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86-528: Due to New Mexico's unique political history and over 400 years of relative geographic isolation, New Mexican Spanish is unique within Hispanic America , with the closest similarities found only in certain rural areas of northern Mexico and Texas ; it has been described as unlike any form of Spanish in the world. This dialect is sometimes called Traditional New Mexican Spanish, or the Spanish Dialect of

172-709: A Mexican "macro-dialect" due to its historical origins and features, and has been called "an offshoot of the Spanish of northern Mexico". The other has been called Border Spanish, found in the southern third of New Mexico plus the Grants area in northwestern New Mexico and Crowley and Otero County, Colorado along the Arkansas River in southeastern Colorado. Although it is primarily the result of 20th-century Mexican immigration and its speakers typically have closer contact with Mexican Spanish, some Border Spanish speakers have ancestry in

258-500: A Northeastern dialect in its eastern portion. There is also evidence, albeit less clear-cut, of a distinct West Central dialect centered around an area to the southwest of Albuquerque. There also exists regional phonological variation within TNMS. For example, syllable-initial /s/ -aspiration, while occurring throughout New Mexico and Southern Colorado, is particularly notable along the upper Rio Grande between Albuquerque and Taos . Although

344-509: A Pueblo language. As a result, Puebloan languages borrowed many words from Spanish, while New Mexican Spanish borrowed fewer words from Pueblo languages. For an example of loanword phonological borrowing in Taos , see Taos loanword phonology . Most Puebloan loanwords in New Mexican Spanish have to do with people and place names, cultural artifacts, foods, and plants and herbs. One such loan is

430-402: A great variety and availability of seafood . In the inland communities of Spain, there is a long tradition of cured meat of different kinds, in addition to an abundance of dishes such as roasts and stews, based on beef, pork, lamb, and poultry. The European and Arab heritage of Spain is reflected in its food, along with cosmopolitan influences beginning in the many new ingredients brought in from

516-502: A la trucha , andar en la trucha , and cazar trucha . New Mexican Spanish, including both the Traditional and the Border varieties, has also regularized the gender of some nouns, such as idioma 'language' and sistema "system". That is, many speakers treat them as feminine, even though they are normatively considered masculine nouns. Residents of Martineztown , Albuquerque in

602-521: A language of home and community. The advance of English-language broadcast media accelerated the decline. Since then, New Mexican Spanish has been undergoing a language shift , with Hispanos gradually shifting towards English. In addition, New Mexican Spanish faces pressure from Standard and Mexican Spanish . Younger generations tend to use more Anglicisms and Mexican and standard Spanish forms. The words most characteristic of Traditional New Mexican Spanish, with few exceptions, are less likely to be found in

688-475: A lateral approximant that varies between alveolar and alveolo-palatal. There is no dedicated symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents the alveolo-palatal lateral approximant . If precision is desired, it may be transcribed ⟨ l̠ʲ ⟩ or ⟨ ʎ̟ ⟩; they are essentially equivalent because the contact includes both the blade and body (but not the tip) of

774-482: A lesser degree, in Panama , Ecuador , Colombia , and Venezuela . In some Hispanic American countries, the population of speakers of indigenous languages tends to be very small or even non-existent (e.g. Uruguay ). Mexico contains the largest variety of indigenous languages; there, the most spoken native language is Nahuatl. In Peru , Quechua is an official language, alongside Spanish and any other indigenous language in

860-432: A new dialect sometimes called Renovador . Today, the language can be heard in a popular folk genre called New Mexico music and preserved in the traditions of New Mexican cuisine . The Spanish language first arrived in present-day New Mexico with Juan de Oñate 's colonization expedition in 1598, which brought 600-700 settlers. Almost half the early settlers were from Spain, including many from New Spain , with most of

946-487: A sequence of /i/ followed by a coronal consonant . These often, but not always, occur before the diminutive endings -ito and -ita . Some examples are Anita [aˈn̩ta] , permiso 'permission' [perˈm̩so] , and bolita 'little ball' [boˈl̩ta] . Finally, a syllabic / r / appears, but only before /it/ , as in burrito [buˈr̩to] . For many speakers of TNMS the syllabic m̩ derived from mi has acquired an epenthetic -/e/ , becoming [em] . This

