French and Nguyễn dynasty victory
95-474: The uprising of the Nghệ-Tĩnh soviets ( Vietnamese : Phong trào Xô Viết Nghệ-Tĩnh ) was the series of uprisings, strikes and demonstrations in 1930 and 1931 by Vietnamese peasants, workers, and intellectuals against the colonial French regime , the mandarinate , and landlords. Nghệ-Tĩnh ( Vietnamese: [ŋêˀ tǐŋˀ] ) is a compound name for the two central provinces, Nghệ An and Hà Tĩnh , where
190-636: A minor syllable occurred). These fricatives were not present in Proto-Viet–Muong, as indicated by their absence in Mường , but were evidently present in the later Proto-Vietnamese stage. Subsequent loss of the minor-syllable prefixes phonemicized the fricatives. Ferlus 1992 proposes that originally there were both voiced and voiceless fricatives, corresponding to original voiced or voiceless stops, but Ferlus 2009 appears to have abandoned that hypothesis, suggesting that stops were softened and voiced at approximately
285-406: A critical threshold. Others are convinced that the mobilizing and organizational efforts of local Communist cadres was a major and decisive factor in the uprising. Such differing, historical viewpoints are not surprising, for contemporary observers were similarly divided. Nghệ An and Hà Tĩnh were the among poorest of the provinces inhabited by ethnic Vietnamese, with extreme variations of harvest and
380-402: A directing committee to replace the existing village council of elders. Most of the new soviets were dominated by the poorer peasants in the village. As a result, there was much pressure to seize communal lands earlier confiscated by wealthy families and return them to the peasants. There were also calls for the annulment of local taxes, the lowering of rents, and the distribution of excess rice to
475-447: A main vowel component followed by a shorter semivowel offglide /j/ or /w/ . There are restrictions on the high offglides: /j/ cannot occur after a front vowel (i, ê, e) nucleus and /w/ cannot occur after a back vowel (u, ô, o) nucleus. The correspondence between the orthography and pronunciation is complicated. For example, the offglide /j/ is usually written as i ; however, it may also be represented with y . In addition, in
570-532: A process of tonogenesis , in which distinctions formerly expressed by final consonants became phonemic tonal distinctions when those consonants disappeared. These characteristics have become part of many of the genetically unrelated languages of Southeast Asia; for example, Tsat (a member of the Malayo-Polynesian group within Austronesian ), and Vietnamese each developed tones as a phonemic feature. After
665-626: A representative on the Government Council for Nationalities, an advisory body of the Czech Government for matters of policy towards national minorities and their members. It also grants the community the right to use Vietnamese with public authorities and in courts anywhere in the country. Vietnamese is taught in schools and institutions outside of Vietnam, a large part contributed by its diaspora . In countries with Vietnamese-speaking communities Vietnamese language education largely serves as
760-534: A role to link descendants of Vietnamese immigrants to their ancestral culture. In neighboring countries and vicinities near Vietnam such as Southern China, Cambodia, Laos, and Thailand, Vietnamese as a foreign language is largely due to trade, as well as recovery and growth of the Vietnamese economy. Since the 1980s, Vietnamese language schools ( trường Việt ngữ/ trường ngôn ngữ Tiếng Việt ) have been established for youth in many Vietnamese-speaking communities around
855-634: A separate one for Tonkin . Although the emperors of the Nguyễn dynasty were still nominally in control of the protectorates of Annam and Tonkin, the resident-superior of Annam gradually gained more influence over the imperial court in Huế . In 1897 the resident-superior was granted the power to appoint the Nguyễn dynasty emperors and presided over the meetings of the Viện cơ mật . These moves incorporated French officials directly into
950-469: A shortage of land. Wealthy landlords took over communal lands as farmers were unable to repay their debts and tenancy became a common feature in rural areas. Approximately half of the rural population was landless. Bad weather led to harvest failures; in Nghệ An, the tenth-month rice harvest of 1929 and the fifth-month harvest of 1930 were both bad, a sequence that had not occurred for over a decade. In Hà Tĩnh,
1045-511: A stage commonly termed Middle Vietnamese ( tiếng Việt trung đại ). The pronunciation of the "rime" of the syllable, i.e. all parts other than the initial consonant (optional /w/ glide, vowel nucleus, tone and final consonant), appears nearly identical between Middle Vietnamese and modern Hanoi pronunciation. On the other hand, the Middle Vietnamese pronunciation of the initial consonant differs greatly from all modern dialects, and in fact
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#17328489315611140-546: A third of the Vietnamese lexicon in all realms, and may account for as much as 60% of the vocabulary used in formal texts. Vietic languages were confined to the northern third of modern Vietnam until the "southward advance" ( Nam tiến ) from the late 15th century. The conquest of the ancient nation of Champa and the conquest of the Mekong Delta led to an expansion of the Vietnamese people and language, with distinctive local variations emerging. After France invaded Vietnam in
