenerative diseases, such as Parkinson's disease and dementia . Sigmund Freud and Carl Jung seemed to have shared
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