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1032-411: A staple of most meals as are pastas , potatoes, rice, paella and a variety of vegetables (Argentina is a huge exporter of agricultural products). Italian influence is also seen in the form of pizza and ice cream , both of which are integral components of national cuisine. Uruguayan cuisine is similar to that of Argentina, though seafood is much more dominant in this coastal nation. As another one of

1118-506: A tri-racial Creole culture. 1514 census records reveal that 40% of Spanish men in the colony of Santo Domingo had Taíno wives. The most common combinations are: • Mestizos , those of mixed ancestry. Spanish is the official language in most Hispanic American countries, and it is spoken by the vast majority of the population. Native American languages are widely spoken in Chile , Peru , Guatemala , Bolivia , Paraguay and Mexico , and, to

1204-403: A very low rate of internal migration, trade connections with Chihuahua were strengthening during this time. Many of the people who moved into New Mexico were traders from Chihuahua, who became socially very prominent. They likely introduced the weakening of ⟨y⟩ and ⟨ll⟩ to New Mexico, where it was adapted by the rest of the community. New Mexico's 1848 annexation by

1290-529: A wealth of seafood options, including the signature South American dish, ceviche . While potato is an important ingredient in the Highlands, Rice is the main side dish on the coast. This diversity in staples and cuisine is also evident in the differing regional cuisines within the national borders of the individual countries. While relatively unknown, there is a flag representing the countries of Spanish America, its people, history and shared cultural legacy. It

1376-664: Is a list of some characteristics of Traditional New Mexican Spanish's morphology, many of which are also found in Border Spanish: While many of the characteristics of Traditional New Mexican Spanish morphology are also characteristic of popular Spanish worldwide, some are more peculiar. All of these more peculiar verb forms are also found in rural Jalisco and Guanajuato, and some of these forms may also be found in Chihuahua, Durango, and Sonora, which were historically connected to New Mexico, as well as Tlaxcala. Also, all of these, with

1462-501: Is a type of consonantal sound used in some spoken languages . The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents this sound is ⟨ ʎ ⟩, a rotated lowercase letter ⟨y⟩ , and the equivalent X-SAMPA symbol is L . Many languages that were previously thought to have a palatal lateral approximant actually have a lateral approximant that is, broadly, alveolo-palatal ; that

1548-629: Is all the Spanish-speaking countries of the American continent . In all of these countries, Spanish is the main language - sometimes sharing official status with one or more indigenous languages (such as Guaraní , Quechua , Aymara , or Mayan ) or English (in Puerto Rico ), and Latin Catholicism is the predominant religion. Hispanic America is sometimes grouped together with Brazil under

1634-589: Is considerable variability in the pronunciation of Spanish rhotics in New Mexico. In addition to the realization of the tapped /ɾ/ as [ɹ] before coronal consonants or after /t/ and the replacement of the trilled /r/ with a tap, Vigil (2008) has found that in Taos /r/ is often realized as a voiced apical alveolar fricative [ ɹ̝ ] . Northern New Mexican Spanish, like Spanish in general, tends to avoid hiatus by combining or deleting vowels. One notable feature of hiatus resolution in northern New Mexico

1720-573: Is increasing, particularly in Guatemala , El Salvador , Honduras , Nicaragua , Puerto Rico and other countries. In particular, Pentecostalism has experienced massive growth. This movement is increasingly attracting Latin America's middle classes . Anglicanism also has a long and growing presence in Latin America. Voiced palatal lateral approximant The voiced palatal lateral approximant

1806-827: Is its vocabulary. New Mexican Spanish has retained a lot of older vocabulary, or common vocabulary with older meanings, that has been lost in other Spanish varieties. This is one of the reasons that it has often been called "archaic". It has also developed a large amount of unique vocabulary, inherited many Nahuatl loanwords from Mexican Spanish, and taken in more loanwords from neighboring indigenous languages and from English. New Mexican Spanish retains many older variants of common function words no longer current in standard Spanish, such as asina for así , 'like this/that', cuasi for casi , 'almost', muncho for mucho , 'a lot of; many', naide or nadien for nadie and onde for donde , 'where'. Many of these terms are found in