1235-516: Is also spoken by the Jing people traditionally residing on three islands (now joined to the mainland) off Dongxing in southern Guangxi Province , China . A large number of Vietnamese speakers also reside in neighboring countries of Cambodia and Laos . In the United States, Vietnamese is the sixth most spoken language , with over 1.5 million speakers, who are concentrated in a handful of states. It
1330-692: Is believed to have dispersed around 2000 BC. The arrival of the agricultural Phùng Nguyên culture in the Red River Delta at that time may correspond to the Vietic branch. This ancestral Vietic was typologically very different from later Vietnamese. It was polysyllabic, or rather sesquisyllabic , with roots consisting of a reduced syllable followed by a full syllable, and featured many consonant clusters. Both of these features are found elsewhere in Austroasiatic and in modern conservative Vietic languages south of
1425-501: Is generally agreed that it is difficult and unfruitful to isolate single causes, and there is a consensus on the conditions that facilitated the revolt. Disagreement, however, lies in what was the critical factor which pushed an otherwise relatively quiescent, albeit discontented, populace to rise up in large scale protest. Some contend that the revolt was spontaneous and reflected the anger of poor peasants and workers at deteriorating economic and social conditions, which had by 1930 surpassed
1520-415: Is notated i or y (with the difference between the two often indicating differences in the quality or length of the preceding vowel), and after /ð/ and /β/ , where it is notated ĕ . This ĕ , and the /j/ it notated, have disappeared from the modern language. Note that b [ɓ] and p [p] never contrast in any position, suggesting that they are allophones. The language also has three clusters at
1615-522: Is often mistaken for a tilde in modern reproductions of early Vietnamese writing. As a result of emigration , Vietnamese speakers are also found in other parts of Southeast Asia , East Asia , North America , Europe , and Australia . Vietnamese has also been officially recognized as a minority language in the Czech Republic . As the national language, Vietnamese is the lingua franca in Vietnam. It
1710-440: Is pronounced with one of six inherent tones , centered on the main vowel or group of vowels. Tones differ in: Tone is indicated by diacritics written above or below the vowel (most of the tone diacritics appear above the vowel; except the nặng tone dot diacritic goes below the vowel). The six tones in the northern varieties (including Hanoi), with their self-referential Vietnamese names, are: List of administrators of
1805-410: Is significantly closer to the modern Saigon dialect than the modern Hanoi dialect. The following diagram shows the orthography and pronunciation of Middle Vietnamese: ^1 [p] occurs only at the end of a syllable. ^2 This letter, ⟨ ꞗ ⟩ , is no longer used. ^3 [j] does not occur at the beginning of a syllable, but can occur at the end of a syllable, where it
1900-564: Is the native language of ethnic Vietnamese (Kinh), as well as the second or first language for other ethnicities of Vietnam , and used by Vietnamese diaspora in the world. It belongs to the Vietic subgroup of the Austroasiatic language family. Like many languages in Southeast Asia and East Asia , Vietnamese is highly analytic and is tonal . It has head-initial directionality, with subject–verb–object order and modifiers following
1995-460: Is the first language of the majority of the Vietnamese population, as well as a first or second language for the country's ethnic minority groups . In the Czech Republic , Vietnamese has been recognized as one of 14 minority languages, on the basis of communities that have resided in the country either traditionally or on a long-term basis. This status grants the Vietnamese community in the country
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#17328489315612090-634: Is the third-most spoken language in Texas and Washington; fourth-most in Georgia, Louisiana, and Virginia; and fifth-most in Arkansas and California. Vietnamese is the third most spoken language in Australia other than English, after Mandarin and Arabic. In France, it is the most spoken Asian language and the eighth most spoken immigrant language at home. Vietnamese is the sole official and national language of Vietnam. It
2185-618: Is written using the Vietnamese alphabet ( chữ Quốc ngữ ). The alphabet is based on the Latin script and was officially adopted in the early 20th century during French rule of Vietnam . It uses digraphs and diacritics to mark tones and some phonemes . Vietnamese was historically written using chữ Nôm , a logographic script using Chinese characters ( chữ Hán ) to represent Sino-Vietnamese vocabulary and some native Vietnamese words, together with many locally invented characters representing other words. Early linguistic work in
2280-446: Is written with two Chinese characters or in a composite character made of two different characters. This conveys the transformation of the Vietnamese lexicon from sesquisyllabic to fully monosyllabic under the pressure of Chinese linguistic influence, characterized by linguistic phenomena such as the reduction of minor syllables; loss of affixal morphology drifting towards analytical grammar; simplification of major syllable segments, and
