92-799: The New Guard was an Australian fascist paramilitary organisation during the Great Depression . It was the largest and most successful fascist organisation in Australian history. The New Guard, known for its violent agitation against NSW Premier Jack Lang , was founded and led by Eric Campbell . At its peak, membership was estimated to be around 50,000. The group's membership was predominantly made up of Anglo - Protestant , monarchist and anti-communist elements. The organisation attracted great publicity when member Captain Francis de Groot , on horseback and at Campbell's direction, upstaged Lang in cutting
184-611: A City of Rockdale councillor, and contested the seat of Rockdale for the Liberal Democrats at the 1944 state election . Additionally, Aubrey Murphy, the candidate in Concord, served on two occasions as mayor of the Blue Mountains City Council in the 1950s, and was named an MBE in the 1960 New Year Honours . With the exception of occasional speaking engagements, Campbell largely withdrew from public life following
276-405: A negative nature and therefore stipulate that other individuals and governments are to refrain from interfering with the free market, opposing social liberals who assert that individuals have positive rights , such as the right to vote, the right to an education, the right to healthcare , and the right to a minimum wage. For society to guarantee positive rights, it requires taxation over and above
368-526: A pure democracy , reasoning that in a pure democracy a "common passion or interest will, in almost every case, be felt by a majority of the whole ... and there is nothing to check the inducements to sacrifice the weaker party". In the late 19th century, classical liberalism developed into neoclassical liberalism , which argued for government to be as small as possible to allow the exercise of individual freedom . In its most extreme form, neoclassical liberalism advocated social Darwinism . Right-libertarianism
460-609: A standard 52-card deck (excluding queens). Keeping with the theme of playing cards, the Fascist Legion's leader was led by "the Joker". Its membership was estimated at 49. Besides investigating disloyalty and laxity within the New Guard, they purportedly engaged in targeted operations such as the aforementioned attack on Jock Garden. They were reported to be planning kidnappings and police arm store raids. The activity of splinter groups such as
552-465: A state of nature . These beliefs were complemented by a belief that financial incentive could best motivate labourers. This belief led to the passage of the Poor Law Amendment Act 1834 , which limited the provision of social assistance, based on the idea that markets are the mechanism that most efficiently leads to wealth. Drawing on ideas of Adam Smith , classical liberals believed that it
644-825: A 'general mobilisation'. De Groot had stated that he 'felt that, the best reply to force, was greater force' and by May 1932 Campbell had started inciting street brawls, and came close to staging a coup d'état against the Lang government. Against this backdrop, the state Labor party formed a number of militias including the Workers' Defence Army (WDA), the Labor Defence Corps (LDC) and the Australian Labor Army (ALA), formed by Lang's supporters. Street fights between Lang's Labor Army and fascist paramilitary groups, including Sir Thomas Blamey 's Victorian-based "White Army, also known as
736-608: A contact Campbell had in the NSW Police Force , the police were reporting large street gatherings and were requesting reinforcements from all over the city. On 19 March 1932, the New Guard interrupted the much-anticipated opening of the Sydney Harbour Bridge . The New Guard had wanted to have Sir Philip Game open the bridge on behalf of King George V , but Lang refused, stating that "I will open it myself, it'll be cheaper". The New Guard declared that Lang would not perform
828-608: A defence of the Glorious Revolution of 1688. Although these writings were considered too radical at the time for Britain's new rulers, Whigs, radicals and supporters of the American Revolution later came to cite them. However, much of later liberal thought was absent in Locke's writings or scarcely mentioned and his writings have been subject to various interpretations. For example, there is little mention of constitutionalism ,
920-651: A dominant ideology following the Glorious Revolution of 1688 and was associated with supporting the British Parliament, upholding the rule of law, defending landed property and sometimes included freedom of the press and freedom of speech. The origins of rights were seen as being in an ancient constitution existing from time immemorial . Custom rather than as natural rights justified these rights. Whigs believed that executive power had to be constrained. While they supported limited suffrage, they saw voting as
1012-442: A fascist State", most notably incorporating a "non-elective cabinet or commission, a corporative assembly, vocational franchise and a charter of liberty". He also stated his intentions to contest the next state election, a date for which had not yet been set. Campbell's memoirs state that due to the New Guard's opposition to party politics and unwillingness to align themselves with either side, they were often dubbed "fascists". Though