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1892-417: Is little evidence of the deletion and occasional epenthesis of ⟨y⟩ and ⟨ll⟩ in contact with front vowels, although that is a characteristic of modern New Mexican and northern Mexican Spanish. The presence of such deletion in areas close and historically connected to New Mexico makes it unlikely that New Mexicans independently developed this feature. Although colonial New Mexico had

1978-502: Is often reflected in writing, as em papá or empapá . The vowel system in Albuquerque shows some influence from English, especially in the form of /u/ - fronting . While New Mexican Spanish lacks the strong vowel reduction and centralization characteristic of English , children from Albuquerque do realize their unstressed vowels in a smaller vowel space. One of the most notable characteristics of Traditional New Mexican Spanish

2064-1060: Is one of the 62 native languages spoken by indigenous people in Mexico, which are officially recognized by the government as "national languages" along with Spanish. Other European languages spoken in Hispanic America include: English, by some groups in Puerto Rico and descendants of British settlers in Argentina and Chile; German, in southern Chile and portions of Argentina, Venezuela, and Paraguay ; Italian, in Argentina, Venezuela, and Uruguay; Ukrainian, Polish, and Russian in Argentina; and Welsh , in southern Argentina. Yiddish and Hebrew can be heard around Buenos Aires. Non-European or Asian languages include Japanese in Peru, Bolivia, and Paraguay; Korean in Argentina and Paraguay; Arabic in Argentina, Colombia, Venezuela, and Chile; and Chinese throughout South America. In several nations, especially in

2150-436: Is practically unknown in traditional Spanish–Caribbean dishes. The cuisine of Haiti, a country with a Francophone majority, is very similar to its regional neighbors in terms of influences and ingredients used. The Argentine diet is heavily influenced by the country's position as one of the world's largest beef and wine producers, and by the impact that European immigration had on its national culture. Grilled meats are

2236-573: Is spoken by a majority of the population (who are, for the most part, bilingual), and it is co-official with Spanish in the Argentine province of Corrientes . In Nicaragua , Spanish is the official language, but on the country's Caribbean coast English and indigenous languages such as Miskito , Sumo , and Rama also hold official status. Colombia recognizes all indigenous languages spoken within its territory as official, though fewer than 1% of its population are native speakers of these languages. Nahuatl

2322-527: Is the region closest to the border with Mexico. The southwestern sub-dialect is characterized by a number of word choices, all but one of which are typical of Mexican Spanish usage. For example, while most of New Mexico uses the term bolsa for 'purse', and the Río Arriba area north of Santa Fe uses maleta , while the southwestern corner of New Mexico uses the standard cartera . Also, southwestern New Mexico tends to use la craca for 'cracker', while

2408-862: Is the standard term, murciélago , and a murciégalo variant. Murciégalo may be a retention of the original form, before metathesis switched the l and the g , or it may be a metathesized variant of the standard form. The standard form, and murciégalo , are mainly found in the Border Spanish area, in Albuquerque and Santa Fe, and along the Arkansas River in Colorado. Several definite examples of metathesis have occurred in New Mexican Spanish: estógamo from estómago 'stomach', idomia from idioma 'language', pader from pared 'wall', probe from pobre 'poor' and redetir from derretir 'to melt'. While throughout

2494-511: Is the tendency to delete the initial /e/ of words beginning in /es/ before a consonant, such as estar , escribir , español . Thus, no escribo , 'I don't write', is pronounced [nosˈkɾivo] . Traditional New Mexican Spanish has a number of syllabic consonants . A syllabic [m̩] can arise as the result of mi or un before a bilabial consonant , as in un beso 'a kiss' [m̩ˈbeso] or mi papá 'my dad' [m̩paˈpa] . /m/ , /n/ and /l/ can also become syllabic before

2580-485: Is to be expected, given the continuous Hispanic presence in southern New Mexico since the colonial period, and the movement of some Traditional Spanish speakers to south of Las Cruces after the Mexican-American War. One sub-dialect of Border Spanish, identified by Bills and Vigil based on lexical criteria, can be found in the southwestern corner of the state, including Doña Ana County and the areas to its west. This

2666-431: Is to say, it is articulated at a place in-between the alveolar ridge and the hard palate (excluded), and it may be variously described as alveolo-palatal, lamino-postalveolar, or postalveolo-prepalatal. None of the 13 languages investigated by Recasens (2013) , many of them Romance , has a 'true' palatal. That is likely the case for several other languages listed here. Some languages, like Portuguese and Catalan, have