2375-609: The French . The revolt waned by the second half of 1931 due to famine and suppression. The revolt started in March 1930 when five strikes in occurred in Vinh (the provincial capital of Nghệ An ) and Bến Thuỷ within two months. The demonstrations spread quickly to the rural areas (districts of Thanh Chương, Nam Đàn and Nghi Lộc) and peasants demanded a moratorium on the payment of personal taxes, for an end to corvée labour and for rich landowners to return
2470-543: The Korku language in Central India and Vietnamese. He suggested that Korku , Mon , and Vietnamese were part of what he termed "Mon–Annam languages" in a paper published in 1856. Later, in 1920, French-Polish linguist Jean Przyluski found that Mường is more closely related to Vietnamese than other Mon–Khmer languages, and a Viet–Muong subgrouping was established, also including Thavung , Chut , Cuoi , etc. The term "Vietic"
2565-597: The Vietnamese orthography with the phonetic pronunciation to the right. Some consonant sounds are written with only one letter (like "p"), other consonant sounds are written with a digraph (like "ph"), and others are written with more than one letter or digraph (the velar stop is written variously as "c", "k", or "q"). In some cases, they are based on their Middle Vietnamese pronunciation; since that period, ph and kh (but not th ) have evolved from aspirated stops into fricatives (like Greek phi and chi ), while d and gi have collapsed and converged together (into /z/ in
2660-572: The Việt Nam Quốc Dân Đảng in February had encouraged these groups to organize and mobilize the masses with the eventual goal of revolution. The three demonstrations of April were dispersed when the French-led garde indigène (native gendarmerie) fired on the crowds killing a total of 27 men, women and children and injuring many more. August 1930 saw further attacks on county offices and the depots of
2755-521: The Annam Communist Party, Indochinese Communist League and the Communist Party of Indochina had also already been mobilising workers and peasants and fanning discontent in these areas. In 1929, pagodas and places of meeting within the village were burnt down by radicals in the rural areas who saw these as symbols of the power of superstition and exploitative village notables. Tensions between
2850-571: The Annam Communist Party, Indochinese Communist League and the Communist Party of Indochina – had been reunited earlier in February of the same year. A few months later, in October 1930, the party would rename itself the Indochinese Communist Party (ICP) ( Vietnamese : Đảng Cộng sản Đông Dương ).) Other disturbances against the colonial regime, particularly the Yên Bái mutiny organized by
2945-547: The Commission of Inquiry whitewashed the repression. In May 1931, mass violence erupted yet again. By this time however, fierce retaliation from the French, the arrests and executions of numerous demonstrators and party cadres as well as the worsening famine caused the revolt to be on the wane. By early 1932, tens of thousands of peasants had been put in prisons or makeshift concentration camps with high mortality rates and 99 percent of
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3040-613: The French Foreign Legion and French-led Vietnamese troops reoccupied forts used at the turn of the century for “pacification” and established new ones. By early 1931, there were 68 military posts in Nghệ An and 54 in Hà Tĩnh . The degree of repression surpassed that experienced at Cổ Am during the Yên Bái mutiny and the brutality had anything but decreased. After this, most of Nghệ An exploded. Anger and discontent continued to grow with
3135-534: The French Foreign Legion had forced the authorities to restrict it to the barracks, providing a lull during which the movement was able to regain some strength. During the May Day demonstrations, they had returned to duty and over 500 people were killed. Public reaction to this atrocity led to Le Fol’s dismissal and the administration promised an official Commission of Inquiry. However, Yves Chatel who took over Le Fol’s residency only proved to be more brutal subsequently and
3230-406: The French administration benefited from colonial policy, unlike the general population, and they too came to be resented for their corruption, their unjust confiscation of communal agricultural lands and their connection to the French colonizers. Given the concentration of Frenchmen in the cities and their small presence throughout the provinces, it was the native officials who often came to be seen as
3325-510: The French alcohol monopoly – a much detested colonial institution which banned the Vietnamese from producing their own alcohol and enforced the selling of wine produced by the state and the privileged few who held the monopoly. On 12 September, another mass demonstration in Hưng Nguyên (three kilometres from Vinh) took place. Le Fol ( Resident-Superior of Annam ) had earlier requested for a squadron of planes to be sent to Vinh to help in repressing