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#17328519733751104-581: A few hundred New Guardsmen would select for themselves a Locality Commanders and Administrator to handle affairs, and each Locality would frequently meet at Locality Conventions to discuss and vote on matters. The Locality Commanders of each Division would select Divisional Commanders, and said Divisional Commanders would meet to pick the Zone Commander for their respective Zone. Divisional and Zone Commanders would only assume active command positions when more than one of their respective subdivisions were active in
1196-573: A fight between New Guardsmen and communists in Darlinghurst. On 13 February 1932, 700 New Guardsmen practised military drills in Belmore and a number of journalists who attempted to document the drills were assaulted. A few days later, 13 members of the New Guard were arrested after violently disrupting a political meeting in Coffs Harbour . Violent attacks on leftist meetings continued for weeks as part of
1288-454: A man tills, plants, improves, cultivates, and can use the product of", this principle held great appeal to individuals possessed of great wealth. Locke held that the individual had the right to follow his own religious beliefs and that the state should not impose a religion against Dissenters , but there were limitations. No tolerance should be shown for atheists , who were seen as amoral, or to Catholics , who were seen as owing allegiance to
1380-479: A medium was no use. Nevertheless, Campbell's tour across the fascist powers of Europe left him deeply impressed with the ideology. However, on his return to Australia, Campbell's support for an "openly pro-fascist policy" was met with strong opposition from the Guard's "anti-fascist moderates". These attempts to establish the movement as what historian Keith Amos dubs "Australia's first fascist party" are thought to hastened
1472-485: A particular objective, therefore making Localities especially independent in the operation of the New Guard. The executive branch of the New Guard was the General Council, consisting of the leading Chief Commander and four Zone Commanders with equal voting power. The General Council was only to make decisions regarding major executive matters, and questions regarding routine and defensive emergencies would be directed to
1564-989: A petition to Sir Game. Paramilitary A paramilitary is a military that is not a part of a country's official or legitimate armed forces. The Oxford English Dictionary traces the use of the term "paramilitary" as far back as 1934. Though a paramilitary is, by definition, not a military , it is usually equivalent to a light infantry or special forces in terms of strength, firepower, and organizational structure. Paramilitaries use combat-capable kit/equipment (such as internal security / SWAT vehicles ), or even actual military equipment (such as long guns and armored personnel carriers ; usually military surplus resources), skills (such as battlefield medicine and bomb disposal ), and tactics (such as urban warfare and close-quarters combat ) that are compatible with their purpose, often combining them with skills from other relevant fields such as law enforcement , coast guard , or search and rescue . A paramilitary may fall under
1656-506: A privilege rather than as a right. However, there was no consistency in Whig ideology and diverse writers including John Locke , David Hume , Adam Smith and Edmund Burke were all influential among Whigs, although none of them were universally accepted. From the 1790s to the 1820s, British radicals concentrated on parliamentary and electoral reform, emphasising natural rights and popular sovereignty. Richard Price and Joseph Priestley adapted
1748-539: A socialist revolution from taking place. At the height of its popularity the organisation enjoyed close ties with the NSW Police Force , Attorney-General's Department and the Department of Defence , and boasted 30,000 members comprising strongly of rural New South Welshmen and wealthy Protestant Anglo-Saxons . Among the Old Guard's members was World War I veteran Eric Campbell , an army officer and former gunner with
1840-543: A unanimous vote. This committee would be tasked with the recruitment of members and their separation by localities across the Sydney and regional New South Wales areas. Following the meeting at Cahill's, the structure of the organisation was revised in an attempt to exercise "practical democracy". The power allotted to each position in the New Guard changed as the organisation was built. The area of Greater Sydney would be broken down into four independent Zones: A Zone , consisting of
1932-555: Is a modern form of neoclassical liberalism. However, Edwin Van de Haar states although classical liberal thought influenced libertarianism, there are significant differences between them. Classical liberalism refuses to give priority to liberty over order and therefore does not exhibit the hostility to the state which is the defining feature of libertarianism. As such, right-libertarians believe classical liberals do not have enough respect for individual property rights and lack sufficient trust in
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#17328519733752024-524: Is considered closely tied to, or synonymous with, American libertarianism . Core beliefs of classical liberals included new ideas – which departed from both the older conservative idea of society as a family and from the later sociological concept of society as a complex set of social networks . Classical liberals agreed with Thomas Hobbes that individuals created government to protect themselves from each other and to minimize conflict between individuals that would otherwise arise in