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2752-555: Is used is the Brule variety of Isleño Spanish , which has been greatly influenced by French. The term pantufla is also used in New Mexico for "slipper", but it's associated with the border region, and is widely used across Latin America and Spain. New Mexican Spanish has also been in substantial contact with American English . The contact with American English began before the Mexican–American War , when New Mexico did trade with

2838-584: Is widely available not just in the United States but across other countries, where American exports are found. In Florida, Cuban food is widely available. All of these Hispanic foods in the United States have evolved in character as they have been commercially americanized by large restaurant chains and food companies. The cuisine of Spain has many regional varieties, with Mediterranean flavors based on olive oil , garlic, and tomatoes and due to its long Atlantic and Mediterranean coastlines, has been graced with

2924-793: The Niña , Pinta , and Santa María , used in his first voyage from Spain to the New World in 1492. The deep lilac color of the crosses evokes the color of the lion on the coat of arms of the medieval Crown of Castile . The Spanish and the Portuguese took the Latin Catholic faith to their colonies in the Americas, Africa, and Asia; Roman Catholicism remains the predominant religion amongst most Hispanic Americans. Membership in Protestant denominations

3010-518: The French language in the early 18th century due to interactions with French Fur trappers and traders. These interactions increased after Mexican independence. Some family names, such as Archibeque, Gurulé, and Tixier, are attributable to French influence. New Mexican Spanish has otherwise borrowed few words from French, though two prominent ones are puela , meaning "skillet", and chamuz , meaning "slipper". The only other Spanish variety where puela

3096-475: The Nahuatl loanwords brought by some colonists (such as chimayó , or "obsidian flake", from Tewa and cíbolo , or buffalo, from Zuni ); independent lexical and morphological innovations; and a large proportion of English loanwords, particularly for technology (such as bos , troca , and telefón ). Despite surviving centuries of political and social change, including campaigns of suppression in

3182-524: The 1990s. Cuban, Dominican, and Puerto Rican cuisines, on the other hand, tend to use a lot of pork and can depend heavily on starchy root vegetables , plantain , and rice . The most prominent influences on their Spanish culinary traditions were introduced by African slaves, and to a lesser degree, French influence from Haiti and later Chinese immigrants. The use of spicy chile peppers of varying degrees of strength used as flavour enhancers in Mexican tradition

3268-466: The 20th and 21st centuries is not identical to the Spanish of the early colonial period. Many of the changes that occurred in older New Mexican Spanish are reflected in writing. For example, New Mexican Spanish speakers born before the Pueblo Revolt were generally not yeístas ; that is, they pronounced the ⟨ll⟩ and ⟨y⟩ sounds differently. After the Pueblo Revolt, New Mexico

3354-409: The 20th century, there was an attempt by both Anglos and Hispanos to link New Mexico's history and language to Spain rather than Mexico. This led to the occasional use of vosotros rather than ustedes in some newspaper ads. Since vosotros isn't actually part of New Mexican Spanish, in these advertisements it was used interchangeably with ustedes , occasionally with both being used in

3440-467: The Americas began in 1492, and ultimately was part of a larger historical process of world discovery , through which various European powers colonized a considerable amount of territory and peoples in the Americas, Asia, and Africa between the 15th and 20th centuries. Hispanic America became the main part of the vast Spanish Empire . Napoleon 's intervention in Spain in 1808 and the consequent chaos initiated

3526-524: The Americas , descendants of Incas , Aztecs , Mayan , Taíno , and others. • Those of European ancestry, mainly Spanish , and Italian . • Africans who were brought over to Hispanic America during the Slave Trade . Unlike in the United States, there were no anti-miscegenation policies in Latin America . Though still a racially stratified society there were no significant barriers to gene flow between

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3612-700: The Caribbean region, creole languages are spoken. Creole languages of mainland Latin America, similarly, are derived from European languages and various African tongues. The Garifuna language is spoken along the Caribbean coast in Honduras , Guatemala , Nicaragua and Belize mostly by the Garifuna people a mixed race Zambo people who were the result of mixing between Indigenous Caribbeans and escaped Black slaves. Primarily an Arawakan language , it has influences from Caribbean and European languages. Hispanic cuisine as