3420-512: The French colonial era. The following diagram shows the phonology of Proto–Viet–Muong (the nearest ancestor of Vietnamese and the closely related Mường language ), along with the outcomes in the modern language: ^1 According to Ferlus, * /tʃ/ and * /ʄ/ are not accepted by all researchers. Ferlus 1992 also had additional phonemes * /dʒ/ and * /ɕ/ . ^2 The fricatives indicated above in parentheses developed as allophones of stop consonants occurring between vowels (i.e. when
3515-468: The French protectorate of Annam The position of Resident-Superior of Annam ( French : Résident supérieur de l'Annam ; Vietnamese : Khâm sứ Trung Kỳ ; chữ Hán : 欽使中圻) was established on 8 April 1886 as a successor to the Resident-General of Annam and Tonkin ( résident général de l'Annam et du Tonkin ) when it was decided to have one French resident for the French protectorate of Annam and
3610-590: The French regime under Le Fol ( résident supérieur of Annam) was characterized by brutality. Aerial bombardments and the firing of machine guns were used to disperse demonstrations. Villages were burned down and cadres of political groups were executed when caught. This was largely the work of the French Foreign Legion, reinforced by the colonial infantry and the Garde Indigène . Although the French forces were spread relatively thinly throughout Vietnam, they were consolidated in central Vietnam during this period to repress
3705-434: The French were able to redeploy their forces and their repression became more effective. The police detached from Northern Vietnam (then also known by the French as Tonkin) set up an efficient dossier system and issued identity cards to the population in the affected areas as a means of controlling the population. A new, pro-French governor Nguyen Khoa Ky was also appointed to Nghệ An . As a result of massive French pressure in
3800-552: The French who were present in very few numbers in these provinces, and it was generally the Vietnamese landlords, the despised mandarins and native officials who worked for the French at the lower echelons of the administration who received the brunt of the violence. On 7 November 1930, the anniversary of the October Revolution, 1500 people revolted in Phú Diên and 600 more attacked the post at Can Lộc ( Hà Tĩnh ). By January 1931,
3895-474: The Peasant for a moral economy approach to explaining peasant rebellion, and Samuel Popkin (1984) The rational peasant for a Rational Choice reaction against the moral economy approach. Vietnamese historians tend to stress the importance of anti-French traditions and the strength of party organization. They insist that although there was mass enthusiasm for the movement, it was not a simple jacquerie and that it
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3990-710: The Red River Delta and into the adjacent uplands, possibly to escape Chinese encroachment. The oldest layer of loans from Chinese into northern Vietic (which would become the Viet–Muong subbranch) date from this period. The northern Vietic varieties thus became part of the Mainland Southeast Asia linguistic area , in which languages from genetically unrelated families converged toward characteristics such as isolating morphology and similar syllable structure. Many languages in this area, including Viet–Muong, underwent
4085-519: The Red River area. The language was non-tonal, but featured glottal stop and voiceless fricative codas. Borrowed vocabulary indicates early contact with speakers of Tai languages in the last millennium BC, which is consistent with genetic evidence from Dong Son culture sites. Extensive contact with Chinese began from the Han dynasty (2nd century BC). At this time, Vietic groups began to expand south from
4180-481: The administrative structure of the Imperial Huế Court and further legitimised French rule in the legislative branch of the Nguyễn government . From this period onwards any imperial edicts issued by the emperors of Đại Nam had to be confirmed by the resident-superior of Annam giving him both legislative and executive power over the Nguyễn government. In 1898 the federal government of French Indochina took over
4275-439: The already regressive nature of taxation in order to increase state revenue. These differing perspectives regarding the critical factor which led to the uprisings may be seen within the larger debate about the attitudes of workers and rural folk, and the reasons for which they revolt. This debate has occurred among Moral Economists, Rational Choice Theorists and Marxists among others. See James C. Scott (1977) The Moral Economy of
4370-418: The authorities and the students had also increased as a number of Thanh Nien, Tan Viet and other communist student activists were arrested. Also, there was a great deal of mobilization in both Nghệ An and Hà Tĩnh , particularly by communist groups, in the form of mass organizations, trade unions, peasant associations, and women’s and youth groups. These various factors were the historical conditions under which
4465-471: The beginning of syllables, which have since disappeared: Most of the unusual correspondences between spelling and modern pronunciation are explained by Middle Vietnamese. Note in particular: De Rhodes's orthography also made use of an apex diacritic, as in o᷄ and u᷄ , to indicate a final labial-velar nasal /ŋ͡m/ , an allophone of /ŋ/ that is peculiar to the Hanoi dialect to the present day. This diacritic