2116-458: Is how much government intervenes into the economy. ... When instead we discuss human purpose and the meaning of life, Adam Smith and John Maynard Keynes are on the same side. Both of them possessed an expansive sense of what we are put on this earth to accomplish. ... For Smith, mercantilism was the enemy of human liberty. For Keynes, monopolies were. It makes perfect sense for an eighteenth-century thinker to conclude that humanity would flourish under
2208-465: Is the chief source from which it draws its strength". On the other hand, Gallican liberty "is sought in government ... . [T]he French look for the highest degree of political civilisation in organisation, that is, in the highest degree of interference by public power". French physiocracy heavily influenced British classical liberalism, which traces its roots to the Whigs and Radicals . Whiggery had become
2300-490: Is thought to have represented "merely the level of protest against [UAP Premier] Stevens" in the absence of other candidates. In Arncliffe , the only seat that required a preference distribution, the majority (56.78%) of Centre Party preferences flowed to the United Australia candidate, Horace Harper , who was defeated by Labor 's Joseph Cahill , a future premier. Enoch Jones, the candidate for Arncliffe, later served as
2392-526: The Centre Party , it unsuccessfully contested five seats at the 1935 New South Wales state election . The party failed to win a single seat, polling 0.60 per cent of the vote. Following the election, Campbell withdrew from public life. Both the party and the New Guard disbanded shortly afterwards. In response to the election of Jack Lang as Premier of New South Wales , and rising pressure from trade unionists , counter-movements began to rise in opposition to
2484-496: The First Australian Imperial Force . Campbell had been introduced to the Old Guard by John Scott, a fellow member of the board of Sydney insurance company Sun Insurance. Over time, Campbell grew discontented with the Old Guard. The organisation was sworn to absolute secrecy of membership, and was divided into cells as to conceal the identity of its leadership. Campbell disagreed with this arrangement, asserting that
2576-619: The Labor Party . Among them was the Old Guard , a secret organisation purported to exist as early as 1917, which at the time of the Great Depression was administrated primarily by businessmen Roger Goldfinch and Robert Gillespie, among other anonymous committee members. The Old Guard was a coalition of imperial loyalists , devoted to the British Empire and ready to act preemptively to prevent
2668-458: The League of National Security , and the New Guard became increasingly common as the New Guard attempted to discredit the left by starting brawls or other breaches of the peace. Though the New Guard sought to work as a supplement to the police in the event of a socialist revolution, they were significantly opposed under orders from the Lang government. Of particular use to Lang in opposing the New Guard
2760-589: The free market 's workings and spontaneous order leading to their support of a much larger state. Right-libertarians also disagree with classical liberals as being too supportive of central banks and monetarist policies. Friedrich Hayek identified two different traditions within classical liberalism, namely the British tradition and the French tradition: Hayek conceded that the national labels did not exactly correspond to those belonging to each tradition since he saw
2852-449: The separation of powers and limited government . James L. Richardson identified five central themes in Locke's writing: Although Locke did not develop a theory of natural rights, he envisioned individuals in the state of nature as being free and equal. The individual, rather than the community or institutions, was the point of reference. Locke believed that individuals had given consent to government and therefore authority derived from
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2944-531: The 1850s. Jeremy Bentham and James Mill , although advocates of laissez-faire , non-intervention in foreign affairs, and individual liberty, believed that social institutions could be rationally redesigned through the principles of utilitarianism . The Conservative Prime Minister Benjamin Disraeli rejected classical liberalism altogether and advocated Tory democracy . By the 1870s, Herbert Spencer and other classical liberals concluded that historical development
3036-592: The 18th century, with origins in capitulations of the Ottoman Empire , dating back to the first commercial treaties signed with France in 1536 and taken further with capitulations in 1673, in 1740 which lowered duties to only 3% for imports and exports and in 1790. Ottoman free trade policies were praised by British economists advocating free trade such as J. R. McCulloch in his Dictionary of Commerce (1834) but criticized by British politicians opposing free trade such as Prime Minister Benjamin Disraeli , who cited
3128-466: The Centre Party at all. Later writers have suggested that the party's lack of success at the 1935 election represented "an electoral brick-wall", with the party overall a "failure" and Campbell's movement having "lost most of its drive". At its inception, the administrative structure of the New Guard consisted of an Organising Committee led by a chairman with powers to add more committee members by way of