3698-572: The Navajo and other nomadic peoples, such as the Apache . As a result, New Mexican Spanish has borrowed few terms from their languages. Cobos (2003) gives only two examples of loans from Navajo: chihuil 'small valley' and josquere , as in the phrase andar en el josquere 'to be sowing one's wild oats'. The term gileño , referring to the Gila Apache, is cited as a loan from an Apache language . In

3784-586: The New World since the 16th century, e.g. tomatoes, potatoes, or chocolate, and the more modern tastes introduced from Europe since the 19th century, especially through French and Italian dishes. It is only in the last ten years that Hispanic American dishes have been introduced in Spain. In the United States and Canada, the number of Hispanic restaurants has become a growing trend, following the tapas -style restaurants fashion that first appeared in North America in

3870-623: The Spanish of Albuquerque has traditionally been considered part of the Traditional area, the high presence of Mexicanisms in Albuquerque Spanish has led some to consider it to constitute a third dialect zone, between Traditional and Border Spanish. In fact, the use of Mexicanisms is widespread across the Traditional Spanish zone, especially in Albuquerque and Santa Fe and among the younger generations. Some diversity in Border Spanish

3956-470: The Spanish spoken throughout the United States, as a result of language contact with English. For example, llamar para atrás for 'to call back' and other such seemingly-calqued expressions with pa(ra a)trás are widespread. In expressions where use of the subjunctive mood is considered obligatory according to prescriptive grammar norms, New Mexicans with greater proficiency in Spanish and greater education in Spanish are more likely to actually use

4042-563: The Spanish-speaking world, trucha means 'trout', throughout much of northern New Mexico and southern Colorado, trucha is used to refer to fish in general, instead of the standard pescado 'caught fish' or pez 'live fish'. This extension is generally found in the areas north of, and including, Santa Fe and San Miguel County . The verb truchear , literally 'to trout', is also used in this area to mean 'to fish', as are other verbal expressions such as pescar trucha , ir

4128-522: The U.S. led to a greater exposure to English. Nevertheless, the late-19th-century saw the development of print media, which allowed New Mexican Spanish to resist assimilation toward American English for many decades. The 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica , for instance, noted, "About one-tenth of the Spanish-American and Indian population [of New Mexico] habitually use the English language." At the beginning of

4214-668: The US, and increased after New Mexico's annexation by the US. One effect of this is semantic extension, using Spanish words with the meaning of their English cognates, such as using realizar to mean "to realize." Contact with English has also led to a general adoption of many loanwords, as well as a language shift towards English with abandonment of Spanish. Hispanic America The region known as Hispanic America ( Spanish : Hispanoamérica or América Hispana ) and historically as Spanish America ( Spanish : América Española ) or Castilian America ( Spanish : América Castellana )

4300-474: The United States, with its growing Hispanic population, food staples from Mexican cuisine and the cuisine from other Hispanic countries have become widely available. Over the years, the blending of these cuisines has produced unique American forms such as Tex-Mex cuisine . This cuisine, which originated in Texas, is based on maize products, heavily spiced ground beef, cheese and tomato sauces with chilies. This cuisine

4386-529: The Upper Rio Grande Region , to distinguish it from the relatively more recent Mexican variety spoken in the south of the state and among more recent Spanish-speaking immigrants. Among the distinctive features of New Mexican Spanish are the preservation of archaic forms and vocabulary from colonial-era Spanish (such as haiga instead of haya or Yo seigo , instead of Yo soy ); the borrowing of words from Puebloan languages, in addition to

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4472-443: The area trace their ancestry to Spanish-speaking New Mexican settlers. There are two main Spanish dialects in New Mexico and southern Colorado. One is what Bills and Vigil call Traditional New Mexican Spanish (abbreviated TNMS), spoken in the northern and central parts of the region, whose speakers generally represent early colonial settlement. TNMS has been the subject of extensive study. Despite TNMS' distinctiveness, it does fit into

4558-424: The areas where they predominate. In Ecuador , while holding no official status, the closely related Quichua is a recognized language of the indigenous people under the country's constitution; however, it is only spoken by a few groups in the country's highlands. In Bolivia , Aymara , Quechua and Guaraní hold official status alongside Spanish. Guaraní , along with Spanish, is an official language of Paraguay , and