4560-526: The cadres of the ICP had been killed or arrested. Bernal estimates that over 1300 men, women and children were killed and around a thousand people died of disease and malnutrition in the prisons and concentration camp. On the French side, less than 200 soldiers were killed, of whom only one was French. The Sûreté ̣(the intelligence branch of the colonial French police) recorded 161 demonstrations and attacks from 1 May 1930 to 11 September 1931. The retaliatory action of
4655-404: The case of the redistribution of land, for example, the local party leadership attempted to enforce a relatively moderate policy: provincial party directives called for the seizure of previously communal lands, but not for the confiscation of all landlords' lands. These “village peasant sections” or “soviets” survived in west Nghệ An until August 1931 and in Hà Tĩnh till the end of the year. It
4750-488: The change of suprasegment instruments. For example, the modern Vietnamese word "trời" (heaven) was read as *plời in Old/Ancient Vietnamese and as blời in Middle Vietnamese. The writing system used for Vietnamese is based closely on the system developed by Alexandre de Rhodes for his 1651 Dictionarium Annamiticum Lusitanum et Latinum . It reflects the pronunciation of the Vietnamese of Hanoi at that time,
4845-431: The colonial administration which imposed a further burden on the already precarious livelihoods of the rural and urban populations. Such state policies included demands for corvée labour, monopolies on alcohol, salt and opium, and certain prohibitions such as the banning of brewing alcohol at home. Taxation was perhaps the most resented of all, as evidenced from the frequent destruction of tax registers by demonstrators during
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#17328489315614940-471: The communal lands which they had taken away. When demands were ignored, demonstrations escalated and they soon spread to the adjacent province of Hà Tĩnh . Economic hardship as well as discontentment with the French colonial administration and the local Annamite authorities had already been growing prior to these strikes and it was only a matter of time before two of the most explosive provinces in Vietnam would rise in protest yet again. Communist groups such as
5035-486: The county level disappeared or was paralysed in some counties, as many village notables were forced to retire, discredited both by their economic exploitation of the villages and their relations with the Annamite administration and the French. Peasant associations, calling themselves “village peasant sections” ( Vietnamese : xã bộ nông ), were formed rather spontaneously throughout the two provinces to fill this vacuum and were
5130-466: The daughter languages from distinctions in the initial and final consonants. Vietnamese tones developed as follows: Glottal-ending syllables ended with a glottal stop /ʔ/ , while fricative-ending syllables ended with /s/ or /h/ . Both types of syllables could co-occur with a resonant (e.g. /m/ or /n/ ). At some point, a tone split occurred, as in many other mainland Southeast Asian languages . Essentially, an allophonic distinction developed in
5225-477: The demonstrations of 1930 and 1931, and not full-scale revolution, which was still set in an indeterminate future at this point. Vietnamese language Vietnamese ( tiếng Việt ) is an Austroasiatic language spoken primarily in Vietnam where it is the official language . Vietnamese is spoken natively by around 85 million people, several times as many as the rest of the Austroasiatic family combined. It
5320-442: The diphthongs [āj] and [āːj] the letters y and i also indicate the pronunciation of the main vowel: ay = ă + /j/ , ai = a + /j/ . Thus, tay "hand" is [tāj] while tai "ear" is [tāːj] . Similarly, u and o indicate different pronunciations of the main vowel: au = ă + /w/ , ao = a + /w/ . Thus, thau "brass" is [tʰāw] while thao "raw silk" is [tʰāːw] . The consonants that occur in Vietnamese are listed below in
5415-498: The eastern parts of Nghệ An including Vinh, the provincial capital, weakened the movement considerably by the spring of 1931. The revolt intensified in the Sông Cả valley in the west and in the adjacent province of Hà Tĩnh , however, and a new wave of demonstrations broke out around May Day. Just two months before in the month of March, public anger in Hue, Saigon and France at the brutality of
5510-552: The face of the colonial regime. Some scholars, including Duiker and Scott, see a more direct relation between the Great Depression and precariousness of village livelihoods during this period. They explain that the Depression exacerbated the general economic malaise of the poorer classes, citing the falling of rice prices and land values leading to a sharp drop in farm income and increasing penury. Bernal notes, however, that most of
5605-529: The failure was less striking, although the general level of poverty was even lower. These agricultural failures intensified hatred of the French, particularly because of the latter’s unwillingness to build irrigation works, as they had in Thanh-Hoa, the province immediately to the north, and in sharp contrast to their road and rail construction in Nghệ Tĩnh. Some believe that this persistent state of poverty and famine