3220-683: The Chief Commander would be deprived of a vote. Intelligence on the New Guard's political rivals would be collected by the individual Localities and submitted to the Chief of the Intelligence Branch for collation. While being essential to the New Guard's functionality, it was sometimes inaccurate in its intelligence gathering; flawed analysis of the political demographics of Sydney claimed that there were 252,473 Communists in ten Sydney electorates alone. As Campbell allowed considerable independence for
3312-533: The Chief Commander, or Deputy Chief Commander if the former was absent. During the period of structural preparation the Chief Commander was to not interfere in the movement's formation, and only assume complete executive involvement once the Locality system was completely established. To put checks on the General Council's power, Campbell formed the Council of Action, consisting of the Chief Commander and Divisional Commanders;
3404-508: The Fascist Legion contributed to the bleeding of members in the lead-up to Lang's dismissal by Sir Philip Game . Standards for New Guard membership had prospective members picked irrespective of class, financial situation or party affiliations, so long as they were of good character. For maximal utility, the membership system was split into three groups: New Guardsmen of their own Locality were encouraged to participate during Locality Conventions to decide matters specific to their area. A member
3496-641: The First World War. Its notable victories were the Roman Catholic Relief Act 1829 , the Reform Act of 1832 and the repeal of the Corn Laws in 1846. The Anti-Corn Law League brought together a coalition of liberal and radical groups in support of free trade under the leadership of Richard Cobden and John Bright , who opposed aristocratic privilege, militarism, and public expenditure and believed that
3588-653: The Frenchmen Montesquieu , Benjamin Constant , Joseph De Maistre and Alexis de Tocqueville as belonging to the British tradition and the British Thomas Hobbes , Joseph Priestley , Richard Price , Edward Gibbon , Benjamin Franklin , Thomas Jefferson and Thomas Paine as belonging to the French tradition. Hayek also rejected the label laissez-faire as originating from the French tradition and alien to
3680-541: The Guard could not go through with its order for lack of funds. Campbell's naïve offer to step in to break a seamen's strike in October 1931 was rebuffed by shipowners. Assisted by motorcar, the New Guard developed a strategy of regularly disrupting left-wing workers' meetings, spending much of the 1932 summer doing so. During December 1931, Captain Francis de Groot organised around 1,000 New Guardsmen to attack leftist meetings. On 11 December 1931, three policemen were injured in
3772-501: The Localities and permitted members to associate freely with any political party so long that the New Guard's central values were upheld, splinter groups such as the Fascist Legion (also known as the Pack of Cards) formed. Legion members wore Ku Klux Klan -style gowns and hoods at their own internal meetings in order to guarantee anonymity, adopting pseudonyms based on particular playing cards in
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3864-420: The New Guard began to lose popularity as the organisation's purpose was perceived as having been fulfilled. The activities of militant splinter groups emerging from the New Guard, such as the Fascist Legion, also contributed to a rush of resignations which began even before Lang's dismissal. By mid-1932, the New Guard was largely a spent force. With their main objective complete – the removal of Lang from office –
3956-486: The New Guard bore resemblance to the militant Blackshirts in Italy , its strong adherence to individualism found it disqualified it from this definition. Campbell was curious to learn about fascism from the source however, so in 1933 during an overseas business trip, he met with Sir Oswald Mosley and wife Lady Cynthia at their London home to discuss the matter. His experience was overall positive, and while unimpressed with
4048-578: The New Guard continued to lose members as it drifted into the mid-1930s. Even de Groot left the organisation in November 1932, pursuing collaboration with the Melbourne-based League of National Security by which the White Army was also known. It was during this time that Campbell began to outline more fully his political beliefs, producing a series of broadcasts in which he developed a "complete credo for
4140-557: The New Guard entered into party politics. The Centre Party was officially established in December 1933 at a meeting of over 1,000 people, with The Sydney Morning Herald reporting that 100 branches of the party would be established. The majority of the shrinking organisation endorsed its move into electoral politics, which was, according to Campbell, "necessitated by the failure of the UAP governments, at both federal and state levels, to accede to
4232-560: The New Guard's demands". Due to a lack of time needed to organise the campaign, the party did not contest the September 1934 federal election. An August 1934 meeting of the New Guard reaffirmed Campbell as leader, and resolved to "make itself felt in the next State elections". At the May 1935 New South Wales state election , the Centre Party contested five out of the 90 Legislative Assembly districts, all in suburban Sydney , and polled 0.60 percent of