4644-449: The basis of lexicon , is between the Río Arriba or upper river dialect and the rest of TNMS. This corresponds to the colonial separation between the Río Arriba and the Río Abajo , or lower river. The dialect boundary is an approximately east-west line running through Santa Fe. The Río Arriba dialect includes a North Central dialect in the middle portion of its dialect area and

4730-440: The colloquial speech of other regions as well. Asina and ansina are more often used instead of así when the speaker is talking about some activity related to a traditional, rural way of life. The variant ansí is also occasionally used in northern New Mexico, but it is much less frequent than the other ways. TNMS has also retained many content words that have been lost in other varieties. For example, TNMS retains

4816-535: The dismemberment of the Spanish Empire, as the Hispanic American territories began their struggle for emancipation . By 1830, the only remaining Spanish American territories were the islands of Cuba and Puerto Rico , until the 1898 Spanish–American War . The population of the Hispanic America is made up of the descendants of three large racial groups and their combinations : • The Indigenous peoples of

4902-423: The early 20th century, Traditional New Mexican Spanish is, as of the early 2020s, threatened with extinction over the next few decades; causes include rural flight from the isolated communities that preserved it, the growing influence of Mexican Spanish , and intermarriage and interaction between Hispanos and Mexican immigrants. The traditional dialect has increasingly mixed with contemporary varieties, resulting in

4988-432: The early 80s viewed the feminine form, la sistema , as slightly more correct than the traditional masculine. The regularization of feminine gender to nouns ending in -a has been expanding to younger generations. After 1848, New Mexican Spanish has had to adopt or coin its own terms for new technological developments. One such development is the invention of the automobile. Like much of Latin America, New Mexico extended

5074-653: The exception of the -mos to -nos shift, are also found in Chilote Spanish in the south of Chile, and several others are found in various other Spanish dialects throughout the world. These include: Also, although not part of verbal morphology, Traditional New Mexican Spanish often turns the clitic nos into los . This quite uncommon change is also found in Chilote Spanish, but not in rural Mexico. Some of these forms were, until recently, present in major cities. For example, creiga and -ates, -ites

5160-416: The future subjunctive tense and the second-person forms of address vuestra merced and vuestra señoría ; while the standard subjunctive form haya and the nonstandard form haiga of the auxiliary verb haber have always coexisted in New Mexican Spanish, the prevalence of the nonstandard haiga increased significantly over the colonial period. Before the middle of the 18th century, there

5246-538: The last generation of native speakers have kept TNMS alive largely as a sacred language , with many traditional devotions and prayers being in Spanish, and many native speakers are actively using the language with their children. New Mexican Spanish refers to the Spanish varieties spoken throughout the state of New Mexico and in the southern portion of Colorado; the label is applied to southern Colorado due to it having historically been part of New Mexico until statehood in 1876, and because most Spanish-speaking Coloradoans in

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5332-549: The meaning of carro 'cart' to include cars. Traditional New Mexican Spanish also ended up extending the term arrear , which referred to driving animals, to include driving cars, although the standard manejar is most common across New Mexico and southern Colorado. This is the same solution that was chosen in English. The word telefón , a loanword for 'telephone', is also used across New Mexico and southern Colorado, with little geographical patterning, being found as far south as Las Cruces. More educated speakers tend to use

5418-552: The opposite direction, Navajo, which typically doesn't adopt many loanwords, has borrowed some terms from Spanish as well. For example, the Navajo terms for "money" ( béeso ) and "Anglo" ( bilagáana ) are borrowings from Spanish peso and americano respectively. Hispanic contact with the Puebloans was much closer, though linguistic contact was somewhat uneven. Most of the bilinguals who mediated between Hispanics and Puebloans were themselves Puebloans since few Hispanics spoke

5504-749: The past. These same western regions of Spain were also the origin of many conquistadors who settled the Americas and who may have brought these dialect traits to various regions. These features may also be widespread because of ease of acquisitions in contact situations. That is, if various speakers of different dialects come together in a single area, those grammatical forms which are easiest to acquire may become dominant over time. The prevalence of these forms in Judaeo-Spanish varieties seems to support that hypothesis, since Judaeo-Spanish varieties typically had much heavier input from eastern Ibero-Romance dialects. Many features of New Mexican Spanish are shared with