5700-462: The financial and property management duties of the Nguyễn dynasty's imperial court, meaning that the Nguyễn dynasty emperor (at the time Thành Thái ) became a salaried employee of the Indochinese colonial structure, reducing their power to being only a civil servant of the protectorate government. The resident-superior of Annam also took over the management of provincial mandarins and was a member of
5795-399: The increasing repression and ignorance of demands. Peasants and workers demonstrated against county offices and even military posts, burned down administrative buildings, town halls and railway stations, destroy tax and other tax registers, and pillaged police stations. Some mandarins took a conciliatory stance towards the movement through fear or sympathy, and because in many parts the movement
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#17328489315615890-445: The last word will be ours.” In total, over a thousand Vietnamese lives were lost, but only one Frenchman was killed in the uprisings in 1930 and another during the military action against the rebellious provinces in 1931. Buttinger writes, “There is indeed no darker year in the entire period of French rule in Vietnam than 1931.” There were consequently severe disruptions to local administration. By September 1930, all administration below
5985-884: The late 19th and early 20th centuries ( Logan 1852, Forbes 1881, Müller 1888, Kuhn 1889, Schmidt 1905, Przyluski 1924, and Benedict 1942) classified Vietnamese as belonging to the Mon–Khmer branch of the Austroasiatic language family (which also includes the Khmer language spoken in Cambodia , as well as various smaller and/or regional languages , such as the Munda and Khasi languages spoken in eastern India, and others in Laos , southern China and parts of Thailand). In 1850, British lawyer James Richardson Logan detected striking similarities between
6080-446: The late 19th century, French gradually replaced Literary Chinese as the official language in education and government. Vietnamese adopted many French terms, such as đầm ('dame', from madame ), ga ('train station', from gare ), sơ mi ('shirt', from chemise ), and búp bê ('doll', from poupée ), resulting in a language that was Austroasiatic but with major Sino-influences and some minor French influences from
6175-526: The level of discontentment in these areas, even if it is recognised that they did provide a certain degree of leadership and organization in the uprisings and the village peasant sections (or soviets) which appeared during that time. During this period, correspondences between regional communist party and the Central Communist Party situated in Hong Kong show that the ICP hoped to achieve mobilization in
6270-427: The main syllable). When a minor syllable occurred, the main syllable's initial consonant was intervocalic and as a result suffered lenition , becoming a voiced fricative. The minor syllables were eventually lost, but not until the tone split had occurred. As a result, words in modern Vietnamese with voiced fricatives occur in all six tones, and the tonal register reflects the voicing of the minor-syllable prefix and not
6365-485: The national struggle. Others scholars, on the other hand, have pointed out that when the uprising began, the communist party had yet to establish itself deeply in the areas of unrest. Although the French Sûreté attributed the revolt largely to communist activity, much of what happened was very much beyond the control of the party. However, it is difficult to verify if the mobilizing activities of communist cadres raised
6460-405: The needy. Other activities included the digging of wells and dykes and the establishment of schools. In addition, village militias called đội tự vệ , usually armed with sticks and spears or knives, were formed for self-defence purposes. The ICP provided leadership to these associations. Bernal notes that the central committee was not in favour of this rapid dismantling of county administrations and
6555-497: The north and /j/ in the south). Not all dialects of Vietnamese have the same consonant in a given word (although all dialects use the same spelling in the written language). See the language variation section for further elaboration. Syllable-final orthographic ch and nh in Vietnamese has had different analyses. One analysis has final ch , nh as being phonemes /c/, /ɲ/ contrasting with syllable-final t , c /t/, /k/ and n , ng /n/, /ŋ/ and identifies final ch with
6650-481: The only form of organization available in some places. These associations have been often remembered as the “Soviets”, or more specifically, the “Nghe Tinh Soviets” ( Vietnamese : Xô Viết Nghệ Tĩnh ), although this was only a name given to them by the leaders of the Communist Party. These were usually formed by calling for a meeting of village residents in the local village đình , or communal temple, and electing
6745-453: The party in places where they knew people had acute grievances. Their reinforcement of genuine popular feelings appears to have been crucial. The role of the ICP in revolt was that it created clear organizational links which unified and coordinated previously disparate protests, explaining and generalising individual and local discontent. Also, it explicitly linked social justice to national independence and encouraged non-literati to join and lead