4324-417: The Old Guard agreed, in mid-February, to form a separate body which would be diametrically opposed to the Old Guard's secrecy and what they considered its inaction. The New Guard was officially formed on 16 March 1931, built on a common ideological system of monarchism , classic liberalism and anti-communism . Campbell was voted Chief Commander. Within a few weeks its membership had swelled. The New Guard
4416-445: The Ottoman Empire as "an instance of the injury done by unrestrained competition" in the 1846 Corn Laws debate, arguing that it destroyed what had been "some of the finest manufactures of the world" in 1812. Defunct Newspapers Journals TV channels Websites Other Economics Gun rights Identity politics Nativist Religion Watchdog groups Youth/student groups Miscellaneous Other In
4508-581: The Pope over their own national government. Adam Smith 's The Wealth of Nations , published in 1776, was to provide most of the ideas of economics, at least until the publication of John Stuart Mill 's Principles of Political Economy in 1848. Smith addressed the motivation for economic activity, the causes of prices and the distribution of wealth and the policies the state should follow to maximise wealth. Smith wrote that as long as supply, demand, prices and competition were left free of government regulation,
4600-597: The United States, liberalism took a strong root because it had little opposition to its ideals, whereas in Europe liberalism was opposed by many reactionary or feudal interests such as the nobility; the aristocracy, including army officers; the landed gentry; and the established church. Thomas Jefferson adopted many of the ideals of liberalism, but in the Declaration of Independence changed Locke's "life, liberty and property" to
4692-490: The backbone of Great Britain was the yeoman farmer. Their policies of low public expenditure and low taxation were adopted by William Gladstone when he became Chancellor of the Exchequer and later Prime Minister . Classical liberalism was often associated with religious dissent and nonconformism . Although classical liberals aspired to a minimum of state activity, they accepted the principle of government intervention in
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#17328519733754784-608: The bare term liberalism often means classical liberalism. Classical liberalism gained full flowering in the early 18th century, building on ideas dating at least as far back as the 16th century, within the Iberian, British, and Central European contexts, and it was foundational to the American Revolution and "American Project" more broadly. Notable liberal individuals whose ideas contributed to classical liberalism include John Locke , Jean-Baptiste Say , Thomas Malthus , and David Ricardo . It drew on classical economics , especially
4876-694: The beliefs of Hume and Smith. Guido De Ruggiero also identified differences between "Montesquieu and Rousseau, the English and the democratic types of liberalism" and argued that there was a "profound contrast between the two Liberal systems". He claimed that the spirit of "authentic English Liberalism" had "built up its work piece by piece without ever destroying what had once been built, but basing upon it every new departure". This liberalism had "insensibly adapted ancient institutions to modern needs" and "instinctively recoiled from all abstract proclamations of principles and rights". Ruggiero claimed that this liberalism
4968-516: The best guide and emphasised "limited government" while social liberals supported government regulation and the welfare state. Herbert Spencer in Britain and William Graham Sumner were the leading neo-classical liberal theorists of the 19th century. The evolution from classical to social/welfare liberalism is for example reflected in Britain in the evolution of the thought of John Maynard Keynes . The Ottoman Empire had liberal free trade policies by
5060-450: The ceremony in his World War I 15th Hussars uniform, managing to slash the ribbon before Lang. De Groot was pulled from his horse and detained, later being fined £9 (equivalent to $ 859.99 in 2017). The Mayor of North Sydney, Hubert Primrose, an official participant at the opening ceremony, was also a member of the New Guard. On 6 May 1932, Trades and Labour Council secretary John (Jock) Garden , an influential member of Lang's inner circle,
5152-477: The ceremony, with Campbell calling Lang a 'tyrant and scoundrel' and declaring that Lang would never open the Harbour Bridge. Rumours began to circulate of a plot to kidnap Lang. During the opening ceremony, army officer and zone commander Francis de Groot upstaged Jack Lang by slashing the ceremonial ribbon with his sword. De Groot was supplied with a horse by fellow New Guardsmen Albert Reichard and he rode to
5244-441: The command of a military , train alongside them, or have permission to use their resources, despite not actually being part of them. Under the law of war , a state may incorporate a paramilitary organization or armed agency (such as a law enforcement agency or a private volunteer militia ) into its combatant armed forces. Some countries' constitutions prohibit paramilitary organizations outside government use . Depending on