5590-537: The region dating back hundreds of years. Both of these varieties contain various sub-dialects, although the Traditional area has greater variation between different communities, and it also has high idiolectal variation within the same community. This variation is a consequence of both historical isolation and the modern language shift towards English. The biggest dialect division within Traditional New Mexican Spanish, identified by Bills and Vigil on

5676-606: The rest from various parts of Latin America, the Canary Islands, and Portugal. Following the Pueblo Revolt in 1680, New Mexico was resettled again starting in 1692, primarily by refugees from the Pueblo Revolt and others born in northern New Spain. The Spanish-speaking areas with which New Mexico had the greatest contact were Chihuahua and Sonora . Likely as a result of these historical origins and connections, Traditional New Mexican Spanish shares many morphological features with

5762-533: The rest of New Mexico tends to use el craque . Forms with galleta 'cookie', such as galleta de sal 'salt cookie', are found throughout New Mexico. The Spanish spoken in New Mexico and Southern Colorado has a complex relationship with the norma culta or educated norm of standard Spanish grammar. New Mexican Spanish speakers are generally aware of and express preference for standard Mexican Spanish norms, although they often break these norms in daily conversation, and prefer salemos and pidimos to

5848-425: The rural Spanish of Chihuahua, Sonora, Durango, and other parts of Mexico. Colonial New Mexico was very isolated and had widespread illiteracy, resulting in most New Mexicans of the time having little to no exposure to "standard" Spanish. This linguistic isolation facilitated New Mexican Spanish's preservation of older vocabulary as well as its own innovations. During that time, contact with the rest of Spanish America

5934-411: The same ad. That artificial usage differs drastically from the natural usage of vosotros in Spain. After 1917, Spanish usage in the public sphere began to decline and it was banned in schools, with students often being punished for speaking the language. This punishment was occasionally physical. Newspapers published in Spanish switched to English or went out of business. From then on, Spanish became

6020-491: The same time retaining some archaisms characteristic of traditional New Mexican Spanish. The use of Mexicanisms is most prominent in Albuquerque and Santa Fe , compared to other areas in the north. Some older Spanish speakers have noted Mexican immigrants showing surprise at non-immigrants speaking Spanish. In Albuquerque, the use of Mexicanisms correlates only with age, with younger speakers, regardless of their parents' background, being more likely to use Mexicanisms. As of 2023,

6106-513: The speech of young people. This is in part due to language attrition. The decline in Spanish exposure in the home creates a vacuum, into which "English and Mexican Spanish flow easily." The first dictionary of New Mexican Spanish was published in 1983 by Rubén Cobos , with a second edition released in 2003. Into the 21st century, the Traditional New Mexican Spanish of northern New Mexico, including Albuquerque , has been heavily influenced by Mexican Spanish, incorporating numerous Mexicanisms, while at

6192-401: The standard salimos 'we leave' and pedimos 'we request'. That said, New Mexican Spanish, especially the Traditional variety, is known for a large number of nonstandard forms. Use of such forms is not universal, usually correlates negatively with education, and the most characteristic traits of Traditional New Mexican Spanish are generally more common among older speakers. The following

6278-524: The standard teléfono . The word oso 'bear' is occasionally pronounced joso in TNMS, with the nonstandard form being more common among old people. New Mexican Spanish has been in contact with several indigenous American languages, most prominently those of the Pueblo and Navajo peoples with whom the Spaniards and Mexicans coexisted in colonial times. For centuries, Hispanics had hostile relations with

6364-596: The study, half the White populations of the Latin American countries studied have some degree of either Native American or African admixture ( MtDNA or Y chromosome ). In countries such as Chile and Colombia almost the entire white population was shown to have some non-European admixture. Frank Moya Pons , a Dominican historian documented that Spanish colonists intermarried with Taíno women, and, over time, these mestizo descendants intermarried with Africans, creating

6450-635: The subjunctive. However, it is worth noting that even in monolingual Spanish varieties, such as that of Mexico City, speakers do not always use the subjunctive mood in such supposedly obligatory situations. The pronunciation of Spanish in New Mexico is generally "akin to that of northern Mexico", and shares the same general intonation patterns as northern Mexico. It shows the following general traits: The following tendencies are common in Traditional New Mexican Spanish, though are not universal, and many are characteristic of Border Spanish or colloquial Spanish worldwide: intervocalic /b, g/ or initial /b/ There