6840-405: The plain-voiced stops became voiceless and the allotones became new phonemic tones. The implosive stops were unaffected, and in fact developed tonally as if they were unvoiced. (This behavior is common to all East Asian languages with implosive stops.) As noted above, Proto-Viet–Muong had sesquisyllabic words with an initial minor syllable (in addition to, and independent of, initial clusters in
6935-404: The revolt mainly took place. Demonstrations expressed the general anger against French colonial policies such as heavy taxation and state monopolies on certain goods, as well as the corruption and perceived unfairness of local notables and mandarins. Demonstrators, while violent, were armed with little more than basic farm weapons, and were brutally suppressed by the overwhelming military strength of
7030-489: The revolt. New types of taxes were introduced over the years, such as a market tax and taxation of wood from the mountains, which was previously free. The imperial court at Hue was still in existence during this time but its power had been waning significantly. There was significant corruption among the mandarins and they were generally despised for their weakness in the face of the French and their adherence to outmoded traditions. Local village notables and local officials within
7125-454: The rural population appears to have been only slightly affected during the duration of the revolt because the Great Depression only took effect in Nghệ An and Hà Tĩnh, as in the rest of Indochina, only in the mid-1930s. The depression nevertheless affected the central Vietnamese local population in some ways. Firstly, poverty and density population had led many peasants to seek employment in plantations and factories which had to retrench or reduce
7220-546: The same except that ơ [əː] is of normal length while â [ə] is short – the same applies to the vowels long a [aː] and short ă [a] . The centering diphthongs are formed with only the three high vowels (i, ư, u). They are generally spelled as ia, ưa, ua when they end a word and are spelled iê, ươ, uô, respectively, when they are followed by a consonant. In addition to single vowels (or monophthongs ) and centering diphthongs, Vietnamese has closing diphthongs and triphthongs . The closing diphthongs and triphthongs consist of
7315-465: The same time, according to the following pattern: ^3 In Middle Vietnamese , the outcome of these sounds was written with a hooked b (ꞗ), representing a /β/ that was still distinct from v (then pronounced /w/ ). See below. ^4 It is unclear what this sound was. According to Ferlus 1992, in the Archaic Vietnamese period (c. 10th century AD, when Sino-Vietnamese vocabulary
7410-547: The setting up of “soviets” because the “time for revolution was not yet ripe”. However, since these peasant associations were mushrooming in many places, the Central Committee soon changed its approach and advised local Communist members to covertly direct and support the peasant association leaders in the soviets to “maintain and strengthen the influence of the party”. However, these associations tended to reassert traditional values in general, and did not establish new ones. In
7505-534: The split from Muong around the end of the first millennium AD, the following stages of Vietnamese are commonly identified: After expelling the Chinese at the beginning of the 10th century, the Ngô dynasty adopted Classical Chinese as the formal medium of government, scholarship and literature. With the dominance of Chinese came wholesale importation of Chinese vocabulary. The resulting Sino-Vietnamese vocabulary makes up about
7600-556: The strikes of early 1931 and the demonstrations to follow occurred. In late April 1930, the Annam regional committee of the Vietnamese Communist Party (VCP) ( Vietnamese : Đảng Cộng sản Việt Nam ) planned three major demonstrations in Nghệ An in alignment with other communist parties around the world commemorating May Day. (The Vietnamese Communist Party was the party under which the three competing communist factions – namely
7695-496: The strikes. These same planes dropped six bombs on the demonstrators, killing 140-200 people and wounding hundreds more. The following day, there was an outcry at the court in Huế. In addition to this, the fear of public opinion in France on the severity of the repression against largely unarmed demonstrators forced Le Fol to prohibit the use of bombing. Nevertheless, during the months to follow,
7790-505: The syllable-initial ch /c/ . The other analysis has final ch and nh as predictable allophonic variants of the velar phonemes /k/ and /ŋ/ that occur after the upper front vowels i /i/ and ê /e/ ; although they also occur after a , but in such cases are believed to have resulted from an earlier e /ɛ/ which diphthongized to ai (cf. ach from aic , anh from aing ). (See Vietnamese phonology: Analysis of final ch , nh for further details.) Each Vietnamese syllable
7885-444: The time, Dépêche d’Indochine , as early as 16 January 1930, wrote the following in response to a general French demand for revenge against nationalists who then had only committed a few isolated acts of terrorism: “There is another means to make oneself feared: terror. Corporal punishment, tortures, brutal methods will teach the crowds cowardly enough to listen to the inciters of rebellion that we, too, are terrible in repression and that