5336-418: The context of American politics, "classical liberalism" may be described as "fiscally conservative" and "socially liberal". Despite this, classical liberals tend to reject the right 's higher tolerance for economic protectionism and the left's inclination for collective group rights due to classical liberalism's central principle of individualism . Additionally, in the United States, classical liberalism
5428-421: The country centres of regional NSW. For practical reasons, Campbell's internal estimations of membership count focused on those that the New Guard could rely on in the event of a socialist revolution. In that he estimated the figure at 20,000. For propaganda reasons, the New Guard's membership was often publicly exaggerated, as when Campbell foreshadowed a procession of 100,000 men along Macquarie Street to present
5520-516: The decline of the New Guard, with many previous members unhappy with the ideological progression that had taken place. One year later he would pen his manifesto The New Road which put forward his case for an Australian application of Italian corporate statism . One idea expressed in Campbell's manifesto was that the emergence of a "centre party" in Australia was inevitable. While initially satisfied by
5612-540: The definition adopted, "paramilitaries" may include: Classic liberalism Classical liberalism is a political tradition and a branch of liberalism that advocates free market and laissez-faire economics and civil liberties under the rule of law , with special emphasis on individual autonomy, limited government , economic freedom , political freedom and freedom of speech . Classical liberalism, contrary to liberal branches like social liberalism , looks more negatively on social policies , taxation and
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#17328519733755704-585: The economic ideas espoused by Adam Smith in Book One of The Wealth of Nations , and on a belief in natural law . In contemporary times, Friedrich Hayek , Milton Friedman , Ludwig von Mises , Thomas Sowell , George Stigler , Larry Arnhart , Ronald Coase and James M. Buchanan are seen as the most prominent advocates of classical liberalism. However, other scholars have made reference to these contemporary thoughts as neoclassical liberalism , distinguishing them from 18th-century classical liberalism. In
5796-573: The economy from the early 19th century on, with passage of the Factory Acts . From around 1840 to 1860, laissez-faire advocates of the Manchester School and writers in The Economist were confident that their early victories would lead to a period of expanding economic and personal liberty and world peace, but would face reversals as government intervention and activity continued to expand from
5888-415: The economy, to supervise standards of life and labour, to regulate the methods of business competition, and to establish comprehensive patterns of social security. Alan Wolfe summarizes the viewpoint that there is a continuous liberal understanding that includes both Adam Smith and John Maynard Keynes : The idea that liberalism comes in two forms assumes that the most fundamental question facing mankind
5980-466: The election, and spent most of the rest of his life in country New South Wales, where he was president of the Burrangong Shire Council in 1949 and 1950 (now part of Young Shire ). Campbell's 1965 autobiographical account of his involvement in the New Guard, The Rallying Point , considered "confused", "highly unreliable" and a work of "historical fiction" by Moore in any event, does not mention
6072-479: The form of American conservatism . According to Deepak Lal , only in the United States does classical liberalism continue to be a significant political force through American conservatism. American libertarians also claim to be the true continuation of the classical liberal tradition. Central to classical liberal ideology was their interpretation of John Locke 's Second Treatise of Government and A Letter Concerning Toleration , which had been written as
6164-470: The highest-paying employers, while the profit motive would ensure that products that people desired were produced at prices they would pay. In a free market, both labour and capital would receive the greatest possible reward, while production would be organized efficiently to meet consumer demand. Classical liberals argued for what they called a minimal state and government , limited to the following functions: Classical liberals asserted that rights are of
6256-713: The land north of Sydney Harbour ; B Zone , covering the Eastern Suburbs as well as from the coastline down to Maroubra ; C Zone , incorporating the Southern Suburbs down to and including the Sutherland Shire ; and D Zone , including the Western Suburbs to the west of Parramatta . These Zones would be divided into Divisions and then subdivided into Localities. As part of Campbell's practical democratic solution, each Locality would operate as independent units where
6348-491: The language of Locke to the ideology of radicalism. The radicals saw parliamentary reform as a first step toward dealing with their many grievances, including the treatment of Protestant Dissenters , the slave trade, high prices, and high taxes. There was greater unity among classical liberals than there had been among Whigs. Classical liberals were committed to individualism, liberty, and equal rights, as well as some other important tenants of leftism , since classical liberalism