6536-450: The term cunque , which comes from either a Zuni word for "bits of ground corn or cornmeal used for ceremonial purposes" or a Rio Grande Tewa term for grains of corn. It's most commonly used to mean "coffee grounds". This usage is also attested in northern Chihuahua . It's also used to mean "crumbs" by speakers from south-western New Mexico, although speakers elsewhere prefer the standard migajas . New Mexico came into contact with

6622-550: The term " Ibero-America ", meaning those countries in the Americas with cultural roots in the Iberian Peninsula . Hispanic America also contrasts with Latin America , which includes not only Hispanic America, but also Brazil (the former Portuguese America ) and the former French colonies in the Western Hemisphere (areas that are now in either the United States or Canada are usually excluded). The Spanish conquest of

6708-460: The term is applied in the Western Hemisphere , is a misnomer. What is usually considered Hispanic cuisine in the United States is mostly Mexican and Central American cuisine. Mexican cuisine is composed of mainly indigenous— Aztec and Mayan —and Spanish influences. Mexican cuisine is considered intangible cultural heritage by UNESCO and can be found all over the United States. In

6794-494: The three populations. As a result, admixture profiles are a reflection of the colonial populations of Africans, Europeans and Amerindians. The pattern is also sex biased in that the African and Amerindian maternal lines are found in significantly higher proportions than African or Amerindian Y chromosomal lines. This is an indication that the primary mating pattern was that of European males with Amerindian or African females. According to

6880-588: The tongue. There is also a non-IPA letter U+0234 ȴ LATIN SMALL LETTER L WITH CURL ; ⟨ ȴ ⟩ ("l", plus the curl found in the symbols for alveolo-palatal sibilant fricatives ⟨ ɕ , ʑ ⟩ ) is used especially in Sinological circles. The voiced palatal lateral approximant contrasts phonemically with its voiceless counterpart /ʎ̥/ in the Xumi language spoken in China. Features of

6966-501: The word ánsara , meaning ' goose '. ánsara is a feminine form of the term ánsar , which referred to wild geese, while ganso referred to the domesticated goose. That distinction seems to no longer be made, and ganso has become the typical term throughout most of the Spanish-speaking world. Independent lexical innovations have occurred in TNMS. One example is the coining of ratón volador lit.   ' flying mouse ' to mean ' bat '. Also found in New Mexico

7052-442: The world's largest producers, wine is as much a staple drink to Uruguayans as beer is to Germans. In Colombia , Ecuador , Peru and Chile , potato dishes are typical since the potato is originally from this region. Beef and chicken are common sources of meat. In the Highlands is the cuy , a South American name for guinea pig , a common meat. Given the coastal location, both countries have extensive fishing fleets, which provide

7138-681: Was created in October 1933 by Ángel Camblor, captain of the Uruguayan army . It was adopted by all the states of Spanish America during the Pan-American Conference of the same year in Montevideo , Uruguay . The white background stands for peace, while the Inti sun god of Inca mythology symbolizes the light shining on the Americas, and the three crosses represent Christopher Columbus ' caravels ,

7224-596: Was documented among the lower class of Bogotá in the middle of the 19th century, and -ates, -ites was present in Mexico City's lower class speech in the late 1800s. This shows that social exclusion and marginalization, as well as geographical remoteness, can help to preserve such nonstandard forms. All of these variants have been documented in rural areas of western Spain, such as in León, Salamanca, western Andalucia, and Extremadura, and they seem to have been more widespread in

7310-504: Was limited because of the Comancheria , and New Mexican Spanish developed closer trading links to the Comanche than to the rest of New Spain . In the meantime, some Spanish colonists co-existed with and intermarried with Puebloan peoples and Navajos , also enemies of the Comanche. Like most languages, New Mexican Spanish gradually evolved. As a result the Traditional New Mexican Spanish of

7396-417: Was re-settled with many new settlers coming in from central Mexico, in addition to returning New Mexican colonists. These new settlers generally did merge the two sounds, and dialect leveling resulted in later generations of New Mexicans consistently merging / ʎ / and / ʝ / . Colonial New Mexican Spanish also adopted some changes which occurred in the rest of the Spanish speaking world, like the elimination of

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