7980-567: The tones, whereby the tones in syllables with voiced initials were pronounced differently from those with voiceless initials. (Approximately speaking, the voiced allotones were pronounced with additional breathy voice or creaky voice and with lowered pitch. The quality difference predominates in today's northern varieties, e.g. in Hanoi , while in the southern varieties the pitch difference predominates, as in Ho Chi Minh City .) Subsequent to this,
8075-431: The uprisings, and the superiority of their weaponry clearly overpowered the largely unarmed demonstrators. It is reasonable to believe that at least certain quarters within the French administration were aware of the excesses that would occur given the overwhelming superiority of their military strength against the peasants and workers. Nevertheless, such brutal tactics of repression were pursued. A local French newspaper of
8170-422: The voicing of the main-syllable stop in Proto-Viet–Muong that produced the fricative. For similar reasons, words beginning with /l/ and /ŋ/ occur in both registers. (Thompson 1976 reconstructed voiceless resonants to account for outcomes where resonants occur with a first-register tone, but this is no longer considered necessary, at least by Ferlus.) Old Vietnamese/Ancient Vietnamese was a Vietic language which
8265-488: The wages of their workers due to a fall in global and local demand for their products. Cutbacks on commercial agriculture in Cochinchina led to the return of labourers to their homes in Nghệ An and Hà Tĩnh, exerting greater pressure on the already densely populated and famine ridden land. Secondly, the colonial regime which was more immediately affected by the downturn sharply accelerated the rate of tax increases and exaggerated
8360-418: The words they modify. It also uses noun classifiers . Its vocabulary has had significant influence from Middle Chinese and loanwords from French . Although it is often mistakenly thought as being an monosyllabic language, Vietnamese words typically consist of from one to many as eight individual morphemes or syllables; the majority of Vietnamese vocabulary are disyllabic and trisyllabic words. Vietnamese
8455-452: The world such as in the United States , Germany and France . Vietnamese has a large number of vowels . Below is a vowel diagram of Vietnamese from Hanoi (including centering diphthongs ): Front and central vowels (i, ê, e, ư, â, ơ, ă, a) are unrounded , whereas the back vowels (u, ô, o) are rounded. The vowels â [ə] and ă [a] are pronounced very short, much shorter than the other vowels. Thus, ơ and â are basically pronounced
8550-487: Was borrowed) it was * r̝ , distinct at that time from * r . The following initial clusters occurred, with outcomes indicated: A large number of words were borrowed from Middle Chinese , forming part of the Sino-Vietnamese vocabulary . These caused the original introduction of the retroflex sounds /ʂ/ and /ʈ/ (modern s , tr ) into the language. Proto-Viet–Muong did not have tones. Tones developed later in some of
8645-412: Was gaining strength and the initially weak colonial police presence was only being reinforced as the revolt progressed. Certain village notables also often refused to suppress the disorders and sometimes joined in. Where mandarins and village notables had not fled or cooperated, many were beaten, assassinated or executed. It is worth noting that much of the rebellious action could only aim indirectly against
8740-473: Was proposed by Hayes (1992), who proposed to redefine Viet–Muong as referring to a subbranch of Vietic containing only Vietnamese and Mường . The term " Vietic " is used, among others, by Gérard Diffloth , with a slightly different proposal on subclassification, within which the term "Viet–Muong" refers to a lower subgrouping (within an eastern Vietic branch) consisting of Vietnamese dialects, Mường dialects, and Nguồn (of Quảng Bình Province ). Austroasiatic
8835-812: Was separated from Viet–Muong around the 9th century, and evolved into Middle Vietnamese by 16th century. The sources for the reconstruction of Old Vietnamese are Nom texts, such as the 12th-century/1486 Buddhist scripture Phật thuyết Đại báo phụ mẫu ân trọng kinh ("Sūtra explained by the Buddha on the Great Repayment of the Heavy Debt to Parents"), old inscriptions, and a late 13th-century (possibly 1293) Annan Jishi glossary by Chinese diplomat Chen Fu (c. 1259 – 1309). Old Vietnamese used Chinese characters phonetically where each word, monosyllabic in Modern Vietnamese,
8930-401: Was shaped, co-ordinated and for the most part controlled by the Communist Party. The critical factor that caused the rebellion was the foundation and activities of the Communist Party, even if these themselves may have been precipitated by the international crisis of capitalism. The three demonstrations on May Day 1930 which began the movement in Nghệ An and Hà Tĩnh were planned and organized by
9025-402: Was what had facilitated a strong tradition of resistance and rebellion in these areas. As far back as the 19th century, there had been significant anti-French resistance there, led by patriotic scholars. To this day, the two provinces of Nghệ An and Hà Tĩnh have a reputation for having been the short fuses of Vietnam throughout history. There was a great deal of resentment against the policies of
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