6440-420: The market. For a twentieth century thinker committed to the same ideal, government was an essential tool to the same end. The view that modern liberalism is a continuation of classical liberalism is controversial and disputed by many. James Kurth , Robert E. Lerner , John Micklethwait , Adrian Wooldridge and several other political scholars have argued that classical liberalism still exists today, but in
6532-550: The members of Mosley's British Union of Fascists , he was reminded of his own New Guardmen when he attended an Imperial Fascist League meeting. With Mosley's recommendations he later progressed to Berlin where, unable to meet Chancellor of Germany Adolf Hitler , he was able to see Foreign Affairs Minister Joachim von Ribbentrop , as well as Alfred Rosenberg . In Rome he was likewise unable to see Mussolini , instead meeting with Secretary Achille Starace , though their mutual unintelligibility and failure to use French as
6624-437: The minimum needed to enforce negative rights. Core beliefs of classical liberals did not necessarily include democracy nor government by a majority vote by citizens because "there is nothing in the bare idea of majority rule to show that majorities will always respect the rights of property or maintain rule of law". For example, James Madison argued for a constitutional republic with protections for individual liberty over
6716-476: The more socially liberal " Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness ". As the United States grew, industry became a larger and larger part of American life; and during the term of its first populist President , Andrew Jackson , economic questions came to the forefront. The economic ideas of the Jacksonian era were almost universally the ideas of classical liberalism. Freedom, according to classical liberals,
6808-489: The people rather than from above. This belief would influence later revolutionary movements. As a trustee, government was expected to serve the interests of the people, not the rulers; and rulers were expected to follow the laws enacted by legislatures. Locke also held that the main purpose of men uniting into commonwealths and governments was for the preservation of their property. Despite the ambiguity of Locke's definition of property, which limited property to "as much land as
6900-585: The police attested to the Guard's efficiency. With a peak membership of over 50,000, the Guard rallied in public, broke up 'Communist' meetings, drilled, vilified the Labor Party and demanded the deportation of Communists. Campbell and his New Guard proceeded to secure connections and weapons so that, in the event of a statewide communist revolt in which the police had become ineffective, he could seize control of essential services and keep them operational. An attempt to clothe its members in uniforms failed, however, when
6992-419: The prospects of a United Australia Party -led purging of communism and other socialistic and anti-communist dogmas from the continent, Campbell had realised that the central tenets of the New Guard could not be fulfilled due to those politicians' ineffectiveness in bringing them about. Becoming fully dissatisfied with the politics that had, in his words, "degenerated into a number of sordid business undertakings",
7084-443: The ribbon at the opening ceremony of the Sydney Harbour Bridge in protest at the latter's anti-monarchist ideology. After Lang's dismissal in 1932 , the New Guard's membership declined rapidly. Campbell met with fascists and National Socialists such as Sir Oswald Mosley and Joachim von Ribbentrop and, in 1934, published his manifesto The New Road , signalling an ideological transition towards Italian corporate statism . As
7176-506: The state involvement in the lives of individuals, and it advocates deregulation . Until the Great Depression and the rise of social liberalism, classical liberalism was called economic liberalism . Later, the term was applied as a retronym , to distinguish earlier 19th-century liberalism from social liberalism. By modern standards, in the United States , the bare term liberalism often means social liberalism, but in Europe and Australia ,
7268-530: The total vote. In two seats, Hornsby , contested by Fergus Munro, and Lane Cove , contested by Campbell, only the Centre Party and the United Australia Party fielded candidates, with the former polling over 15 percent of the vote in both seats. In the other seats it contested, the Centre Party candidates failed to poll more than 5 percent of the vote. The party's relatively high vote in Hornsby and Lane Cove
7360-404: The uncommunicative nature of its leadership to its members, mostly returned servicemen, was ill-fitting to their nature as soldiers. He believed that without clear authority and direction, the Old Guard would be unable to retain members. Unable to convince the committee to change its administrative strategy, he and John Scott left the Old Guard. A week after Campbell's resignation, he and others from
7452-446: The words of Arthur Schlesinger Jr. : When the growing complexity of industrial conditions required increasing government intervention in order to assure more equal opportunities, the liberal tradition, faithful to the goal rather than to the dogma, altered its view of the state. ... There emerged the conception of a social welfare state, in which the national government had the express obligation to maintain high levels of employment in
7544-450: The words of William Jennings Bryan , " You shall not crucify this nation on a cross of gold ". Classical liberalism remained the orthodox belief among American businessmen until the Great Depression . The Great Depression in the United States saw a sea change in liberalism, with priority shifting from the producers to consumers. Franklin D. Roosevelt 's New Deal represented the dominance of modern liberalism in politics for decades. In
7636-531: Was William John MacKay, who was appointed Acting Metropolitan Superintendent following the 'Battle of Bankstown' on 26 February 1932. Following MacKay's commencement of a campaign of surveillance and legal persecution, the New Guard attempted to measure the strength of the Sydney police force by organising many small unapproved street meetings across the city in an attempt to stretch their men thin. When forced to disperse by police, each group of New Guardsmen would peacefully disperse and simply reform nearby. According to
7728-715: Was a paramilitary group, its military capability was extremely limited and vastly overstated by its leadership. It was amateurish, ineffectual and likened to the Keystone Cops . During the initial growth of the movement, Campbell was able to attract many ex-soldiers and ex-commanders to the movement, with ex-military making up the majority of the group's membership, including the likes of early aviator Charles Kingsford Smith and North Sydney Mayor Hubert Primrose . As general commanding officer, Campbell organised it on military lines. He claimed that, in an 'emergency', it could maintain essential services including Bunnerong power house and
7820-475: Was assaulted by members a New Guard faction known as the Fascist Legion. Garden was assaulted at his home by eight hooded men in Ku Klux Klan -like gowns. The incident caused massive resignations from the New Guard. On 13 May 1932, Lang was dismissed from his premiership. Along with an inner faction of the New Guard's involvement in orchestrating the bashing of Communist Party of Australia founder Jock Garden,
7912-419: Was challenged by what he called the "new Liberalism of France" that was characterised by egalitarianism and a "rationalistic consciousness". In 1848, Francis Lieber distinguished between what he called "Anglican and Gallican Liberty". Lieber asserted that "independence in the highest degree, compatible with safety and broad national guarantees of liberty, is the great aim of Anglican liberty, and self-reliance
8004-579: Was in the common interest that all individuals be able to secure their own economic self-interest. They were critical of what would come to be the idea of the welfare state as interfering in a free market . Despite Smith's resolute recognition of the importance and value of labour and of labourers, classical liberals criticized labour's group rights being pursued at the expense of individual rights while accepting corporations' rights , which led to inequality of bargaining power . Classical liberals argued that individuals should be free to obtain work from
8096-482: Was intervention on behalf of consumers. The Nation magazine espoused liberalism every week starting in 1865 under the influential editor Edwin Lawrence Godkin (1831–1902). The ideas of classical liberalism remained essentially unchallenged until a series of depressions , thought to be impossible according to the tenets of classical economics , led to economic hardship from which the voters demanded relief. In
8188-403: Was introduced in the late 18th century as a leftist movement. They believed these goals required a free economy with minimal government interference. Some elements of Whiggery were uncomfortable with the commercial nature of classical liberalism. These elements became associated with conservatism. Classical liberalism was the dominant political theory in Britain from the early 19th century until
8280-567: Was maximised when the government took a "hands off" attitude toward the economy. Historian Kathleen G. Donohue argues: [A]t the center of classical liberal theory [in Europe] was the idea of laissez-faire . To the vast majority of American classical liberals, however, laissez-faire did not mean no government intervention at all. On the contrary, they were more than willing to see government provide tariffs, railroad subsidies, and internal improvements, all of which benefited producers. What they condemned
8372-529: Was not kept within the organisation against their will, as they could leave at any time for any reason. This was to ensure that the New Guard could preserve its democratic, voluntary elements established at its founding. Estimates of the New Guard's membership count are contradictory. A report conducted by the NSW Police in September 1931 found 87,000 had sought membership and by December of the same year there were 39,000 card-carrying members – with 3,000 residing in
8464-511: Was turning against them. By the First World War, the Liberal Party had largely abandoned classical liberal principles. The changing economic and social conditions of the 19th century led to a division between neo-classical and social (or welfare) liberals, who while agreeing on the importance of individual liberty differed on the role of the state. Neo-classical liberals, who called themselves "true liberals", saw Locke's Second Treatise as
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